Using a story based approach to teach and learn english grammar at avmc and its effectiveness teachers and learners perception

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HO CHI MINH CITY
UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS & LITERATURE

USING A STORY-BASED APPROACH TO TEACH
AND LEARN ENGLISH GRAMMAR AT AVMC AND
ITS EFFECTIVENESS – TEACHERS AND LEARNERS’
PERCEPTION
A thesis submitted to
the Faculty of English Linguistics and Literature
in partial fulfillment of the Master’s degree in TESOL

By
NGO THI NGOC TRAM

Supervised by
PHAN THI KIM LOAN, Ph.D.

HO CHI MINH CITY, MAY 2023

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Phan Thi
Kim Loan Ph.D. It has been my luck to have a great chance to work with my kind

supervisor who allows me to discover freely most of the things by myself, and at the
same time enthusiastically help me when I get stuck with my thesis. It is also grateful
for her extremely careful proof-reading and support for my writing. Moreover, her
patience and considerable enthusiasm for a slow researcher like me is really admirable.
Had there not been her support and devotion, I would not have finished my thesis.
My next heartfelt gratitude is given to my warmhearted friend who always encourages
me to overcome my tiredness and wholeheartedly supported me in my research progress.
She also helped me pilot some of the instruments used in my study. Moreover, profound
thanks also go to my colleagues, who has enthusiastically upheld me in the data
collection process.
I also genuinely owe my teachers, friends, and students for their stimulation and
consultation during the process of administering my study and writing the thesis which
requires a lot of trial and contains plenty of difficulties, but brings a great meaning to
me. Lastly but very important, my sincere acknowledgement is brought to my family
who always support and boost me all the time to finish my work. All in all, without their
strong support, I cannot surmount all my obstacles, and have great effort to push me to
spend time conducting the study and complete it as soon as possible.

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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
I certify that this thesis entitled “USING A STORY-BASED APPROACH TO
TEACH AND LEARN ENGLISH GRAMMAR AT AVMC AND ITS
EFFECTIVENESS –TEACHERS’ AND LEARNERS’ PERCEPTION” is my own
work.
This thesis has not been submitted for the reward of any diploma or degree in any other
institutions.
Ho Chi Minh City,June 9th, 2023

Ngo Thi Ngoc Tram

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RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I hereby state that I, Ngo Thi Ngoc Tram, being the candidate for the degree of Master
in TESOL, accept the requirements of the University relating to the retention and use
of Master’s Thesis deposited in the Library.
In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited in the
Library should be accessible for the purpose of study and research under the normal
conditions established by the Library for the care, loan, or reproduction of the theses.
Ho Chi Minh City, June 3rd, 2023

Ngo Thi Ngoc Tram

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 15
1.1. Background to the study ..................................................................................... 15
1.2. Aim of the study ................................................................................................... 17
1.3. Research questions .............................................................................................. 17
`1.4. Significance of the study .................................................................................... 18
1.5. Scope of the study ................................................................................................ 18
1.6. Organization of chapters .................................................................................... 18
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................. 20
2.1 Story-based approach .......................................................................................... 20

