Lecture Communication research: Asking questions, finding answers (4e) Chapter 7: Quantitative research designs
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Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. No
reproduction or distribution without
the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
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Participants randomly assigned to conditions or
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Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. No
reproduction or distribution without
the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
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CLASSICAL EXPERIMENT
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assignment of participants to conditions –
ensures participants in each condition are
equivalent before any treatment
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Selection
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Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. No
reproduction or distribution without
the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
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civ
POSTTEST EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
09
zh
dg
rx
82
6f
d6
r5
3e
ve
su
64
ia
1u
xv
nl
yy
ưy
m
i4a
t0
tu
m
jau
ej
k4
e1
cq
bs
oq
0l
ư2
jr
iu
ư5
8z
9z
o7
yn
2p
1w
se
cq
73
49
hz
sz
e9
ki
q0
z7
wj
4o
o3
6d
t4
ki
v yz
m
n1
zs
pm
lc2
m
6x
nk
yv
0n
ex
0x
jq
3 sư
t ls6
isư
pi
y6
i1
y3
ts
db
ow
9c
in
0t
5y
j2
4h
e2
d8
t ym
ol0
v2
to
yj
b4
ox
6 pn
5 klư
vf3
yz
ư7
2u
xc
oy
0q
d
ki8
hs
qi
by
n2
hi
p4
ưh
qa
z 9y
e fcg
0jm
91
ra
02
tn
z8
1w
yi
d9
oe
re
rv
ss
c4
ưj
wd
a4
e rb
il tsư
w3
z7
u5
2j
pc
x7
8 zr
jkl
tz
65
pm
pl
0w
4o
un
ua
9k
d1
yy
3d
9d
db
oc
yn
g5
hn
p9
8d
by
2d
j1
zv
8b
7d
ư0
ul
7j
bn
w
0i7
lq
cr
14
67
vk
a2
62
85
gm
83
q
4r
fm
9j3
cp
1w
pd
31
yo
z6
et
3c
m
tvy
ft
hl
1o
pu
dn
dw
rq
ư5
ưm
ru
68
bb
bt
79
7t
xt
tlư
h
wp
1r
b4
25
rb
ep
hk
q8
hi
w
m
r pd
m
t5
2w
i6q
h
ws
qư
r1
w8
in
ưp
bd
lm
1ư
ba
tv
k8
9c
n0
hz
ye
6j
ju
wj
26
hs
4e
28
sư
r2
p3
ga
gu
ec
6g
dz
k2
fv
qy
4w
88
2m
k7
1q
qk
8a
3 ce
fcc
tn
wo
nz
d7
rjd
n
qb
zx
u
l80
gư
t5
hr
7e
7ư
66
nb
ưy
7t
0e
2c
55
ox
49
m
gp
q
us
90
we
dc
in
oy
n
jz0
oj
75
q9
su
eư
6e
ga
bj
nư
ew
4u
q0
m
ajg
wo
2 sư
m
r7
ưl
ng
90
8 bm
m
bv
hd
fk
lep
q
t vi1
ưy
z qs
it1
8g
l1
bp
pe
1f
bb
n
l0i
l5
x q8
rt1
j5
k 6h
af
m
is
yp
0n
e7
f3
u8
st
ay
sv
no
6y
ưy
gt
8p
l3
ye
oi
a5
8f
0r
jyf
g
rp
3q
rz
qc
l2
6 wx
0jy
1e
nư
i0
x8
z3
39
kv
81
8v
q9
7g
iq
n0
w9
4o
hl
9o
ew
tx
e0
c5
5 16
ijo
cg
56
8w
u2
eg
c9
10
xr
jo
8g
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. No
reproduction or distribution without
the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
m
2jư
ư
l6g
uw
cb
sg
q8
91
6 4f
ioy
cg
xz
6 7r
pe
4jj
ư
18
4m
g5
z7
nd
u2
an
62
5k
w4
an
zq
ou
cy
sf
14
nz
o4
ly
f 37
icg
48
p7
34
lư
2y
5b
cr
y8
rv
4q
3d
oa
x1
hq
k 1x
m
7b
b
fj ti6
w4
gt
tz
rn
vs
ap
n9
42
em
k1
tz
9ư
os
hm
s2
ưf
98
0v
n4
02
rs
pr
6t
r qn
i8i
24
db
n
zfk
de
i ư2
m
ưm
qw
f ư0
fc1
7p
n0
us
r rx
civ
PRETEST-POSTTEST
09
zh
dg
rx
82
6f
d6
r5
3e
ve
su
64
ia
1u
xv
nl
yy
ưy
m
i4a
t0
tu
m
jau
ej
k4
e1
cq
bs
oq
0l
ư2
jr
iu
ư5
8z
9z
o7
yn
2p
1w
se
cq
73
49
hz
sz
e9
ki
q0
z7
wj
4o
o3
6d
t4
ki
v yz
m
n1
zs
pm
lc2
m
6x
nk
yv
0n
ex
0x
jq
3 sư
t ls6
isư
pi
y6
i1
y3
ts
db
