Safety at Work doc

Safety at Work

Safety at Work
Sixth edition
Edited by
John Ridley and John Channing
AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD
PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO
Butterworth-Heinemann
An imprint of Elsevier
Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP
200 Wheeler Road, Burlington, MA 01803
First published 1983
Second edition 1985
Reprinted 1987
Third edition 1990
Reprinted 1991, 1992, 1993
Fourth edition 1994
Reprinted 1996, 1998
Fifth edition 1999
Reprinted 2000
Sixth edition 2003
Copyright © 2003, Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved
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Contents
Foreword xvii
Preface to sixth edition xix
Preface to first edition xxiii
List of contributors xxv
Part 1 Law 1
1.1 Explaining the law Brenda Watts 3
1.1.1 Introduction 3
1.1.2 The incident 3
1.1.3 Some possible actions arising from the incident 3
1.1.4 Legal issues of the incident 4
1.1.5 Criminal and civil law 4
1.1.6 Branches of law 5
1.1.7 Law and fact 7
1.1.8 The courts 7
1.1.9 Judicial precedent 17
1.1.10 Court procedure 18

1.1.11 Identity of court personnel 24
1.1.12 Employment Tribunals 26
1.1.13 European Community Courts (ECJ) 27
1.1.14 Human Rights Courts 29
1.1.15 Sources of English law 29
1.1.16 Legislation 30
1.1.17 Safety legislation before the Health and Safety at
Work etc. Act 37
1.1.18 Safety legislation today 38
1.1.19 Principles developed by the courts 41
vi Contents
1.2 Principal health and safety Acts S. Simpson 49
1.2.1 The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 49
1.2.2 The Factories Act 1961 59
1.2.3 The Fire Precautions Act 1971 59
1.2.4 The Mines and Quarries Acts 1954–71 61
1.2.5 The Environmental Protection Act 1990 61
1.2.6 The Road Traffic Acts 1972–91 62
1.2.7 The Public Health Act 1936 62
1.2.8 Petroleum (Consolidation) Act 1928 63
1.2.9 Activity Centres (Young Persons Safety) Act 1995 63
1.2.10 Crown premises 63
1.2.11 Subordinate legislation 64
1.3 Influences on health and safety J. R. Ridley 67
1.3.1 Introduction 67
1.3.2 The Robens Report 67
1.3.3 Delegation of law-making powers 68
1.3.4 Legislative framework for health and safety 69
1.3.5 Self-regulation 70
1.3.6 Goal-setting legislation 71

1.3.7 European Union 72
1.3.8 European standards 75
1.3.9 Our social partners 77
1.3.10 Social expectations 77
1.3.11 Public expectations 78
1.3.12 Political influences 78
1.3.13 Roles in health and safety 79
1.3.14 Safety culture 80
1.3.15 Quality culture 80
1.3.16 No fault liability 81
1.3.17 Risk assessments 81
1.3.18 Conclusion 82
1.4 Law of contract R. W. Hodgin 84
1.4.1 Contracts 84
1.4.2 Contracts of employment 87
1.4.3 Employment legislation 88
1.4.4 Law of sale 90
1.4.5 Specialised legislation affecting occupational safety
advisers 92
1.5 Employment law R. D. Miskin updated by Amanda Jones 96
1.5.1 Introduction 96
1.5.2 Employment law 96
1.5.3 Discrimination 98
1.5.4 Disciplinary procedures 105
1.5.5 Dismissal 107
1.5.6 Summary 117
Contents vii
1.6 Consumer protection R. G. Lawson 119
1.6.1 Fair conditions of contract 119
1.6.2 A fair quality of goods and services 127