2.1.1 Definitions of the story-based approach .......................................................... 20
2.1.2 Requirements of storytelling ........................................................................... 21
2.1.3 Kinds of Storytelling .......................................................................................... 22
2.1.3.1 Available stories and self-designed stories ................................................... 22
2.1.3.2 Online storytelling and face-to-face storytelling .......................................... 22
2.1.3.3 Story reading and storytelling ....................................................................... 23
2.1.4 Function of Storytelling in Education.............................................................. 23
2.1.5 Story-based approach’s benefits to grammar teaching and learning .......... 25
2.1.6 The effects of storytelling on morals and thinking ......................................... 26
2.2 Grammar ............................................................................................................... 28
2.2.1. Grammar definition ......................................................................................... 28
2.2.2. Methods to teach grammar.............................................................................. 29
2.2.2.1 The deductive approach ................................................................................. 29
2.2.2.2 The inductive approach ................................................................................. 31
2.2.3 Difficulties in learning and teaching grammar ............................................... 32
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2.2.4. Role of grammar in teaching and learning a language ................................. 33
2.3 PACE Model to teach Grammar through the Storytelling approach ............. 34
2.3.1 Presentation ........................................................................................................ 34
2.3.2 Attention ............................................................................................................. 35
2.3.3 Co-Construction................................................................................................. 35
2.3.4 Extension ............................................................................................................ 36
2.3.5 An example of the PACE model ....................................................................... 36
- Presentation: ............................................................................................................. 36
- Attention: .................................................................................................................. 37
- Co-construction: ....................................................................................................... 37
- Extension: .................................................................................................................. 37
2.4 Teachers’ and learners’ perception of the effectiveness of storytelling in

grammar teaching....................................................................................................... 37
2.4.1 Definition of Perception .................................................................................... 37
2.4.2 Teachers’ and learners’ perception towards the application of storytelling in
grammar teaching and learning ................................................................................ 39
2.5 Previous study ....................................................................................................... 40
2.6 Conceptual framework ........................................................................................ 41
2.7 Summary ............................................................................................................... 43
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ............................................................................ 44
3.1 Research design..................................................................................................... 44
3.2 Research site .......................................................................................................... 45
3.3 Participants ........................................................................................................... 45
3.4 Teaching materials ............................................................................................... 48
3.4.1 Design of the teaching materials ...................................................................... 48
3.5 Research instrument............................................................................................. 50
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3.5.1 Interview ............................................................................................................. 50
3.5.2. Teacher interviews ............................................................................................ 52
3.5.3. Learner interviews ............................................................................................ 52
3.6 Data collection procedure .................................................................................... 53
3.7 Data analysis procedures ..................................................................................... 54
3.8 Summary ............................................................................................................... 56
CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION .................................................... 58
4.1 Teachers’ and learners’ perception about using the story-based approach in
teaching and learning grammar ................................................................................ 58
4.1.1 Teachers’s and learners’ perception about grammar.................................... 58
4.1.1.1 The importance of grammar in teaching English........................................ 58
Learners’ perception .................................................................................................. 59
4.1.1.2 Effective teaching methods to teach English grammar in an English

language class in Vietnam ......................................................................................... 63
Teachers’ perception .................................................................................................. 63
Learners’ perception .................................................................................................. 65
4.1.1.3 Criteria for Grammar Explanation .............................................................. 70
Teachers’ perception .................................................................................................. 70
Students’ perception ................................................................................................... 71
4.1.2 The necessity and effectiveness of the application of storytelling in grammar
instruction.................................................................................................................... 74
4.1.2.1 Teachers’ perception ...................................................................................... 74
4.1.2.1.1 Entertainment .............................................................................................. 74
4.1.2.1.2 Complex grammatical structures ............................................................... 75
4.1.2.1.3 Confidence .................................................................................................... 76
4.1.2.2 Students’ perception ....................................................................................... 78
4.1.2.2.1 Entertainment .............................................................................................. 78
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4.1.2.2.2 Increase in communication ......................................................................... 80
4.1.2.2.3 Increase in Confidence ................................................................................ 81
4.1.2.2.4 Creativity ...................................................................................................... 83
4.1.2.2.5 Co-constructing knowledge ........................................................................ 84
4.1.2.2.6 Acquisition of simple and complex grammar structures via frequent
grammar structure repetition in the stories ............................................................ 85
4.1.2.2.7 The increase in interaction ......................................................................... 86
4.1.2.2.8 A clear impression of moral truth .............................................................. 87
4.2 The effects of storytelling in grammar instruction on the success of students'
English grammar acquisition .................................................................................... 91
4.2.1 Teachers’ and learners’ behavior and activities in using the story-based
approach in teaching grammar ................................................................................. 91
4.2.1.1 Teachers’ perception ...................................................................................... 91