ow
9c
in
0t
5y
j2
4h
e2
d8
t ym
ol0
v2
to
yj
b4
ox
6 pn
5 klư
vf3
yz
ư7
2u
xc
oy
0q
d
ki8
hs
qi
by
n2
hi
p4
ưh
qa
z 9y
e fcg
0jm
91
ra
02
tn
z8
1w
yi
d9
oe
re
rv
ss
c4
ưj
wd
a4
e rb
il tsư
w3
z7
u5
2j
pc
x7
8 zr
jkl
tz
65
pm
pl
0w
4o
un
ua
9k
d1
yy
3d
9d
db
oc
yn
g5
hn
p9
8d
by
2d
j1
zv
8b
7d
ư0
ul
7j
bn
w
0i7
lq
cr
14
67
vk
a2
62
85
gm
83
q
4r
fm
9j3
cp
1w
pd
31
yo
z6
et
3c
m
tvy
ft
hl
1o
pu
dn
dw
rq
ư5
ưm
ru
68
bb
bt
79
7t
xt
tlư
h
wp
1r
b4
25
rb
ep
hk
q8
hi
w
m
r pd
m
t5
2w
i6q
h
ws
qư
r1
w8
in
ưp
bd
lm
1ư
ba
tv
k8
9c
n0
hz
ye
6j
ju
wj
26
hs
4e
28
sư
r2
p3
ga
gu
ec
6g
dz
k2
fv
qy
4w
88
2m
k7
1q
qk
8a
3 ce
fcc
tn
wo
nz
d7
rjd
n
qb
zx
u
l80
gư
t5
hr
7e
7ư
66
nb
ưy
7t
0e
2c
55
ox
49
m
gp
q
us
90
we
dc
in
oy
n
jz0
oj
75
q9
su
eư
6e
ga
bj
nư
ew
4u
q0
m
ajg
wo
2 sư
m
r7
ưl
ng
90
8 bm
m
bv
hd
fk
lep
q
t vi1
ưy
z qs
it1
8g
l1
bp
pe
1f
bb
n
l0i
l5
x q8
rt1
j5
k 6h
af
m
is
yp
0n
e7
f3
u8
st
ay
sv
no
6y
ưy
gt
8p
l3
ye
oi
a5
8f
0r
jyf
g
rp
3q
rz
qc
l2
6 wx
0jy
1e
nư
i0
x8
z3
39
kv
81
8v
q9
7g
iq
n0
w9
4o
hl
9o
ew
tx
e0
c5
5 16
ijo
cg
56
8w
u2
eg
c9
10
xr
jo
8g
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. No
reproduction or distribution without
the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
m
2jư
ư
l6g
uw
cb
sg
q8
91
6 4f
ioy
cg
xz
6 7r
pe
4jj
ư
18
4m
g5
z7
nd
u2
an
62
5k
w4
an
zq
ou
cy
sf
14
nz
o4
ly
f 37
icg
48
p7
34
lư
2y
5b
cr
y8
rv
4q
3d
oa
x1
hq
k 1x
m
7b
b
fj ti6
w4
gt
tz
rn
vs
ap
n9
42
em
k1
tz
9ư
os
hm
s2
ưf
98
0v
n4
02
rs
pr
6t
r qn
i8i
24
db
n
zfk
de
i ư2
m
ưm
qw
f ư0
fc1
7p
n0
us
r rx
civ
FACTORIAL DESIGN
09
zh
dg
rx
82
6f
d6
r5
3e
ve
su
64
ia
1u
xv
nl
yy
ưy
m
i4a
t0
tu
m
jau
ej
k4
e1
cq
bs
oq
0l
ư2
jr
iu
ư5
8z
9z
o7
yn
2p
1w
se
cq
73
49
hz
sz
e9
ki
q0
z7
wj
4o
o3
6d
t4
ki
v yz
m
n1
zs
pm
lc2
m
6x
nk
yv
0n
ex
0x
jq
3 sư
t ls6
isư
pi
y6
i1
y3
ts
db
ow
9c
in
0t
5y
j2
4h
e2
d8
t ym
ol0
v2
to
yj
b4
ox
6 pn
5 klư
vf3
yz
ư7
2u
xc
oy
0q
d
ki8
hs
qi
by
n2
hi
p4
ưh
qa
z 9y
e fcg
0jm
91
ra
02
tn
z8
1w
yi
d9
oe
re
rv
ss
c4
ưj
wd
a4
e rb
il tsư
w3
z7
u5
2j
pc
x7
8 zr
jkl
tz
65
pm
pl
0w
4o
un
ua
9k
d1
yy
3d
9d
db
oc
yn
g5
hn
p9
8d
by
2d
j1
zv
8b
7d
ư0
ul
7j
bn
w
0i7
lq
cr
14
67
vk
a2
62
85
gm
83
q
4r
fm
9j3
cp
1w
pd
31
yo
z6
et
3c
m
tvy
ft
hl
1o
pu
dn
dw
rq
ư5
ưm
ru
68
bb
bt
79
7t
xt
tlư
h
wp
1r
b4
25
rb
ep
hk
q8
hi
w
m
r pd
m
t5
2w
i6q
h
ws
qư
r1
w8
in
ưp
bd
lm
Treatment groups based on two or more
independent variables
Dependent variable measured once after
treatment given
Can test for main and interaction effects
1ư
ba
tv
k8
9c
n0
hz
ye
6j
ju
wj
26
hs
4e
28
sư
r2
p3
ga
gu
ec
6g
dz
k2
fv
qy
4w
88
2m
k7
1q
qk
8a
3 ce
fcc
tn
wo
nz
d7
rjd
n
qb
zx
u
l80
gư
t5
hr
7e
7ư
66
nb
ưy
7t
0e
2c
55
ox
49
m
gp
q
us
90
we
dc
in
oy
n
jz0
oj
75
q9
su
eư
6e
ga
bj
nư
ew
4u
q0
m
ajg
wo
2 sư
m
r7
ưl
ng
90
8 bm
m
bv
hd
fk
lep
q
t vi1
ưy
z qs
it1
8g
l1
bp
pe
1f
bb
n
l0i
l5
x q8
rt1
j5
k 6h
af
m
is
yp
0n
e7
f3
u8
st
ay
sv
no
6y
ưy
gt
8p
l3
ye
oi
a5
8f
0r
jyf
g
rp
3q
rz
qc
l2
6 wx
0jy
1e
nư
i0
x8
z3
39
kv
81
8v
q9
7g
iq
n0
w9
4o
hl
9o
ew
tx
e0
c5
5 16
ijo
cg
56
8w
u2
eg
c9
10
xr
jo
8g
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. No
reproduction or distribution without
the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
m
2jư
ư
l6g
uw
cb
sg
q8
91
6 4f
ioy
cg
xz
6 7r
pe
4jj
ư
18
4m
g5
z7
nd
u2
an
62
5k
w4
an
zq
ou
cy
sf
14
nz
o4
ly
f 37
icg
48
p7
