The Handbook of Project Management: A Practical Guide to Effective Policies and Procedures, 2nd Revised Edition_13 doc

• There is strong commitment to a clear mission.
• The project leader thrives on relationships and influence.
• The project leader understand the risks – anticipates the icebergs.
• Those involved speak a common project management language and
use a formal project methodology.
• The team is results-oriented: the goal is to deliver a quality solution to
the customer on schedule at the right cost.
• Team members clearly understand their roles.
• A baseline for scope, schedule and cost is established and measured
against.
• Team members understand at all times and regularly check that the
project supports the strategic objectives.
• The team leader encourages creative solutions and problem solving.
• The change process is effectively managed.
• The team leader ensures fast start-up and looks for opportunities to
reduce cycle times.
• Metrics to identify progress are kept to a minimum.
• People learn from the evaluation process.
Success does not just happen; it takes a great deal of focused effort and
commitment. Use the methodology and techniques discussed in earlier
chapters. It is hard work, demanding persistence, dedication and a thick
skin but worth the time you devote to getting the results. Your feeling of
satisfaction of a job well done is the best reward and you will also enhance
your professional reputation.
Common project problems
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281
Postscript
This book has been a project and you have come to the end. Has it been a
success? You will only really know when you apply the techniques and
processes suggested here. All are tried and proven, and there is nothing

either astoundingly new or astoundingly reactionary in these techniques.
This project has been focused on deriving a step-by-step process to help
you achieve success with your programmes and projects in future, giving
you tips to improve based on personal experience. If you do achieve
success and feel more in control of your working life as a programme or
project manager then the work of this project has been a success. If you
have any interesting experiences to relate using the approaches given
here, the author will be pleased to hear from you via the publisher.
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283
Appendix 1
Glossary of terms
There is a considerable amount of jargon used by project managers today,
enhanced by the rapid growth in the use of personal computers for plan-
ning and control of projects. This glossary gives some of the more common
terms and their usual meaning.
Activity. A clearly defined task or tasks with known duration – usually a
group of tasks that together complete a particular step or part of the
work.
Activity on node diagram. A network diagram where all activities are
represented by the node or event, usually shown as a box. Arrows are
used to show the logical flow of the project from node to node.
ACWP. Actual cost of work performed – the actual recorded cost, includ-
ing costs committed, of the work actually performed up to a particular
point in the project schedule.
Backward pass. The procedure by which the latest event times or the
finish and start times for the activities of a network are determined.
Bar chart. A graphical presentation of the activities of a project derived
from the project logic diagram shown as a timed schedule.
Baseline plan. The final ‘frozen’ plan as signed off by the sponsor before

implementation. This is also the recorded plan, against which all progress
is measured and variances analysed and reported.
BCWP. Budgeted cost of the work performed – the budgeted cost, based
on the operating budget, of the work that is actually completed up to a
particular point in the project schedule.
BCWS. Budgeted cost of the work scheduled – the budgeted cost, based
on the operating budget, of the work that is planned to be completed
up to a particular point in the project schedule.
Benefit. A measurable gain from the project that is a primary underlying
reason for the project’s being initiated.
Change log. A sequential listing of all change requests raised during the
life of a project with essential information about their handling.
Change request. A standard template on which to record and request
approval from the key stakeholders for a change to the baseline plan.
Control system. The procedures established at the start of the project that
provide the leader with the necessary data to compare planned status
with the actual status at any instant in time, to identify variances and
take corrective action.
Cost control diagram. A graphical representation of the actual and
budgeted costs of the work actually performed against the scheduled
and budgeted costs of the work planned.
Cost variance. The difference between the value of the work actually
performed (BCWP) and the actual costs incurred and committed
(ACWP).
Cost variance per cent. The cost variance divided by the value of the work
actually performed (BCWP).
Critical activity. Any activity in the project that has been analysed to show
it has zero float and must therefore be completed on time if the project
is not to slip.
Critical path. The sequence of activities that determines the total time for