4.2.1.1.1 Story choice .................................................................................................. 91
4.2.1.1.2 Story topics ................................................................................................... 92
4.2.1.1.3 Story length .................................................................................................. 92
4.2.1.1.4 Vocabulary level .......................................................................................... 92
4.2.1.2 Students’ perception ....................................................................................... 93
4.2.1.2.1 Story choice .................................................................................................. 93
4.2.1.2.2 Story topics ................................................................................................... 94
4.2.1.2.3 Story length .................................................................................................. 95
4.2.1.2.4 Vocabulary level .......................................................................................... 96
4.2.2 The effects of storytelling on learners’ perception of English language
acquisition.................................................................................................................. 101
4.2.2.1.1 Motivation for grammar study................................................................. 101
4.2.2.1.2 Natural language absorption .................................................................... 101
4.2.2.1.3 Concentration on the grammar lessons ................................................... 102
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4.2.2.1.4 The increase in vocabulary ....................................................................... 102
4.2.2.1.5 The raise of the analysis capabilities of communicative messages ........ 103
4.2.2.2 The learners’ beliefs ..................................................................................... 103
4.2.2.2.1 Attention to grammar ............................................................................... 103
4.2.2.2.2 Natural language absorption .................................................................... 104
4.2.2.2.3 Vocabulary improvement ......................................................................... 105
4.2.2.2.4 Enhancing learners’ motivation to learn grammar ............................... 106
4.2.2.2.5 Analytical Abilities in Message Comprehension .................................... 107
4.2.3 Challenges and suggestions for the improvement of the storytelling in
grammar instructions ............................................................................................... 108
4.2.3.1 Challenges...................................................................................................... 108
4.2.3.1.1 Teachers’ perception ................................................................................. 108
4.2.3.1.2 Learners’ perspectives .............................................................................. 109

4.2.3.2 Suggestions for improving storytelling in teaching grammar .................. 111
4.2.3.2.1 Teachers’ perspectives .............................................................................. 111
4.2.3.2.2 Learners’ perspectives .............................................................................. 112
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ............................................................................... 118
5.1 Summary of the study ........................................................................................ 118
5.2 Summary of the findings .................................................................................... 118
5.3 Implications ......................................................................................................... 119
5.4 Limitations and recommendations ................................................................... 120
Words: 29.418 words ................................................................................................ 121
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 122
APPENDIX 1............................................................................................................. 134
APPENDIX 2............................................................................................................. 136
APPENDIX 3............................................................................................................. 142
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APPENDIX 4............................................................................................................. 145
APPENDIX 5............................................................................................................. 148
APPENDIX 6............................................................................................................. 150
APPENDIX 7............................................................................................................. 165

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

EFL

English as a Foreign Language

ELT

English Language Teaching

SS

Substantive statement

RQ

Research question

AVMC

Au Viet My Center

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1. Participants of the Interview ...................................................................... 47
Table 3.2. Grammatical lessons .................................................................................. 50
Table 3.3. Themes from the interview data ................................................................. 54
Table 4.1. Teachers’ and learners’ perception of the grammar definition and its
importance in language teaching and learning ............................................................. 62
Table 4.2. The effective grammar teaching methods in Vietnamese language
classrooms ................................................................................................................... 68
Table 4.3. Criteria of grammar explanation ................................................................ 72
Table 4.4. The criteria for the stories in grammar teaching ........................................ 97
Table 4.5. Challenges for the improvement of the storytelling in grammar

instructions .................................................................................................... 110
Table 4.6. Suggestions for improving storytelling in teaching grammar ................. 113

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1. Deductive Research Approach ................................................................. 30
Figure.2.2. Inductive Research Approach .................................................................. 31
Figure 2.3. Conceptual Framework ............................................................................ 42
Figure 4.1. The necessity of storytelling in grammar instruction and grammar learning
..................................................................................................................................... 88