34
lư
2y
5b
cr
y8
rv
4q
3d
oa
x1
hq
k 1x
m
7b
b
fj ti6
w4
gt
tz
rn
vs
ap
n9
42
em
k1
tz
9ư
os
hm
s2
ưf
98
0v
n4
02
rs
pr
6t
r qn
i8i
24
db
n
zfk
de
i ư2
m
ưm
qw
f ư0
fc1
7p
n0
us
r rx
civ
LONGITUDINAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
09
zh
dg
rx
82
6f
d6
r5
3e
ve
su
64
ia
1u
xv
nl
yy
ưy
m
i4a
t0
tu
m
jau
ej
k4
e1
cq
bs
oq
0l
ư2
jr
iu
ư5
8z
9z
o7
yn
2p
1w
se
cq
73
49
hz
sz
e9
ki
q0
z7
wj
4o
o3
6d
t4
ki
v yz
m
n1
zs
pm
lc2
m
6x
nk
yv
0n
ex
0x
jq
3 sư
t ls6
isư
pi
y6
i1
y3
ts
db
ow
9c
in
0t
5y
j2
4h
e2
d8
t ym
ol0
v2
to
yj
b4
ox
6 pn
5 klư
vf3
yz
ư7
Multiple measurements of the dependent
variable across time
2u
xc
oy
0q
d
ki8
hs
qi
by
n2
hi
p4
ưh
qa
z 9y
e fcg
0jm
91
ra
02
tn
z8
1w
yi
d9
oe
re
rv
ss
c4
ưj
wd
a4
e rb
il tsư
w3
z7
u5
2j
pc
x7
8 zr
jkl
1→ Time 2 → Time 3
Time
tz
65
pm
pl
0w
4o
un
ua
9k
d1
yy
3d
9d
db
oc
yn
g5
hn
p9
8d
by
2d
j1
zv
8b
7d
ư0
ul
7j
bn
w
0i7
lq
cr
14
67
vk
a2
62
85
gm
83
q
4r
fm
9j3
cp
1w
pd
31
yo
z6
et
3c
m
tvy
ft
hl
1o
pu
dn
dw
rq
ư5
ưm
ru
68
bb
bt
79
7t
xt
tlư
h
wp
1r
b4
25
rb
ep
hk
q8
hi
w
m
r pd
m
t5
2w
i6q
h
ws
qư
r1
w8
in
ưp
bd
lm
1ư
ba
tv
k8
9c
n0
hz
ye
6j
ju
wj
26
hs
4e
28
sư
r2
p3
ga
gu
ec
6g
dz
k2
fv
qy
4w
88
2m
k7
1q
qk
8a
3 ce
fcc
tn
wo
nz
d7
rjd
n
qb
zx
u
l80
gư
t5
hr
7e
7ư
66
nb
ưy
7t
0e
2c
55
ox
49
m
gp
q
us
90
we
dc
in
oy
n
jz0
oj
75
q9
su
eư
6e
ga
bj
nư
ew
4u
q0
m
ajg
wo
2 sư
m
r7
ưl
ng
90
8 bm
m
bv
hd
fk
lep
q
t vi1
ưy
z qs
it1
8g
l1
bp
pe
1f
bb
n
l0i
Time between measurements depends on the
nature of the communication phenomenon
studied
Used for studying training effects or degree of
retention
l5
x q8
rt1
j5
k 6h
af
m
is
yp
0n
e7
f3
u8
st
ay
sv
no
6y
ưy
gt
8p
l3
ye
oi
a5
8f
0r
jyf
g
rp
3q
rz
qc
l2
6 wx
0jy
1e
nư
i0
x8
z3
39
kv
81
8v
q9
7g
iq
n0
w9
4o
hl
9o
ew
tx
e0
c5
5 16
ijo
cg
56
8w
u2
eg
c9
10
xr
jo
8g
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. No
reproduction or distribution without
the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
m
2jư
ư
l6g
uw
cb
sg
q8
91
6 4f
ioy
cg
xz
6 7r
pe
4jj
ư
18
4m
g5
z7
nd
u2
an
62
5k
w4
an
zq
ou
cy
sf
14
nz
o4
ly
f 37
icg
48
p7
34
lư
2y
5b
cr
y8
rv
4q
3d
oa
x1
hq
k 1x
m
7b
b
fj ti6
w4
gt
tz
rn
vs
ap
n9
42
em
k1
tz
9ư
os
hm
s2
ưf
98
0v
n4
02
rs
pr
6t
r qn
i8i
24
db
n
zfk
de
i ư2
m
ưm
qw
f ư0
fc1
7p
n0
us
r rx
civ
09
zh
dg
rx
82
6f
d6
r5
3e
ve
su
64
ia
1u
t0
tu
m
jau
ej
k4
e1
cq
bs
oq
0l
ư2
jr
iu
ư5
8z
9z
o7
yn
2p
1w
se
cq
73
49
hz
sz
e9
ki
q0
z7
wj
4o
o3
6d
t4
ki
v yz
m
n1
zs
pm
lc2
m
6x
nk
yv
0n
ex
0x
jq
3 sư
t ls6
isư
pi
y6
i1
y3
ts
db
ow
9c
in
0t
5y
j2
4h
e2
d8
t ym
ol0
v2
to
yj
b4
ox
6 pn
5 klư
vf3
yz
ư7
2u
xc
oy
0q
d
ki8
hs
qi
by
n2
hi
p4
ưh
qa
z 9y
e fcg
0jm
91
ra
02
tn
z8
1w
yi
d9
oe
re
rv
ss
c4
ưj
wd
a4
e rb
il tsư
w3
z7
u5
2j
pc
x7
8 zr
jkl
tz
65
pm
pl
0w
4o
un
ua
9k
d1
yy
3d
9d
db
oc
yn
g5
hn
p9
8d
by
2d
j1
zv
8b
7d
ư0
ul
7j
bn
w
0i7
lq
cr
14
67
vk
a2
62
85
gm
83
q
4r
fm
9j3
cp
1w
pd
31
yo
z6
et
3c
m
tvy
ft
hl
1o
pu
dn
dw
rq
ư5
ưm
ru
68
bb
bt
79
Precision
•
m
May not reflect reality
Assumes that any effect on
DV is the cause of the IV
•
i4a
•
ưy
Other external influence may
be the cause of DV change
yy
•
xv
Not all communication can
be studied using
experiments
nl
•
Researcher controls
manipulation of IV and
random assignment to
condition
•
LIMITATIONS
STRENGTHS
7t
xt
tlư
h
wp
1r
b4
25
rb
ep
hk
q8
hi
w
m
r pd
m
t5
2w
i6q
h