1.6.3 Product safety 127
1.6.4 Product liability 132
1.6.5 Misleading advertising 134
1.6.6 Exclusion clauses 135
1.6.7 Distance selling 138
1.6.8 Stop now orders 138
1.6.9 Consumer redress 139
1.7 Insurance cover and compensation A. West 141
1.7.1 Workmen’s compensation and the State insurance
scheme 141
1.7.2 Employer’s liability insurance 144
1.7.3 Public Liability insurance 150
1.7.4 Investigation, negotiation and the quantum of damage 151
1.7.5 General 155
1.8 Civil liability E. J. Skellett 156
1.8.1 The common law and its development 156
1.8.2 The law of tort 157
1.8.3 Occupier’s Liability Acts 1957 and 1984 160
1.8.4 Supply of goods 161
1.8.5 Employer’s liability 162
1.8.6 Employer’s Liability (Defective Equipment) Act 1969 165
1.8.7 Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 165
1.8.8 Defences to a civil liability claim 166
1.8.9 Volenti non fit injuria 167
1.8.10 Limitation 168
1.8.11 Assessment of damages 168
1.8.12 Fatal accidents 170
1.8.13 ’No fault’ liability system 170
Part 2 The management of risk 173
2.1 An introduction to risk management J. E. Channing 175

2.1.1 Introduction 175
2.1.2 The components of risk 177
2.1.3 Strategies to control risk 180
2.1.4 Risk management in the 21st century 184
2.2 Principles of the management of risk L. Bamber 187
2.2.1 Principles of action necessary to prevent accidents 187
2.2.2 Definitions of hazard, risk and danger 188
2.2.3 Risk management 190
2.2.4 Loss control 193
2.2.5 Degrees of hazard 197
2.2.6 Accident causation models 198
2.2.7 Accident prevention: legal, humanitarian and
economic reasons for action 201
viii Contents
2.3 Risk management: organisation and administration for
safety J. E. Channing 205
2.3.1 Introduction 205
2.3.2 Organisation structure models 206
2.3.3 Roles and responsibilities 210
2.3.4 Work groups 212
2.3.5 Organisational theory 214
2.3.6 Organisational techniques 217
2.3.7 Culture 220
2.3.8 Potential problems 221
2.3.9 The role of specialists in the organisation 224
2.3.10 Conclusion 225
2.4 Risk management: techniques and practices L. Bamber 227
2.4.1 Risk identification, assessment and control 227
2.4.2 Job safety analysis 233
2.4.3 System safety 238

2.4.4 Systems theory and design 240
2.4.5 System safety engineering 243
2.4.6 Fault tree analysis 243
2.4.7 Probabalistic risk assessments 244
2.4.8 Health and safety in design and planning 246
2.4.9 Quality, Environment, Safety and Health Management
Systems (QUENSH) 248
2.4.10 Use of data on accidents 250
2.4.11 Maintenance systems and planned maintenance 251
2.4.12 Damage control 252
2.4.13 Cost-effectiveness of risk management 253
2.4.14 Performance evaluation and appraisal 257
2.4.15 Loss control profiling 259
2.5 The collection and use of accident and incident data
Dr A. J. Boyle 263
2.5.1 Introduction 263
2.5.2 Types of accident and incident data 263
2.5.3 Collection of accident and incident data 267
2.5.4 Legal requirements to notify accidents and incidents 271
2.5.5 The use of accident and incident data 271
2.5.6 Epidemiological analysis 279
2.5.7 Accident investigation 281
2.5.8 Accident and incident data and risk assessment data 292
2.5.9 The use of computers 294
Appendix. UK requirements for reporting accidents and incidents 299
2.6 Practical safety management: systems and techniques
J. E. Channing 304
2.6.1 Introduction 304
2.6.2 Legal obligations 305
2.6.3 Generic safety management 306