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ABSTRACT
Vietnamese evaluation systems now continue to emphasize students'
grammatical proficiency. However, grammar has turned into a nightmare for the
majority of students. As a result, it calls for serious consideration to be given to
redefining grammar instruction via the use of technology or other contemporary
resources. Thus, in this study, a case-study method research design, including 16 semistructured interviews for 12 EFL adolescents in four Pre-intermediate classes and 4
English teachers at the center as participants is used to address teachers’ and learners’
perception of the story-based approach in teaching English grammar. Moreover, it
investigates in what aspects the storytelling approach to teach English grammar affects
learners’ language acquisition at a language center - Au Viet My International English
Center (AVMC). The findings of the study revealed that the story-based approach
effectively teaches grammar at AVMC, improving both teachers' and learners' skills.
This method enhances their confidence in teaching and usage of grammar, creating an
enjoyable environment for study. Additionally, learners' interactive, communicative,

storytelling, vocabulary, and personal development improved, resulting in a more
enjoyable and efficient acquisition of English language.

Keywords: story-based approach, teaching grammar, teaching English grammar via
stories, storytelling in grammar instruction, storytelling

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the background of the study, the aims and scope of the
study, and research questions. The significance of the study is also mentioned. Clearly
described at the end of the chapter is the organisation of the thesis.
1.1. Background to the study
In the globalized world, language plays an important role to get people closer;
and the demand for using language has become more than ever. In this circumstance,
Keshta (2000) conceives of English as the most widespread language in the world and
many fields such as technology, education, and economy. Moreover, Ortega (2013)
states humans use the English language to communicate with others as well as with
specific individuals. Sometimes this involves talking to oneself more than to others,
which is known as self-talk, and other times, it involves addressing strangers. It may be
said that English is the means of international communication among people regardless
of their race, colors, and tongues. Therefore, in 1986, Vietnamese government began to
apply its open-door policy, which has made a premise for language centers’ mushroom
all over Ho Chi Minh City and other big cities as well as towns in Vietnam (Tran, 2013;
Nguyen, et al., 2021). Consequently, this circumstance leads to the reality that English
teachers in Vietnam have to be willing to accommodate and accept changes to help their
students acquire proficiency in English. Considering the aspect of efficiency for English
communication, grammatical competence is an important element that contributes to
communicative competence.

Grammar is regarded as a very important tool for fostering competence, accuracy,
and fluency (Vasilopoulos, 2008). Doff (1988) asserts that earning the fundamental
grammar rules of the English language can greatly facilitate and aid learners all over
the world in using, speaking, and writing the language. Similarly, Kamaludin et al.
(2015) find L2 learners less confident in acquiring grammar knowledge, leading to
incomprehensible and mechanical learning experiences. However, to many people,
especially, grammar is a boring subject done at school (Cook, 1993). Lee and Collins
(2009) also note that many students still face difficulties with basic grammar after over
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ten years of instruction. This reality happens similarly to the recent situation at an
English language center in District 8 in Ho Chi Minh City. The learners at this center
meet troubles in applying grammatical structures to their study as well as to their
communication. They do not know how to absorb and remember grammatical structures
well, and how to use them to communicate and do exercise or the tests at schools
effectively. This problem has lead them gradually to lose their interest in learning
grammar. The difficulties in learning grammar make them slowly reduce their
motivation at grammatical lessons. Therefore, to support them to overcome their
obstacles and to stimulate them to study grammar better, a story-based approach is
applied to English grammar teaching at the center.
Storytelling has been a crucial part of entertainment and communication for
thousands of years, and is now in many forms from television, magazines, email, radio,
and books. It is divided into ten types based on six values (1. Life vs. Death, 2. Life vs.
Fate Worse than Death, 3. Love vs. Hate, 4. Accomplishment vs. Failure, 5. Maturity
vs. Immaturity, 6. Good vs. Evil) (Bunting, 2021). Storytelling is also employed as a
teaching methodology and learning tool in contemporary corporate enterprises and
educational institutions.
Abrahamson (1998) highlighted the importance of storytelling in the teaching
profession, as it is a meaningful teaching tool for adult learners. Additionally, McDrury