ws
qư
r1
w8
in
ưp
bd
lm
1ư
ba
tv
k8
9c
n0
hz
ye
6j
ju
wj
26
hs
4e
28
sư
r2
p3
ga
gu
ec
6g
dz
k2
fv
qy
4w
88
2m
k7
1q
qk
8a
3 ce
fcc
tn
wo
nz
d7
rjd
n
qb
zx
u
l80
gư
t5
hr
7e
7ư
66
nb
ưy
7t
0e
2c
55
ox
49
m
gp
q
us
90
we
dc
in
oy
n
jz0
oj
75
q9
su
eư
6e
ga
bj
nư
ew
4u
q0
m
ajg
wo
2 sư
m
r7
ưl
ng
90
8 bm
m
bv
hd
fk
lep
q
t vi1
ưy
z qs
it1
8g
l1
bp
pe
1f
bb
n
l0i
l5
x q8
rt1
j5
k 6h
af
m
is
yp
0n
e7
f3
u8
st
ay
sv
no
6y
ưy
gt
8p
l3
ye
oi
a5
8f
0r
EVALUATING EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
jyf
g
rp
3q
rz
qc
l2
6 wx
0jy
1e
nư
i0
x8
z3
39
kv
81
8v
q9
7g
iq
n0
w9
4o
hl
9o
ew
tx
e0
c5
5 16
ijo
cg
56
8w
u2
eg
c9
10
xr
jo
8g
m
2jư
ư
l6g
uw
cb
sg
q8
91
6 4f
ioy
cg
xz
6 7r
pe
4jj
ư
18
4m
g5
z7
nd
u2
an
62
5k
w4
an
zq
ou
cy
sf
14
nz
o4
ly
f 37
icg
48
p7
34
lư
2y
5b
cr
y8
rv
4q
3d
oa
x1
hq
k 1x
m
7b
b
fj ti6
w4
gt
tz
rn
vs
ap
n9
42
em
k1
tz
9ư
os
hm
s2
ưf
98
0v
n4
02
rs
pr
6t
r qn
i8i
24
db
n
zfk
de
i ư2
m
ưm
qw
f ư0
fc1
7p
n0
us
r rx
civ
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
09
zh
dg
rx
82
6f
d6
r5
3e
ve
su
64
ia
1u
xv
nl
yy
ưy
m
i4a
t0
tu
m
jau
ej
k4
e1
cq
bs
oq
0l
ư2
jr
iu
ư5
8z
9z
o7
yn
2p
1w
se
cq
73
49
hz
sz
e9
ki
q0
z7
wj
4o
o3
6d
t4
ki
v yz
m
n1
zs
pm
lc2
m
6x
nk
yv
0n
ex
0x
jq
3 sư
t ls6
isư
pi
y6
i1
y3
ts
db
ow
9c
in
0t
5y
j2
4h
e2
d8
t ym
ol0
v2
to
yj
b4
ox
6 pn
5 klư
vf3
yz
ư7
2u
xc
oy
0q
d
ki8
hs
qi
by
n2
hi
p4
ưh
qa
z 9y
e fcg
0jm
91
ra
02
tn
z8
1w
yi
d9
oe
re
rv
ss
c4
ưj
wd
a4
e rb
il tsư
w3
z7
u5
2j
pc
x7
8 zr
jkl
tz
65
pm
pl
0w
4o
un
ua
9k
d1
yy
3d
9d
db
oc
yn
g5
hn
p9
8d
by
2d
j1
zv
8b
7d
ư0
ul
7j
bn
w
0i7
lq
cr
14
67
vk
a2
62
85
gm
83
q
4r
fm
9j3
cp
1w
pd
31
yo
z6
et
3c
m
tvy
ft
hl
1o
pu
dn
dw
rq
ư5
ưm
ru
68
bb
bt
79
7t
xt
tlư
h
wp
1r
b4
25
rb
ep
hk
q8
hi
w
m
r pd
m
t5
2w
i6q
h
ws
qư
r1
w8
in
ưp
bd
lm
1ư
ba
tv
k8
9c
n0
hz
ye
6j
ju
wj
26
hs
4e
28
sư
r2
p3
ga
gu
ec
6g
dz
k2
fv
qy
4w
88
2m
k7
1q
qk
8a
3 ce
fcc
tn
wo
Researcher relies on natural variation of
independent variable
Posttest, pretest-posttest, factorial, and
longitudinal designs can be used
Includes field experiments in which
communication is studied in context
nz
d7
rjd
n
qb
zx
u
l80
gư
t5
hr
7e
7ư
66
nb
ưy
7t
0e
2c
55
ox
49
m
gp
q
us
90
we
dc
in
oy
n
jz0
oj
75
q9
su
eư
6e
ga
bj
nư
ew
4u
q0
m
ajg
wo
2 sư
m
r7
ưl
ng
90
8 bm
m
bv
hd
fk
lep
q
t vi1
ưy
z qs
it1
8g
l1
bp
pe
1f
bb
n
l0i
l5
x q8
rt1
j5
k 6h
af
m
is
yp
0n
e7
f3
u8
st
ay
sv
no
6y
ưy
gt
8p
l3
ye
oi
a5
8f
0r
jyf
g
rp
3q
rz
qc
l2
6 wx
0jy
1e
nư
i0
x8
z3
39
kv
81
8v
q9
7g
iq
n0
w9
4o
hl
9o
ew
tx
e0
c5
5 16
ijo
cg
56
8w
u2
eg
c9
10
xr
jo
8g
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. No
reproduction or distribution without
the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
m
2jư
ư
l6g
uw
cb
sg
q8
91
6 4f
ioy
cg
xz
6 7r
pe
4jj
ư
18
4m
g5
z7
nd
u2
an
62
5k
w4
an
zq
ou
cy
sf
14
nz
o4
ly
f 37
icg
48
p7
34
lư
2y
5b
cr
y8
rv
4q
3d
oa
x1
hq
k 1x
m
7b
b
fj ti6
w4
gt
tz
rn
vs
ap
n9
42
em
k1
tz
9ư
os
hm
s2
ưf
98
0v
n4
02
rs
pr
6t
r qn
i8i
24
db
n
zfk
de
i ư2
m
ưm
qw
f ư0
fc1
7p
n0
us
r rx
civ
FIELD EXPERIMENTS
09
zh
dg
rx
82
6f
d6
r5
3e
ve
su
64
ia
1u
xv
nl
yy
ưy
m
i4a
t0
tu
m
jau
ej
k4
e1
cq
bs
oq
0l
ư2
jr
iu
ư5
8z
9z
o7
yn
2p
1w
se
cq
73
49
hz
sz
e9
ki
q0
z7
wj
4o
o3
6d
t4
ki
v yz
m
n1
zs
pm
lc2
m
6x
nk
yv
0n
ex
0x
jq
3 sư
t ls6
isư
pi
y6
i1
y3
ts
db
ow
9c
in
0t
5y
j2
4h
e2
d8
t ym