the project. All activities on the critical path are known as critical activities.
Deliverable. A specific, defined, measurable and tangible output from the
project. Most projects have several deliverables.
Dependency. The basic rule of logic governing logic diagram and network
drawing: any activity that is dependent on another is normally shown
to emerge from the HEAD event of the activity on which it depends.
Duration. The estimated or actual time to complete an activity.
EET. The earliest event time – the earliest completion time for an event that
does not affect the total project time.
EFT. The earliest finish time of an activity without changing total time or
the spare or float time.
Elapsed time. The duration of a piece of the work expressed in real, calen-
dar working days – taking into account holidays, weekends, etc not
worked.
EST. The earliest start time of an activity.
Event. A point in the progress of the project after total completion of all
preceding activities.
Float. The difference between the time necessary and the time available
for an activity.
Forward pass. The procedure for determining the earliest event times of a
network.
284
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Appendix 1
Full-time equivalent. One single person-day divided between several
persons working on a key stage or task.
Functional manager. The person accountable for a function or department
in the organization and responsible for the employees allocated to the
function.
Gantt chart. A graphical method of showing a project schedule that shows

project time, dates, all activities, resources and their relationships. It is
derived from the logic diagram when it has been analysed for float.
Issue. A risk to the project, or an unforeseen event that has become a
reality and needs to be resolved if the project’s integrity is not to be
threatened.
Issue log. A sequential listing of all issues raised during the life of a project
with essential information about their handling.
Key stage. A group of closely related activities that can be isolated together
as a clear stage of the project that must be complete before passing to
the next stage.
Lag. An intentional delay period introduced between two activities in a
logic diagram.
Layering the plan. See Multi-level planning.
Lead. A specific amount of time a successor activity should start after the
start of its predecessor even though the predecessor is not complete.
LET. The latest time by which an event can be achieved without affecting
the total project time from start to finish.
LFT. The latest possible finish time without changing the total task or float
times.
Logic diagram. A graphic representation of the activities in a project with
clearly identified logical dependencies established.
LRC. The linear responsibility chart, which displays a complete listing of
key stages and/or activities with the names of the resource(s) that have
been allocated responsibility for each as part of the plan.
LST. The latest possible time an activity can start without affecting the
total project time.
Milestone. Another name for an event, but usually reserved for a signifi-
cant or major event in the project. Often used for identifying key
progress reporting points.
Monitoring. The process of checking what is happening and collecting

data on project progress.
Multi-level planning. Planning the project at several levels of detail, start-
ing with the key stages and then exploding each key stage to show all
the associated activities. Where necessary, any activity is further
exploded to show further detail of associated tasks at the next level
down, and so on.
Must date. A planned date when an activity or group of activities must be
complete under all circumstances.
Appendix 1
l
285
Opportunity. An idea for a potential programme or project that aligns
with strategic needs.
PERT diagram. The logic diagram in the PERT (Programme Evaluation
Review Technique) project control system.
Phase gate. A specific point in the life cycle when all work stops and
progress to date is presented to the PST for approval. Approval at a
gate allows work to proceed through to the next phase of the life
cycle.
Portfolio. The total active programme and project activity in an organization.
Predecessor. The activity immediately prior to an event.
Programme register. A sequential listing of all programmes and projects
approved as ‘active’ by the PST. May also include opportunities for
programmes and projects under investigation.
Programme steering team (PST). A senior management committee, often
made up of project sponsors who have the power to prioritize and steer
projects in the direction necessary to meet corporate objectives.
Project-approved budget. The budget approved at the conception of the
project, based on outline plans only, with contingency included.
Project file. A central file that must contain copies of all documentation,

letters, faxes, etc relating to the project. It is the project archive and
the basis for subsequent evaluation and continuous improvement
activities.
Project life cycle. A systems approach to a project in which the project is
described as passing through four phases, from conception to termination.
Project log book. A bound A4 book with numbered pages where the
project leader records all events, action plans and project activities. It
comprises a complete event record cross-referenced to the project file.
On larger projects each team member should also maintain a project log
book.
Project operating budget. The budget derived at operating level after
detailed planning to first or preferably the second level is completed.
PST administrator. The person appointed by the PST to organize the PST
meetings and programme portfolio documentation.
Resource. Anything other than time that is needed for carrying out an
activity but most commonly used to refer to people involved in the
project.
Resource levelling. Utilization of available float within a network to
ensure that resources required are appreciably constant.
Resource smoothing. The scheduling of activities within the limits of their
total floats to minimize fluctuations in resource requirements.
Risk. An event that has been identified as potentially threatening the
project’s integrity if it actually happens.
Risk log. A sequential listing of all risks identified throughout the project’s
life and information about their ranking, probability and management.
286
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Appendix 1
Risk management form. A standard template recording risk data and the
proposed actions to take when the risk occurs so as to minimize the