and Alterio (2003) emphasized the reflective nature of storytelling, which correlates
with real-life experiences, making it an effective academic discipline. Similarly, Heo
(2004) suggests that storytelling is a learning strategy in online education that permits
learners to connect old knowledge with new knowledge, fostering natural rumination
and deeper processing of new knowledge.
In the pedagogy field, it has been proved that the stories in significant and the
storytelling in specific are effective and interesting in teaching methods. The stories can
bring advantages to the learners in many aspects such as vocabulary, listening or
speaking skill (Lestari, 2011; Rashid, 2011; Akhyak and Indramawan, 2013; Keshta,
2013; Abdul-Ameer, 2014). The story-based approach progresses the grammar teaching
along with the learning of the target language. It surmounts meaning and form

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instruction by contextualizing both (Villavicencio, 2003). Hence, storytelling can be a
successful tool for the acquisition of English verb tenses, especially among second
language low proficiency learners (Soo & Nor H., 2014). Furthermore, in the context
of English grammar classes in Vietnam, the popular method is still the grammartranslation method (Khuong, 2015), and the storytelling approach is still the new one in
instructing practice (Nguyen et al., 2015). Therefore, pedagogical approaches regarding
the storytelling in teaching grammar should be carefully explored in the ELF context of
Vietnam. It is vital to start with an investigation into Vietnamese teachers’ and learners’
attitudes toward the use of story-based approach in grammar teaching.
The current study focuses on exploring Vietnamese teachers’ and learners’
perception of using the storytelling in grammar instruction at AVMC- an English center
in District 8 in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Moreover, it is to find out in what aspects
the story-based approach applied to teach grammar affect the success of learners’
English language acquisition.
1.2. Aim of the study
The present study aims to explore the Vietnamese instructors’ and learners’

viewpoints on the employment of the story-based approach in teaching grammar.
Besides, it investigates the storytelling’s impacts on the achievement of the learners’
English language acquisition at AVMC.
1.3. Research questions
Accordingly, the research questions are:
1. What are the teachers’ and the learners’ perception of using the story-based
approach in teaching grammar?
2. In what way does the implementation of the storytelling in grammar
instruction affect the success of student’s English grammar acquisition?
The research questions frame the analysis of the empirical components of the
study, which in turn have influenced the interpretation of the findings and helped to
guide successful research outcomes.

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`1.4. Significance of the study
This study may benefit students and English teachers in language education at
AVMC. It may be significant for the following reasons:
1. Using stories to teach grammar has been a new way in teaching. Therefore,
this study might give new experiences of applying the storytelling for the teachers to
implement and encourage their students to learn grammar in an enjoyable atmosphere.
2. It may serve as a guideline for other teachers and provide them an experienced
trial of using this approach in gaining students’ attention and keeping them engaged in
grammar.
3. Students may benefit by allowing them to learn while having fun and thus be
less likely to feel bored and worry about grammatical errors and grades.
4. The storytelling gives students more opportunities to learn, use grammatical
rules in the target language, increase their language skills, and acquire their English
language naturally.

5. The story-based approach orients rightly learners’ early-life experiences for
lifelong development.
1.5. Scope of the study
This study’s main focus is the teachers’ and the learners’ viewpoints towards the
application of the storytelling in teaching grammar as well as its impacts on the learners’
achievement in acquiring English language. Therefore, the data used for analysis was
limited in scope by sample size, time, and place. Specifically, the coverage is limited to
the English teachers and learners at AVMC in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. The
researcher did not conduct extensive research in different geographical areas. For that
reason, the study may yield different findings when these constrains are removed.
1.6. Organization of chapters
The study includes five chapters that are organized as follows:
Chapter 1- Introduction- supplies an overview of the background knowledge,
the study’s purposes, and introduces two research questions, the dissertation’s
significance, and its scope.