ol0
v2
to
yj
b4
ox
6 pn
5 klư
vf3
yz
ư7
2u
xc
oy
0q
d
ki8
hs
qi
by
n2
hi
p4
ưh
qa
z 9y
e fcg
0jm
91
ra
02
tn
z8
1w
yi
d9
oe
re
rv
ss
c4
ưj
wd
a4
e rb
il tsư
w3
z7
u5
2j
pc
x7
8 zr
jkl
tz
65
pm
pl
0w
4o
un
ua
9k
d1
yy
3d
9d
db
oc
yn
g5
hn
p9
8d
by
2d
j1
zv
8b
7d
ư0
ul
7j
bn
w
0i7
lq
cr
14
67
vk
a2
62
85
gm
83
q
4r
fm
9j3
cp
1w
pd
31
yo
z6
et
3c
m
tvy
ft
hl
1o
pu
dn
Researcher controls manipulation of IV
Situated in real and natural environments
Allows examination of complex and unfolding
interaction
dw
rq
ư5
ưm
ru
68
bb
bt
79
7t
xt
tlư
h
wp
1r
b4
25
rb
ep
hk
q8
hi
w
m
r pd
m
t5
2w
i6q
h
ws
qư
r1
w8
in
ưp
bd
lm
1ư
ba
tv
k8
9c
n0
hz
ye
6j
ju
wj
26
hs
4e
28
sư
r2
p3
ga
gu
ec
6g
dz
k2
fv
qy
4w
88
2m
k7
1q
qk
8a
3 ce
fcc
tn
wo
nz
d7
rjd
n
qb
zx
u
l80
gư
t5
hr
7e
7ư
66
nb
ưy
7t
0e
2c
55
ox
49
m
gp
q
us
90
we
dc
in
oy
n
jz0
oj
75
q9
su
eư
6e
ga
bj
nư
ew
4u
q0
m
ajg
wo
2 sư
m
r7
ưl
ng
90
8 bm
m
bv
hd
fk
lep
q
t vi1
ưy
z qs
it1
8g
l1
bp
pe
1f
bb
n
l0i
l5
x q8
rt1
j5
k 6h
af
m
is
yp
0n
e7
f3
u8
st
ay
sv
no
6y
ưy
gt
8p
l3
ye
oi
a5
8f
0r
jyf
g
rp
3q
rz
qc
l2
6 wx
0jy
1e
nư
i0
x8
z3
39
kv
81
8v
q9
7g
iq
n0
w9
4o
hl
9o
ew
tx
e0
c5
5 16
ijo
cg
56
8w
u2
eg
c9
10
xr
jo
8g
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. No
reproduction or distribution without
the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
m
2jư
ư
l6g
uw
cb
sg
q8
91
6 4f
ioy
cg
xz
6 7r
pe
4jj
ư
18
4m
g5
z7
nd
u2
an
62
5k
w4
an
zq
ou
cy
sf
14
nz
o4
ly
f 37
icg
48
p7
34
lư
2y
5b
cr
y8
rv
4q
3d
oa
x1
hq
k 1x
m
7b
b
fj ti6
w4
gt
tz
rn
vs
ap
n9
42
em
k1
tz
9ư
os
hm
s2
ưf
98
0v
n4
02
rs
pr
6t
r qn
i8i
24
db
n
zfk
de
i ư2
m
ưm
qw
f ư0
fc1
LIMITATIONS
7p
n0
us
r rx
civ
09
zh
dg
rx
82
6f
d6
r5
3e
STRENGTHS
ve
su
64
ia
1u
xv
nl
yy
ưy
t0
m
jau
ej
k4
e1
cq
bs
oq
0l
ư2
jr
iu
ư5
8z
9z
o7
yn
2p
1w
se
cq
73
49
hz
sz
e9
ki
q0
z7
wj
4o
o3
6d
t4
ki
v yz
m
n1
zs
pm
lc2
m
6x
nk
yv
0n
ex
0x
jq
3 sư
t ls6
isư
pi
y6
i1
y3
ts
db
ow
9c
in
0t
5y
j2
4h
e2
d8
t ym
ol0
v2
to
yj
b4
ox
6 pn
5 klư
vf3
yz
ư7
2u
xc
oy
0q
ki8
d
hs
qi
by
n2
hi
p4
ưh
qa
z 9y
e fcg
0jm
tn
z8
1w
yi
d9
oe
re
rv
ss
c4
ưj
wd
a4
e rb
il tsư
w3
z7
u5
Design based on naturally
existing variation
ra
02
Can address real world
problems
91
Cannot determine cause and
effect
tu
m
Conditions may not be
equivalent
i4a
2j
pc
x7
8 zr
jkl
tz
65
pm
pl
0w
4o
un
ua
9k
d1
yy
3d
9d
db
oc
yn
g5
hn
p9
8d
by
2d
j1
zv
8b
7d
ư0
ul
7j
bn
w
0i7
lq
cr
14
67
vk
a2
62
85
gm
83
q
4r
fm
9j3
cp
1w
pd
31
yo
z6
et
3c
m
tvy
ft
hl
1o
pu
dn
dw
rq
ư5
ưm
ru
68
bb
bt
79
7t
xt
tlư
h
wp
1r
b4
25
rb
ep
hk
q8
hi
w
m
r pd
m
t5
2w
i6q
h
ws
qư
r1
w8
in
ưp
bd
lm
1ư
ba
tv
k8
9c
n0
hz
ye
6j
ju
wj
26
hs
4e
28
sư
r2
p3
ga
gu
ec
6g
dz
k2
fv
qy
4w
88
2m
k7
1q
qk
8a
3 ce
fcc
tn
wo
nz
d7
rjd
n
qb
zx
u
l80
gư
t5
hr
7e
7ư
66
nb
ưy
7t
0e
2c
55
ox
49
m
gp
q
us
90
we
dc
in
oy
n
jz0
oj
75
q9
su
eư
6e
ga
bj
nư
ew
4u
q0
m
ajg
wo
2 sư
m
r7
ưl
ng
90
8 bm
m
bv
hd
fk
lep
q
t vi1
ưy
z qs
it1
8g
l1
bp
pe
1f
bb
n
l0i
l5
x q8
rt1
j5
k 6h
af
m
is
yp
0n
e7
f3
u8
st
ay
sv
no
6y
ưy
gt
8p
l3
ye
EVALUATING QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
oi
a5
8f
0r
jyf
g
rp
3q
rz
qc
l2
6 wx
0jy
1e
nư
i0
x8
z3
39
kv
81
8v
q9
7g
iq
n0
w9
4o
hl
9o
ew
tx
e0
c5
5 16
ijo
cg
56
8w
u2
eg
c9
10
xr
jo
8g
m
2jư
ư
l6g
uw
cb
sg
q8
91
6 4f
ioy
cg
xz
6 7r
pe
4jj
ư
18
4m
g5
z7
nd
u2
an
62
5k
w4
an
zq
ou
cy
sf
14
nz
o4
ly
f 37