damage to the project.
Risk mitigation plan. A standard template recording risk data and the
actions required to avoid a risk occurring – usually used for ‘unaccept-
able’ or ‘high’ risks.
Risk score. The product of probability and impact; used for ranking risks.
Schedule. The project plan converted to ‘real time’ against a calendar by
inserting realistic agreed time estimates and resource capacity factors
into all the project activities.
Schedule variance. The difference between the value of the work
completed (BCWP) and the budgeted cost, from the operating budget, of
the work planned to be completed at a particular point in the schedule.
Schedule variance per cent. The schedule variance divided by the budgeted
cost of the work scheduled to be complete (BCWS) at the date considered.
Scope creep. Adding additional features and extras during the project
work that are not recorded and approved using the change process.
Many incur extra time and cost consequences.
Single person-day. A method of estimating activity durations using 100
per cent of one individual’s capacity to carry out the work. It represents
a full working day, but in estimating ignores holidays, etc.
Soft project. A project where the objectives are only broadly stated and the
resources needed are unknown and flexible, the scope left open inten-
tionally and deadlines not defined clearly.
Sponsor. The senior manager who takes ownership of the project on
behalf of the organization.
Stakeholder. Any individual who has an interest or stake in the project at
any time during the project’s life cycle.
Stand-alone project. A project that is independent of a programme.
Sub-project. A significant part of a project that is treated as separate for
management and control purposes, usually because of its size or loca-
tion. A sub-project is always linked to a parent project.

Successor. The activity immediately following an event.
Task. A specific defined piece of work, usually carried out by one person in
a finite measurable time. A sub-unit of a project activity.
Time-limited scheduling. The scheduling of activities such that the speci-
fied project time is not exceeded using resources to a predetermined
pattern.
Total float. The total spare time possessed by an activity beyond the esti-
mated duration.
Tracking. The process of taking progress information gathered in a control
system and inserting this into the original plan to show the actual
status, ie the compliance or deviation from the planned status of the
project at that point in time.
Appendix 1
l
287
Work breakdown structure. The diagrammatic presentation of all the key
stages and their associated activities arranged in a hierarchical format,
showing each level of planning.
Work plan. A standard format form or chart for recording an agreed listing
of the tasks to be carried out by an individual or department, complete
with agreed start and finish times for each within the overall project
schedule.
288
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Appendix 1
289
Appendix 2
Further reading
Baker, Sunny and Baker, Tim (1998) The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Project
Management, Alpha Books, New York

Barker, Alan (1993) Making Meetings Work, The Industrial Society, London
Burke, Rory (1993) Project Management Planning and Control, 2nd edition,
John Wiley, Chichester
Carter, Bruce, Hancock, Tony, Morin, Jean-Marc and Robins, M J (1994)
Introducing Riskman Methodology, The Stationery Office, London
Cleland, David I and King, William R (1988) Project Management Handbook,
Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York
Crawley, John (1992) Constructive Conflict Management, Nicholas Brealey,
London
Davenport, Jenny and Lipton, Gordon (1993) Communications for Managers,
The Industrial Society, London
Eales-White, Rupert (1992) The Power of Persuasion, Kogan Page, London
Frame, Davidson J (1994) The New Project Management, Jossey-Bass, San
Francisco
Hall, Elaine M (1997) Managing Risk, Addison Wesley Longman, Boston,
Massachusetts
Hardingham, Alison and Royal, Jenny (1994) Pulling Together: Teamwork in
practice, Institute of Personnel and Development, London
Hurst, Bernice (1996) The Handbook of Communication Skills, 2nd edition,
Kogan Page, London
Kindler, Herbert S (1990) Risk Taking, Kogan Page, London
Lockyer, Keith (1984) Critical Path Analysis and Other Project Network
Techniques, Pitman, London
PMI Standards Committee (1996) A Guide to the Project Management Body of
Knowledge, Project Management Institute, Philadelphia
Pokras, S (1989) Successful Problem Solving and Decision Making, Kogan Page,
London
Pritchard, Carl L (ed) (1997) Risk Management Concepts and Guidance, ESI
International, Arlington, Virginia
Rosenau, M D (1991) Successful Project Management, Van Nostrand