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Chapter 2 - Literature Review- presents the definitions of the key terms:
Grammar, Storytelling; the importance of grammar in language teaching and learning,
its types; benefits of the story-based approach, PACE model; and relevant research
associated with the thesis.
Chapter 3 – Methodology - explains the methodology, research design;
describes the participants and instruments used in this thesis; lists the procedures for
data collection and instrumentation as well as data analysis directly.
Chapter 4 – Data analyses and Findings - contains the analysis and the finding
presentation.
Chapter 5 - Recommendations - provide feasible suggestions for the use of
storytelling for grammar teaching and learning at AVMC.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter reviews research to aid in the current study on grammar, its types,
and obstacles in teaching and learning. It also discusses storytelling's definition,
functions in pedagogy, and importance in language acquisition. Finally, the conceptual
framework of the study is presented.
2.1 Story-based approach
2.1.1 Definitions of the story-based approach
Nowadays, storytelling has become significant as Stanley et al (2015) stated
story-based approach as an information art is heavily applied in education and training
of all types. Hence, educational theorists and researchers have delimited a variety of
similarities of the basic elements to constitute storytelling’s definition.
Storytelling has been defined in many ways in the pedagogical field. Fisher
(1984) conceived of storytelling as a teaching method. He wrapped up it as a creative
art with an instructional potentiality that may support teachers. Peck (1989) stated
storytelling is the oral interpretation of a traditional, literary, or individual experience
story. The stories have been presented in forms of oral narration, written texts, and
instructional media. They can be demonstrated as case-studies, role-playing, and
reproduction. However, in the pedagogical field, researchers define storytelling in more
restricted or specific terms. Through recent periods of its developing process, it is said
that storytelling is the way a teller and a listener share “some measures of magic”
together (McKay, 1997). In accordance with Dujmovic’ (2006, pp.76), storytelling is
the “original form of teaching” which contains the human values of culture, history, and
moral lessons. Consequently, this approach is suitable to develop in the pedagogical
context. Moreover, according to Spaulding (2011), storytelling is considered as the art
of creation and the connection between people and people who you never knew. The
word “art” in this definition demonstrates that storytelling is something beautiful and

made of individual experiences like Fisher (1984). Besides that, this definition also
points out the purpose of the story-based approach: for “creation” and “connection
between people and people” in the past. Based on this opinion, the people in the past,
or even unreal characters are brought to our souls. Therefore, Hammer (2001)
reinforced the storytelling’s important role in intensifying the language students’
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eagerness and creativity relaxing the classroom. Moreover, as stated by Soleimani &
Khandan (2013), stories convey information to the new generations. Similarly, stories
have been applied as an inherent part of communication for the permission of sharing
ideas and experiences using words as well as actions (Abdulla, 2012). Additionally,
Moon (2012, pp. 272) defined storytelling as “the oral telling, or retelling a story” by a
person to the others. Opening with its role, Stanley et al (2015) stated that story-based
approach is heavily applied in education and training of all types.
After revising some notions of story-based approach, it is come up with a
temporary definition of storytelling:
Storytelling is the art of using written or spoken language either read out loud
from the text, or told by the tellers. It increases the relationship between the listeners
and the tellers. The stories are made from a traditional, literary, or personal
experiences, which brings joy or relaxation to both teachers and learners during the
teaching or learning process. It motivates people to create and enhance communication
between humans and humans naturally. Therefore, it is an original form of teaching in
the classroom.
Hence, nowadays, the story-based approach has been suitable to apply in
pedagogy. Likely, Moon (2012) stated that although storytelling is an old skill, it still
obtains a place in modern life. To create an interesting story requires some elements
that are should considered seriously and carefully.
2.1.2 Requirements of storytelling
As regards the issue of what storytelling must have, some requirements of the

story-based approach are mentioned. According to Haven and Ducey (2007) and
Spaulding (2011) suggested that stories must be amusing in order to attract the listeners’
attention. Besides, it should be purposeful to convey some messages, not just laughter.
If a story is not humorous, yet significant, then the audiences will not be satisfied with
it (Spaulding, 2011). Moreover, the stories should be imaginative for the storytellers to
freely build images in the listeners’ minds with the details of the stories (Spaulding,
2011). Additionally, Karia (2013) stated that stories in the story-based approach should