icg
48
p7
34
lư
2y
5b
cr
y8
rv
4q
3d
oa
x1
hq
k 1x
m
7b
b
fj ti6
w4
gt
tz
rn
vs
ap
n9
42
em
k1
tz
9ư
os
hm
s2
ưf
98
0v
n4
02
rs
pr
6t
r qn
i8i
24
db
n
zfk
de
i ư2
m
ưm
qw
f ư0
fc1
7p
n0
us
r rx
civ
DESCRIPTIVE DESIGNS
09
zh
dg
rx
82
6f
d6
r5
3e
ve
su
64
ia
1u
xv
nl
yy
ưy
m
i4a
t0
tu
m
jau
ej
k4
e1
cq
bs
oq
0l
ư2
jr
iu
ư5
8z
9z
o7
yn
2p
1w
se
cq
73
49
hz
sz
e9
ki
q0
z7
wj
4o
o3
6d
t4
ki
v yz
m
n1
zs
pm
lc2
m
6x
nk
yv
0n
ex
0x
jq
3 sư
t ls6
isư
pi
y6
i1
y3
ts
db
ow
9c
in
0t
5y
j2
4h
e2
d8
t ym
ol0
v2
to
yj
b4
ox
6 pn
5 klư
vf3
yz
ư7
2u
xc
oy
0q
d
ki8
hs
qi
by
n2
hi
p4
ưh
qa
z 9y
e fcg
0jm
91
ra
02
tn
z8
1w
yi
d9
oe
re
rv
ss
c4
ưj
wd
a4
e rb
il tsư
w3
z7
u5
2j
pc
x7
8 zr
jkl
tz
65
pm
pl
0w
4o
un
ua
9k
d1
yy
3d
9d
db
oc
yn
g5
hn
p9
8d
by
2d
j1
zv
8b
7d
ư0
ul
7j
bn
w
0i7
lq
cr
14
67
vk
a2
62
85
gm
83
q
4r
fm
9j3
cp
1w
pd
31
yo
z6
et
3c
m
tvy
ft
hl
1o
pu
dn
dw
rq
ư5
ưm
ru
68
bb
bt
79
7t
xt
tlư
h
wp
1r
b4
25
rb
ep
hk
q8
hi
w
m
r pd
m
t5
2w
i6q
h
ws
qư
r1
w8
in
ưp
bd
lm
1ư
ba
tv
k8
9c
n0
hz
ye
6j
ju
wj
26
hs
4e
28
sư
r2
p3
ga
gu
ec
6g
dz
k2
fv
qy
4w
88
2m
k7
1q
qk
8a
3 ce
fcc
tn
wo
nz
d7
rjd
n
qb
zx
u
l80
gư
t5
hr
7e
7ư
66
nb
ưy
7t
0e
2c
55
ox
49
m
gp
q
us
90
we
dc
in
oy
n
jz0
oj
75
q9
su
eư
6e
ga
bj
nư
ew
4u
q0
m
ajg
wo
2 sư
m
r7
Also called cross-sectional or non-experimental
studies
Researcher does not control manipulation of IV
Participants not randomly assigned to
conditions
Predictor and criterion are better labels for IV
and DV as they do not imply causality
ưl
ng
90
8 bm
m
bv
hd
fk
lep
q
t vi1
ưy
z qs
it1
8g
l1
bp
pe
1f
bb
n
l0i
l5
x q8
rt1
j5
k 6h
af
m
is
yp
0n
e7
f3
u8
st
ay
sv
no
6y
ưy
gt
8p
l3
ye
oi
a5
8f
0r
jyf
g
rp
3q
rz
qc
l2
6 wx
0jy
1e
nư
i0
x8
z3
39
kv
81
8v
q9
7g
iq
n0
w9
4o
hl
9o
ew
tx
e0
c5
5 16
ijo
cg
56
8w
u2
eg
c9
10
xr
jo
8g
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. No
reproduction or distribution without
the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
m
2jư
ư
l6g
uw
cb
sg
q8
91
6 4f
ioy
cg
xz
6 7r
pe
4jj
ư
18
4m
g5
z7
nd
u2
an
62
5k
w4
an
zq
ou
cy
sf
14
nz
o4
ly
f 37
icg
48
p7
34
lư
2y
5b
cr
y8
rv
4q
3d
oa
x1
hq
k 1x
m
7b
b
fj ti6
w4
gt
tz
rn
vs
ap
n9
42
em
k1
tz
9ư
os
hm
s2
ưf
98
0v
n4
02
rs
pr
6t
r qn
i8i
24
db
n
zfk
de
i ư2
m
ưm
qw
f ư0
fc1
7p
n0
us
r rx
civ
ONLINE EXPERIMENTS
09
zh
dg
rx
82
6f
d6
r5
3e
ve
su
64
ia
1u
xv
nl
yy
ưy
m
i4a
t0
tu
m
jau
ej
k4
e1
cq
bs
oq
0l
ư2
jr
iu
ư5
8z
9z
o7
yn
2p
1w
se
cq
73
49
hz
sz
e9
ki
q0
z7
wj
4o
o3
6d
t4
ki
v yz
m
n1
zs
pm
lc2
m
6x
nk
yv
0n
ex
0x
jq
3 sư
t ls6
isư
pi
y6
i1
y3
ts
db
ow
9c
in
0t
5y
j2
4h
e2
d8
t ym
ol0
v2
to
yj
b4
ox
6 pn
5 klư
vf3
yz
ư7
2u
xc
oy
0q
d
ki8
hs
qi
by
n2
hi
p4
ưh
qa
z 9y
e fcg
0jm
91
ra
02
tn
z8
1w
yi
d9
oe
re
rv
ss
c4
ưj
wd
a4
e rb
il tsư
w3
z7
u5
2j
pc
x7
8 zr
jkl
tz
65
pm
pl
0w
4o
un
ua
9k
d1
yy
3d
9d
db
oc
yn
g5
hn
p9
8d
by
2d
j1
zv
8b
7d
ư0
ul
7j
bn
w
0i7
lq
cr
14
67
vk
a2
62
85
gm
83
q
4r
fm
9j3
cp
1w
pd
31
yo
z6
et
3c
m
tvy
ft
hl
1o
pu
dn
dw
rq
ư5
ưm
ru
68
bb
bt
79
7t
xt
tlư
h
wp
1r
b4
25
rb
ep
hk
q8
hi
w
m
r pd
m
t5
2w
i6q
h
ws
qư
r1
w8
in
ưp
bd
lm
1ư
ba
tv
k8
9c
n0
hz
ye
6j
ju
wj
26
hs
4e
28
sư
r2
p3
ga
gu
ec
6g
dz
k2
fv
qy
4w
88
2m
k7
1q
qk
8a
3 ce
fcc
tn
wo
nz
d7
rjd
n
qb
zx
u
l80
gư
t5
hr
7e
7ư
66
nb
ưy
7t
0e
2c
55
ox
49
m
gp
q
us
90
we
dc
in
oy
n
jz0
oj
75
q9
su
eư
6e
ga
bj
nư
ew
4u
q0
m
ajg
wo
2 sư
m
r7
ưl
ng