Reinhold, New York
Senge, P (1990) The Fifth Discipline, Doubleday, NewYork
Stewart, Dorothy M (ed) (1990) Handbook of Management Skills, Gower,
London
Vincent, Geoff (1988) Taming Technology: How to Manage a Development
Project, British Institute of Management, London
Young, Trevor L (1993) Leading Projects, The Industrial Society, London
Young, Trevor L (2000) Successful Project Management, Kogan Page, London
SOME USEFUL WEBSITES
All these sites give many links to other useful websites.
Project Management Institute (USA) www.pmi.org
Project Management Forum www.pmforum.org
Association for Project Management (UK) www.apm.org.uk
Australian Institute for Project Management www.aipm.com.au
PMI Bookstore www.pmibookstore.org
IT project management www.gantthead.com
Project management training www.esi-europe.com
Risk management software www.risk-management.org
Programme management www.e-programme.com
290
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Appendix 2
291
Index
acceptance process 246
accountability 60, 122
for change decisions 184, 185
activity, concurrent 128
activity, critical 147
activity, series 128

ACWP 231
administrator, PST 42, 53, 81, 166, 239, 253,
286
appraisals, post-project 258
approval, project closure 252
project definition 120
project execution 239
project planning 162
assumptions 86, 142
authority 59
lack of 275
avoidance risks 113
BAC 230
balancing the project 234
baseline plan, checklist for 162
BCWP 231
BCWS 231
benefits 15, 16, 18, 23, 103, 258
budget 85, 228
approved 160
operating 160, 178
reviewing 160
business case 37, 40, 48, 80, 81, 87, 120, 238,
244, 247
reviewing 158
business plan 13
business planning 21
business strategy 13
change 3, 7
approval of 185

log 180, 183
management process 142, 180, 182
management process flow diagram 181
managing 178
request form 182, 184
sources of 179
close out meeting 247
agenda for 249
closure 242, 243
phase, approaching 238
process flow diagram 261
questions, checklist for 245
communication 68, 173, 177
completion certificate 248, 250
completion criteria 244
computer, using a 263
constraint(s) 28, 79, 115
contingencies 142
continuous improvement 37
control 29, 191
system 191
system, designing the, checklist for 194
system essential elements 193
core team 68, 87, 89, 101, 127
corrective action, taking 212
checklist for 214
cost 105, 228
control and fighting fires 237
control diagram 232, 233
control measures 231

earned value analysis 230
performance 230
and schedule performance chart 233, 234
critical path 145, 147, 265
critical success factors 171
customer 43, 59, 61, 63, 78, 82, 101, 220,
236, 246, 247, 258
contract 84
identifying customer needs, checklist for
83
induced delays 279
needs and expectations 82
satisfaction 72
CV 231
CV% 231
definition 99
checklist for developing 122
leadership actions, checklist for 125
process flow diagram 124
disaster recovery 279
documentation, project 91, 243
change log 181, 183
change request form 182, 184
completion certificate 256, 258
issue management form 201, 203, 204
issue status log 200, 208, 221, 247
key stage responsibility chart 137, 194
key stage work plan chart 167, 168, 194,
247
milestone schedule 169, 172, 175, 185,

194, 247
organization chart 91, 93, 120
project brief 37, 95, 99, 100, 101, 106, 122
risk log 105, 116, 122, 175, 194, 197, 217
risk management form 105, 118, 119, 122
risk mitigation plan 108, 116, 119, 122
stakeholder list 60, 100, 102, 122, 194,
225
status report 174, 176, 211, 220
duration 138
estimating the 139
dynamic action cycle 24
life cycle 23, 66
life cycle, managing 66
earned value analysis 230
environment, programme and project 1, 4
estimating 134, 143, 147
duration 138
evaluation 251
active 251
post-project 254
questions for active, checklist for 252
questions for post-project, checklist for
255
questions for technical, checklist for 257
technical 257
executing 190
process flow diagram 240
financial case 86
fishbone diagram 216