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be individual because they can attract the listeners better than stories that they already
knew.
In conclusion, storytelling should be creative, humorous, and significant. It can
be made of individual experiences to create a story. The requirements of the story-based
approach are a must for those stories applied in the study. The next part said about
different kinds of storytelling.
2.1.3 Kinds of Storytelling
2.1.3.1 Available stories and self-designed stories
Following Davies (2007), it should be careful to choose available stories so as to
suit the audience’s age. Regarding self-designed stories, Davies stated that this kind of
story is used to suit the audience and the storyteller’s styles. Hence, it makes the
storytellers assured because they grasp the story better than anyone else.
According to Spaulding (2011), she described self-designed stories and available
stories as two vivid pictures, namely “fresh peas” and “frozen peas” in the book entitled
“The Art of Storytelling”. Based on this viewpoint, self-designed stories are represented
as fresh peas that always infuse people with exciting sentiments, whereas available
stories are like as frozen peas that have fallen out of favor for different reasons.
2.1.3.2 Online storytelling and face-to-face storytelling
Spaulding (2011) described face-to-face storytelling as “true storytelling” (p.17)

because it creates a three-way relationship between the tale, the teller, and the audience.
Among three pairs of connections, the one between the teller and the audience is very
crucial owing to two aspects including the sense of community and the transformation
of the storyteller's voice. For the first aspect, it is explained that in today’s world, people
tend to treat frostily together. Therefore, face-to-face storytelling, which makes people
become drifting close to each other, grin, laugh, and cry along with the narrator,
becomes one of the accurate ways to get them closer and more connected. Besides, the
second aspect is explained that for face-to-face storytelling, it creates a direct interaction
between the storyteller and the audience while online storytellers cannot. Consequently,
their performance cannot be accommodated to fit the audience’s comprehension.
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2.1.3.3 Story reading and storytelling

According to Gallets (2005) and Haven and Ducey (2007), storytelling has
been more concerned than story reading for some reasons. Firstly, in terms of
helping learners create pictures in their minds, storytelling is more successful than
story reading. Gallets (2005) and Haven and Ducey (2007) noted how the
learners' imaginations struggled to come to life because they were provided with
illustrated pictures to look at while reading. As a result, the storyteller can adapt
the story to the audience's language level by changing the words in the story
(Gallets, 2005). Secondly, storytelling interactions with audiences are more
effective than reading stories aloud to them (Haven & Ducey, 2007). To be more
precise, the storyteller frequently glances at a book or other type of material when
reciting a story to their audience. Contrastingly, the storyteller usually tells a story
based on their memory and their experiences, and so, during telling it, he or she
can connect with the audience by using eye contact, making gestures, or using
various forms of voice, etc. Lastly, when telling stories, students pay more
attention than when reading stories aloud (Gallets, 2005). According to Gallets's

(2005) experimental study's findings, students in the storytelling group
remembered the tales more vividly than those in the story - reading group. The
next part shows storytelling’s function in education.
2.1.4 Function of Storytelling in Education
There used to be lots of prejudice in the throw-away comment about a story that
it is simply a story or “mere entertainment”, so it is not worthy of attention (Mar &
Oatley, 2008), or only the attention of psychological research (Moon, 2012). As known,
the story was not given an accurate evaluation of its value, and so it has been forgotten
its particular role in education as well as in research for a long time. However, there has
recently been a gradual transferring process of the story’s function. Tanimoto (1992)
claimed stories told in English have been “a warm-up activity” at the beginning of a
class. With its function of stimulating learners to concentrate on the lessons, it is said
that stories are the best to open their souls to accept the new knowledge without