Contents ix
2.6.4 Implementing a regulation within a safety
management system 310
2.6.5 Safety management and housekeeping 315
2.6.6 Assessment techniques 319
2.6.7 Proprietary audit systems 322
2.6.8 Safety systems and incidents 324
2.6.9 Learning organisations 325
2.6.10 Safety management systems in small organisations 327
2.6.11 Conclusion 328
2.7 The individual and safety Andrew Hale 330
2.7.1 Introduction: What does this chapter try to do? 330
2.7.2 Individuals as controllers of danger 332
2.7.3 Behavioural science and the human information
processor 335
2.7.4 Individual behaviour in the face of danger 351
2.7.5 Change 373
2.7.6 Conclusion 385
2.8 Risk management and behaviour modification
J. E. Channing 389
2.8.1 Introduction 389
2.8.2 Behaviour modification for employees 391
2.8.3 Behaviour modification for managers and supervisors 402
2.8.4 Applying behaviour concepts to incident investigation 408
2.8.5 Behaviour concepts and the safety management system 410
2.8.6 Risk, behaviour, leadership and commitment 410
2.8.7 Behaviour modification processes: the hazards 412
2.8.8 Behaviour and safety culture 413
2.8.9 Conclusion 415
Part 3 Occupational health and hygiene 419

3.1 The structure and functions of the human body
Dr T. Coates 421
3.1.1 Introduction 421
3.1.2 History 421
3.1.3 The functions of an occupational health department 424
3.1.4 Overseas developments 424
3.1.5 Risks to health at work 425
3.1.6 Occupational hygiene 426
3.1.7 First aid at work 427
3.1.8 Basic human anatomy and physiology 428
3.1.9 Cancer and other problems of cell growth 443
3.1.10 The body’s defence mechanisms 444
3.1.11 Factors determining the effect of substances in the
body 445
3.1.12 The assessment of risk to health 446
x Contents
3.2 Occupational diseases Dr A. R. L. Clark 447
3.2.1 Introduction 447
3.2.2 Toxicology 447
3.2.3 Diseases of the skin 451
3.2.4 Diseases of the respiratory system 454
3.2.5 Diseases from metals 460
3.2.6 Pesticides 464
3.2.7 Solvents 465
3.2.8 Gassing 469
3.2.9 Oxygen deficiency 471
3.2.10 Occupational cancer 473
3.2.11 Physical agents 475
3.2.12 Ionising radiations 476
3.2.13 Noise-induced hearing loss 479

3.2.14 Working in heat 482
3.2.15 Work-related upper limb disorders (WRULD) 482
3.2.16 Diseases due to micro-organisms 483
3.2.17 Psycho-social disorders 487
3.2.18 Target organs 488
3.3 Occupational hygiene Dr C. Hartley 492
3.3.1 Recognition 492
3.3.2 Evaluation 493
3.3.3 Control measures 512
3.3.4 Summary 522
3.4 Radiation Dr A. D. Wrixon and updated by Peter Shaw and
Dr M. Maslanyj 524
3.4.1 Introduction 524
3.4.2 Structure of matter 524
3.4.3 Radioactivity 525
3.4.4 Ionising radiation 525
3.4.5 Biological effects of ionising radiation 526
3.4.6 Quantities and units 527
3.4.7 Basic principles of radiological protection 528
3.4.8 Legal requirements 533
3.4.9 National Radiological Protection Board 536
3.4.10 Incidents and emergencies 537
3.4.11 Non-ionising radiation 537
3.5 Noise and vibration R. W. Smith 543
3.5.1 What is sound? 543
3.5.2 Other terms commonly found in acoustics 546
3.5.3 Transmission of sound 550
3.5.4 The sound level meter 550
3.5.5 The ear 552
3.5.6 The equivalent noise level 553