float time 155
total 147, 192, 211
FTC 231
functional Manager 56
further reading 289
Gantt chart 149, 153, 169, 209, 210, 247, 264
key stage 153, 157, 169, 194, 210
showing current status 209
glossary of terms 283
growth, incremental 21
step change 22
how projects succeed 280
issue management 198
process flow diagram 208
issues(s) 111, 123, 124, 162, 177, 247
definition 199
escalation 201
escalation process 202
management form 204, 206, 207
managing 198
ownership 203, 205
questions for owners, checklist for 205
rating 199
resolution strategy 203
resolution strategy, tracking 205
reviewing project 206
status log 200, 206
key stage owner 134, 166, 171
responsibility chart 135, 194
work plan chart 166, 168, 194

work plans 166, 185
key stages 128, 129, 134, 140
splitting to improve project logic 130
kick-off meeting 88
kick-off meeting project, checklist for 89
lack of authority 279
lag 148
launching a project 166
seeking approval for 162
process flow diagram 188
lead 148
leadership 63
actions during definition, checklist for
125
actions during planning, checklist for
164
292
l
Index
actions during project closure, checklist
for 262
actions during project execution,
checklist for 241
actions during project launch, checklist
for 189
actions during project selection, checklist
for 97
actions for effective, checklist for 73
dimensions of 62
lack of authority 275

managing performance 66
log book 94, 221
logic diagram 146, 149, 265
analysing 150, 151, 152
deriving the, checklist for 130
matrix structure 32
meeting, close out 247
close out, agenda for 249
meetings 177
action list 219
agenda for the PST 43
launch 185
launch, checklist for 186
of the PST 42
schedule 177, 185
team 196
milestones 154, 170, 175, 192
schedule 169, 172, 175, 185, 194
mission impossible 278
monitoring and tracking, checklist for 211
monitoring process 197
progress 195
taking corrective action 212
taking corrective action, checklist for 213
opportunity 23
ownership 12, 33
of issues 203
of risks 120
performance, managing 66
managing, checklist for 67

PERT 14, 264
phase four 24, 242
approaching 238
phase gate one 48, 98
phase gate three 162, 179
phase gate zero 81
phase gates 26, 27
phase gates decisions 28, 29
intermediate 161
phase one 24, 87, 99
phase three 24, 190
phase two 24, 126
phase zero 24, 87
phases 24
planning 126
activity, concurrent 128
activity, critical 147
activity, series 128
baseline plan 185
baseline plan, checklist for 163
key stage owner 133
key stages 128, 129, 134, 140
leadership actions, checklist for 164
logic diagram 146, 149, 265
process flow diagram 165
task 128
portfolio management 17, 44
post-project appraisal 258
priority 28, 87
problems 274

customer-induced delays 279
delegation – empowerment and time
management 276
disaster recovery 279
fighting fires and cost control 277
how projects succeed 280
lack of authority 275
mission impossible 278
moving targets 277
problem analysis 274
teamwork and volunteers 278
the 90 percent problem 277
the right people 278
too much reporting 276
problem solving 37, 214
fishbone diagram 216
identifying the cause 215
identifying the problem 215
steps of 215
programme(s) 4, 5, 7, 13, 37, 39, 41, 67, 75
definition 13
example 14
how derived 21
processes 75
selection 44
selection, effective, checklist for 47
selection, inputs to effective 47
programme management 4, 5, 15, 17, 19
characteristics 19, 20
definition 18

organizing for 31
programme management office (PMO) 280
programme manager 5, 8, 10, 15, 22, 37, 44,
55
as a leader 60
qualities 61
Index
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293
programme portfolio 5, 17, 36
pipeline 49
primary screening 48
secondary screening 48
programme register 36, 37, 38, 43
operating 39
programme steering team 26, 33, 34, 80,
88, 162, 235, 239, 244
meetings 42
progress meetings 217
checklist for 220
progress records 221
progress reporting 220
frequency 196
monitoring 195
project(s) 4 ,5, 7, 9, 10, 62
approval to launch 162
balancing 234
benefits 103
brief 37, 95, 99, 100, 101, 106, 122
change log 180, 183

change management process 180, 182
change request form 182, 184
changes, managing 178
changes, sources of 179
characteristics 11, 12
charter 96
closure 242
completion certificate 248, 250
control system 191
cost 105, 228
cost and schedule performance chart
233, 234
cost control and fighting fires 237
cost control diagram 232, 233
cost control measures 231
cost performance 230
cost, earned value analysis 230
definition 10, 99
definition leadership actions, checklist of
125
definition, approval of 120
definition, checklist for 122
definition, process flow diagram 124
deliverables 103
documentation 91
executing 190
file 92, 194, 221
how derived 21
key stages 128, 129, 134, 140
launch 166