Used for experimental, quasi-experimental, and
descriptive designs
Can design a logic for how participants respond
to stimuli or answer items
Helps to reach diverse audience of participants
Can embed audio and video elements
Sampling is problematic
90
8 bm
m
bv
hd
fk
lep
q
t vi1
ưy
z qs
it1
8g
l1
bp
pe
1f
bb
n
l0i
l5
x q8
rt1
j5
k 6h
af
m
is
yp
0n
e7
f3
u8
st
ay
sv
no
6y
ưy
gt
8p
l3
ye
oi
a5
8f
0r
jyf
g
rp
3q
rz
qc
l2
6 wx
0jy
1e
nư
i0
x8
z3
39
kv
81
8v
q9
7g
iq
n0
w9
4o
hl
9o
ew
tx
e0
c5
5 16
ijo
cg
56
8w
u2
eg
c9
10
xr
jo
8g
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. No
reproduction or distribution without
the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
m
2jư
ư
l6g
uw
cb
sg
q8
91
6 4f
ioy
cg
xz
6 7r
pe
4jj
ư
18
4m
g5
z7
nd
u2
an
62
5k
w4
an
zq
ou
cy
sf
14
nz
o4
ly
f 37
icg
48
p7
34
lư
2y
5b
cr
y8
rv
4q
3d
oa
x1
hq
k 1x
m
7b
b
fj ti6
w4
gt
tz
rn
vs
ap
n9
42
em
k1
tz
9ư
os
hm
s2
ưf
98
0v
n4
02
rs
pr
6t
r qn
i8i
24
db
n
zfk
de
i ư2
m
ưm
qw
f ư0
fc1
7p
n0
RESEARCHER EFFECTS AND PROCEDURAL BIAS
us
r rx
civ
09
zh
dg
rx
82
6f
d6
r5
3e
ve
su
64
ia
1u
xv
nl
yy
ưy
m
i4a
t0
tu
m
jau
ej
k4
e1
cq
bs
oq
0l
ư2
jr
iu
ư5
8z
9z
o7
yn
2p
1w
se
cq
73
49
hz
sz
e9
ki
q0
z7
wj
4o
o3
6d
t4
ki
v yz
m
n1
zs
pm
lc2
m
6x
nk
yv
0n
ex
0x
jq
3 sư
t ls6
isư
pi
y6
i1
y3
ts
db
ow
9c
in
0t
5y
j2
4h
e2
d8
t ym
ol0
v2
to
yj
b4
ox
6 pn
5 klư
vf3
yz
ư7
2u
xc
oy
0q
d
ki8
hs
qi
by
n2
hi
p4
ưh
qa
z 9y
e fcg
0jm
91
ra
02
tn
z8
1w
yi
d9
oe
re
rv
ss
c4
ưj
wd
a4
e rb
il tsư
w3
z7
u5
2j
pc
x7
8 zr
jkl
tz
65
pm
pl
0w
4o
un
ua
9k
d1
yy
3d
9d
db
oc
yn
g5
hn
p9
8d
by
2d
j1
zv
8b
7d
ư0
ul
7j
bn
w
0i7
lq
cr
14
67
vk
a2
62
85
gm
83
q
4r
fm
9j3
cp
1w
pd
31
yo
z6
et
3c
m
tvy
ft
hl
1o
pu
dn
dw
rq
ư5
ưm
ru
68
bb
bt
79
7t
xt
tlư
h
wp
1r
b4
25
rb
ep
hk
q8
hi
w
m
r pd
m
t5
2w
i6q
h
ws
qư
r1
w8
in
ưp
bd
lm
1ư
ba
tv
k8
9c
n0
hz
ye
6j
ju
wj
26
hs
4e
28
sư
r2
p3
ga
gu
ec
6g
dz
k2
fv
qy
4w
88
2m
k7
1q
qk
8a
3 ce
fcc
tn
wo
nz
d7
rjd
n
qb
zx
u
l80
gư
t5
hr
7e
7ư
66
nb
ưy
Use research protocol to detail procedural steps
Introduced in interaction with participants
Similarity of researcher to participants
How researcher communicates to participants
Researcher unknowingly encourages desired responses
Demand characteristics created when topic has socially
desirable elements
7t
0e
2c
55
ox
49
m
gp
q
us
90
we
dc
in
oy
n
jz0
oj
75
q9
su
eư
6e
ga
bj
nư
ew
4u
q0
m
ajg
wo
2 sư
m
r7
ưl
ng
90
8 bm
m
bv
hd
fk
lep
q
t vi1
ưy
z qs
it1
8g
l1
bp
pe
1f
bb
n
l0i
l5
x q8
rt1
j5
k 6h
af
m
is
yp
0n
e7
f3
u8
st
ay
sv
no
6y
ưy
gt
8p
l3
ye
oi
a5
8f
0r
jyf
g
rp
3q
rz
qc
l2
6 wx
0jy
1e
nư
i0
x8
z3
39
kv
81
8v
q9
7g
iq
n0
w9
4o
hl
9o
ew
tx
e0
c5
5 16
ijo
cg
56
8w
u2
eg
c9
10
xr
jo
8g
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. No
reproduction or distribution without
the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
m
2jư
ư
l6g
uw
cb
sg
q8
91
6 4f
ioy
cg
xz
6 7r
pe
4jj
ư
18
4m
g5
z7
nd
u2
an
62
5k
w4
an
zq
ou
cy
sf
14
nz
o4
ly
f 37
icg
48
p7
34
lư
2y
5b
cr
y8
rv
4q
3d
oa
x1
hq
k 1x
m
7b
b
fj ti6
w4
gt
tz
rn
vs
ap
n9
42
em
k1
tz
9ư
os
hm
s2
ưf
98
0v
n4
02
rs
pr
6t
r qn
i8i
24
db
n
zfk
de
i ư2
m
ưm
qw
f ư0
fc1
7p
n0
us
r rx
civ
COMPARING RESEARCH DESIGNS
09
zh
dg
rx
82
6f
d6
r5
3e
ve
su
64
ia
1u
xv
nl
yy
ưy
m
i4a
t0
tu
m
jau
ej
k4
e1
cq
bs
oq
0l
ư2
jr
iu
ư5
8z
9z
o7
yn
2p
1w
se
cq
73
49
hz
sz
e9
ki
q0
z7
wj
4o
o3
6d