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boredom, or pressure. Pederson (1995) reported the fact that it has been possible for
ESL learners to experience the real language of individual communication through
stories, not the usual “teachers” of the second language classroom; and stories present
the full range of language. Regarding his study, learners’ listening skills could be
improved, and for children’s social and emotional development, the emotive filter could
be dropped. From the viewpoint of the mental aspect, a story upholds hope. It delivers
courage to fight when needed, laughter even in an unexpected situation, and a kind of
wisdom to ponder in times of quiet (Spaunding, 2011).
Similarly, to confirm the importance of stories, Moon (2012) expressed stories
have become crucial to the various processes of education, both for the teachers and for
the learners. She also reported people and places are linked with their society and
cultures perhaps far away in distance, time, or life experiences through stories.
Therefore, it is understood that stories contain the communication function. One person

communicates with another via a story, so in this situation, this story owns a social
element that provides a cultural context for learners to understand its content and enrich
their existing schemata. Through stories, between storytellers and listeners are
established a closer relationship, and it is necessary for the current classroom context
when a distance between teachers and learners should be shortened, and disappeared.
Open discussions following told stories give a vital benefit for the development of both
listeners and storytellers (Alterio & McDury, 2003). In addition, each story contains
cultural and historical aspects which engage listeners to discover and understand the
world via its characters, thereby cultivating the life experiences of the audience (Shrum
& Glisan, 2005; Wajnryb, 2012). Moreover, stories also affect the storytelling, their
tellers and listeners. The cultural and historical features of stories lead the storytelling
approach to reach a higher position in teaching and learning. Therefore, its popularity
in education as a socio-cultural approach is predictable. To understand this effect deeply,
the next part is going to discuss storytelling’s latent role in the educational context and
professional development.

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2.1.5 Story-based approach’s benefits to grammar teaching and learning
It is vital to mention the two dominant instructional approaches in the classroom:
the deductive approach and the inductive approach to understand why the story-based
method is useful and effective to teach grammar. In the deductive approach, the
grammatical rules must be learned before creating meaningful conversations
(Vanpatten, 1998; Mantero, 2002). Therefore, it is criticized for “artificial contexts”
because there are no relations to the real communicative intention of learners (Donato
& Adair-Hauck, 2016). Moreover, it is not highly appreciated when learners become
passive in exploring new grammatical points. Contrastingly, the inductive approach
requires learners to be active to find out the rules of grammar themselves without any
guidance. They are exposed to an adequate amount of language in which they are

interested and completely understandable to them (Donato & Adair-Hauck, 2016).
However, both the deductive and the inductive approach do not push the
interaction between teachers and students or among students. To solve this problem, the
story-based approach becomes useful to be applied in the classrooms. The use of stories
at the beginning of the lesson improves cultural and historical understanding of the
language before they have to comprehend new grammar structures (Chalak & Hajian,
2013). It means that this approach creates a useful chance for teachers and students to
actively participate in coconstructing knowledge. In this environment, the role of
teachers is as assistants for their learners in seeking “how, when, and where to focus on
form” (Donato & Adair-Hauck, 2016) via interactions. Additionally, simple and
complex grammar structures are generally used in stories. Safdarian and Ghyasi (2013)
state that these grammatical structures can be studied in a continuous way without a
deep linguistic analysis because of their frequent repetition inside the story plot.
Similarly, Bandura (1986) wraps up that learners can extract syntactic rules from the
modeled utterances including the syntactic patterns of language through storytelling,
which then enables them to create an almost vast variety of new sentences that they
have not heard before. Hence, the comprehnsible inputs help the learners obtain
grammar casually (Rodrigo, 2006). It means that the learners can integrate the syntax
rules from the stories but not attend grammar explanations. Simultaneously, those rules
can be applied instinctively in their actual language use. Soleimani and Khandan (2013)
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