launch, seeking approval to 162
launch baseline plan, checklist for 162
launch leadership actions, checklist for
189
launch meeting 185
launch meeting, checklist for 186
log book 94, 221
manager 32, 56, 60
manager, as a leader 60
meetings schedule 177, 185
objective 103
organization chart 92, 93, 122
planning 126
planning process flow diagram 165
processes 77
risk 107
risk, definition of 107
risk, questions for assessment 110
risk, reviewing 196
risk, reviewing, checklist for 198
risk, types of 113
risk assessment 110
risk assessment questions, checklist for
110
risk benefits 108
risk category 115
risk category matrix 116
risk log 114, 124, 175, 194, 197, 221
risk management 107, 110
risk management, benefits of 108

risk management, when necessary 108
risk management, why necessary 109
risk management flow diagram 121
risk management form 107, 118, 121, 124
risk mitigation plan 108, 116, 117, 123
risk monitoring 120
risk ownership 117
risk quantifying 115
risk response strategy 112
risk score 119
scope of work (SOW) 96, 100, 105, 122
selection 44
selection, effective, checklist for 47
selection, inputs to effective 46
specification 95
stakeholders 57, 58, 67, 102, 142, 177,
228, 247, 254
stand-alone 17, 39, 53, 75
starting up 77
status reports 174, 176, 221
strategy 104
project(s) evaluation 251
project drift 242
project management 4, 5, 17, 18, 19
project management characteristics 18, 19
definition 17
project management software 271
corporate system 267
software selecting 271
294

l
Index
using 263
project manager 5, 8, 10, 22, 56
qualities 61
PST 26, 33, 34, 80, 88, 162, 235, 239, 244
administrator 42, 53, 81, 166, 239, 253
hierarchies 35
meetings 42
responsibilities 41
reporting, too much 276
residual risks 113
resource(s) allocating responsibility 132
analysing requirements 154
needs 85
responsibilities, functional manager 56
programme manager 55
project manager 56
PST administrator 54
sponsor 55
responsibility 59, 119, 157
allocating 132
guidelines for allocating, checklist for 133
of issue ownership 203
recording allocated 135
risk assessment 110
category 115
category matrix 116
log 105, 114, 124, 175, 197, 221
management 17, 105

management, benefits of 108
management, when necessary 108
management, why necessary 109
management form 107, 118, 121, 124
management process flow diagram 121
mitigation plan 108, 116, 117, 123
monitoring 120
ownership 119
quantification 115
questions, checklist of 110
response strategy 112
reviewing 196
reviewing, checklist for 198
score 119
types of 113
role relationships 54
roles and responsibilities 53
schedule crash impact 159
crashing 158
impact of risks and 108
optimizing 155
preliminary 85
scope creep 13, 179
scope of work statement (SOW) 96, 100,
105, 122
selection leadership actions, checklist for
97
effective, checklist for 47
inputs to 46
inputs to effective 47

SMART test 171
sponsor(s) 33, 34 ,43, 44, 55, 60, 78, 101,
177, 180, 221, 248, 254
stakeholders 57, 58, 67, 102, 142, 177, 228,
247, 254
identifying 58
identifying and managing, checklist for
58
influence matrix 65
key 44, 58, 80, 102, 179, 201
list 64, 102, 127, 194, 225
managing 63
start-up 77
statement of needs 82
statement of requirements 84, 95
status reports 174, 176, 221
strategic needs 26, 77
objectives 23, 39
strategy 23, 104
sub-projects 10, 15, 75
characteristics of 12
definition 11
ownership 12
SV 231
SV% 232
task 128
responsibilities 157
taskboarding 129
team members, selecting 69
teamwork 67

and volunteers 278
building 70
test 71
time-limited scheduling 143
time management 222
barriers to effective 223
encourage good, checklist for 227
regular one-to-ones 226
working in a matrix 225
tracking 207
issue resolution strategy 205
monitoring and, checklist for 211
transfer risks 113
useful web sites 290
WBS 132, 207, 229, 246, 247
work breakdown structure 132, 159
working in a matrix 225
Index
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295