t4
ki
v yz
m
n1
zs
pm
lc2
m
6x
nk
yv
0n
ex
0x
jq
3 sư
t ls6
isư
pi
y6
i1
y3
ts
db
ow
9c
in
0t
5y
j2
4h
e2
d8
t ym
ol0
v2
to
yj
b4
ox
6 pn
5 klư
vf3
yz
ư7
2u
xc
oy
0q
d
ki8
hs
qi
by
n2
hi
p4
ưh
qa
z 9y
e fcg
0jm
91
ra
02
tn
z8
1w
yi
d9
oe
re
rv
ss
c4
ưj
wd
a4
e rb
il tsư
w3
z7
u5
2j
pc
x7
8 zr
jkl
tz
65
pm
pl
0w
4o
un
ua
9k
d1
yy
3d
9d
db
oc
yn
g5
hn
p9
8d
by
2d
j1
zv
8b
7d
ư0
ul
7j
bn
w
0i7
lq
cr
14
67
vk
a2
62
85
gm
83
q
4r
fm
9j3
cp
1w
pd
31
yo
z6
et
3c
m
tvy
ft
hl
1o
pu
dn
dw
rq
ư5
ưm
ru
68
bb
bt
79
7t
xt
tlư
h
wp
1r
b4
25
rb
ep
hk
q8
hi
w
m
r pd
m
t5
2w
i6q
h
ws
qư
r1
w8
in
ưp
bd
lm
1ư
ba
tv
k8
9c
n0
hz
ye
6j
ju
wj
26
hs
4e
28
sư
r2
p3
ga
gu
ec
6g
dz
k2
fv
qy
4w
88
2m
k7
1q
qk
8a
3 ce
fcc
tn
wo
nz
d7
rjd
n
qb
zx
u
l80
gư
t5
hr
7e
7ư
66
nb
ưy
7t
0e
2c
55
ox
49
m
gp
q
us
90
we
dc
in
oy
n
jz0
oj
75
q9
su
eư
6e
ga
bj
nư
ew
4u
q0
m
ajg
wo
2 sư
m
r7
ưl
ng
90
8 bm
m
bv
hd
fk
lep
q
t vi1
ưy
z qs
it1
8g
l1
bp
pe
1f
bb
n
l0i
l5
x q8
rt1
j5
k 6h
af
m
is
yp
0n
e7
f3
u8
st
ay
sv
no
6y
ưy
gt
8p
l3
ye
oi
a5
8f
0r
jyf
g
rp
3q
rz
qc
l2
6 wx
0jy
1e
nư
i0
x8
z3
39
kv
81
8v
q9
7g
iq
n0
w9
4o
hl
9o
ew
tx
e0
c5
5 16
ijo
cg
56
8w
u2
eg
c9
10
xr
jo
8g
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. No
reproduction or distribution without
the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
m
2jư
ư
l6g
uw
cb
sg
q8
91
6 4f
ioy
cg
xz
6 7r
pe
4jj
ư
18
4m
g5
z7
nd
u2
an
62
5k
w4
an
zq
ou
cy
sf
14
nz
o4
ly
f 37
icg
48
p7
34
lư
2y
5b
cr
y8
rv
4q
3d
oa
x1
hq
k 1x
m
7b
b
fj ti6
w4
gt
tz
rn
vs
ap
n9
42
em
k1
tz
9ư
os
hm
s2
ưf
98
0v
n4
02
rs
pr
6t
r qn
i8i
24
db
n
zfk
de
i ư2
m
ưm
qw
f ư0
fc1
7p
n0
us
r rx
civ
09
zh
dg
rx
82
6f
d6
r5
3e
ve
su
64
ia
1u
xv
nl
yy
ưy
m
i4a
t0
tu
m
jau
ej
k4
e1
cq
bs
oq
0l
ư2
jr
iu
ư5
8z
9z
o7
yn
2p
1w
se
cq
73
49
hz
sz
e9
ki
q0
z7
wj
4o
o3
6d
t4
ki
v yz
m
n1
zs
pm
lc2
m
6x
nk
yv
0n
ex
0x
jq
3 sư
t ls6
isư
pi
y6
i1
y3
ts
db
ow
9c
5y
j2
4h
e2
d8
t ym
ol0
v2
to
yj
b4
ox
6 pn
5 klư
vf3
in
0t
yz
ư7
2u
xc
oy
0q
d
ki8
hs
qi
by
n2
hi
p4
ưh
qa
z 9y
e fcg
0jm
91
ra
02
tn
z8
1w
yi
d9
oe
re
rv
ss
c4
ưj
wd
a4
e rb
il tsư
w3
z7
u5
2j
pc
x7
8 zr
jkl
tz
65
pm
pl
0w
4o
un
ua
9k
d1
yy
3d
9d
db
oc
yn
g5
hn
p9
8d
by
2d
8b
7d
ư0
ul
7j
bn
w
0i7
lq
cr
14
67
vk
a2
62
85
gm
83
j1
zv
q
4r
fm
9j3
cp
1w
pd
31
yo
z6
et
3c
m
tvy
ft
hl
1o
pu
dn
dw
rq
ư5
ưm
ru
68
bb
bt
79
7t
xt
tlư
h
wp
1r
No direct control over
manipulation of IV
Researchder does not assign
participants to experimental
conditions
Limits interpretation of
results
Conducted in environments
with participants who are like
the researcher wants to
generalize to.
Can be used to explore
complex processes
LIMITATIONS
STRENGTHS
b4
25
rb
ep
hk
q8
hi
w
m
r pd
m
t5
2w
i6q
h
ws
qư
r1
w8
in
ưp
bd
lm
1ư
ba
tv
k8
9c
n0
hz
ye
6j
ju
wj
26
hs
4e
28
sư
r2
p3
ga
gu
ec
6g
dz
k2
fv
qy
4w
88
2m
k7
1q
qk
8a
3 ce
fcc
tn
wo
nz
d7
rjd
n
qb
zx
u
l80
gư
t5
hr
7e
7ư
66
nb
ưy
7t
0e
2c
55
ox
49
m
gp
q
us
90
we
dc
in
oy
n
jz0
oj
75
q9
su
eư
6e
ga
bj
nư
ew
4u
q0
m
ajg
wo
2 sư
m
r7
ưl
ng
90
8 bm
m
bv
hd
fk
lep
q
t vi1
ưy
z qs
it1
8g
l1
bp
pe
1f
bb
n
l0i
l5
x q8
rt1
j5
k 6h
af
m
is
yp
0n
e7
f3
u8
st
ay
sv
no
6y
ưy
gt
8p
l3
ye
oi
a5
8f
0r
EVALUATING DESCRIPTIVE DESIGNS
jyf
g
rp
3q
rz
qc
l2
6 wx
0jy
1e
nư
i0
x8
z3
39
kv
81
8v
q9
7g
iq
n0
w9
4o
hl
9o
ew
tx
e0
c5
5 16
ijo
cg
56
8w
u2
eg
c9
10
xr
jo
8g
m
2jư
ư
l6g
uw
cb
sg
q8
91
6 4f
ioy
cg