3.5.7 Community noise levels 554
3.5.8 Work area noise levels 555
Contents xi
3.5.9 Noise control techniques 556
3.5.10 Vibration 564
3.5.11 Summary 566
3.6 Workplace pollution, heat and ventilation F. S. Gill 568
3.6.1 Methods of assessment of workplace air pollution 569
3.6.2 Measurement of the thermal environment 572
3.6.3 Standards for workplace environments 573
3.6.4 Ventilation control of a workplace environment 575
3.6.5 Assessment of performance of ventilation systems 577
3.7 Lighting E. G. Hooper and updated by Jonathan David 581
3.7.1 Introduction 581
3.7.2 The eye 581
3.7.3 Eye conditions 582
3.7.4 Definitions 583
3.7.5 Types of lighting 585
3.7.6 Illuminances 586
3.7.7 Factors affecting the quality of lighting 588
3.7.8 Use of light measuring instruments 591
3.8 Managing ergonomics Nick Cook 594
3.8.1 Introduction 594
3.8.2 Ergonomics defined 595
3.8.3 Ancient Egyptians and all that – a brief history of
ergonomics 596
3.8.4 Ergonomics – has designs on you 598
3.8.5 Ergonomic concepts 598
3.8.6 Managing ergonomic issues in the workplace 605
3.8.7 Work-related upper limb disorders (WRULD) 606

3.8.8 Back issues 609
3.8.9 Managing the ergonomics of disability 610
3.8.10 Legal requirements 611
3.8.11 Conclusion 614
3.9 Applied ergonomics J. R. Ridley 617
3.9.1 Introduction 617
3.9.2 Physiology 618
3.9.3 Working environment 631
3.9.4 Manual handling 638
3.9.5 Repetitive actions 639
3.9.6 Plant design 640
3.9.7 Controls and indicators 640
3.9.8 Noise and vibrations 642
3.9.9 Stress 643
3.9.10 Display screen equipment (DSE) 644
3.9.11 Signs and signals 645
3.9.12 Coda 646
xii Contents
Part 4 Workplace safety 649
4.1 Science in engineering safety J. R. Ridley 651
4.1.1 Introduction 651
4.1.2 Structure of matter 651
4.1.3 Properties of chemicals 653
4.1.4 Physical properties 657
4.1.5 Energy and work 663
4.1.6 Mechanics 664
4.1.7 Strength of materials 665
4.1.8 Modes of failure 667
4.1.9 Testing 668
4.1.10 Hydraulics 668

4.1.11 Summary 669
4.2 Fire precautions Ray Chalklen 671
4.2.1 Introduction 671
4.2.2 Basic fire technology 671
4.2.3 Fire hazards and their control 674
4.2.4 Fire alarms and detectors 678
4.2.5 Classification of fires 685
4.2.6 Portable fire-fighting equipment 688
4.2.7 Fixed fire-fighting equipment 695
4.2.8 Fire safety signs 702
4.2.9 Means of escape in case of fire 703
4.2.10 Fire engineering 706
4.2.11 Fire protection measures 708
4.2.12 Legal requirements 711
4.2.13 Fire risk assessment 716
4.2.14 Access and facilities for the fire brigade 719
4.2.15 Fire terminology 720
4.3 Safe use of machinery J. R. Ridley 727
4.3.1 Introduction 727
4.3.2 Strategy for selecting safeguards 734
4.3.3 Safeguarding techniques 737
4.3.4 Powered trucks 749
4.3.5 Lifting equipment 754
4.3.6 Pressure systems 760
4.3.7 Coda 766
4.4 Electricity E. G. Hooper and revised by Chris Buck 769
4.4.1 Alternating and direct currents 769
4.4.2 Electricity supply 770
4.4.3 Statutory requirements 772
4.4.4 Voltage levels 773

4.4.5 Electrical accidents 773
4.4.6 The basic electrical circuit 774
4.4.7 Dangers from electricity 775
4.4.8 Protective means 778
4.4.9 Competence 781
Contents xiii
4.4.10 Permits-to-work 782
4.4.11 Static electricity 782
4.4.12 Use of electricity in adverse or hazardous
environments 785
4.4.13 Electrical equipment in flammable atmospheres 786
4.4.14 Portable tools 789
4.4.15 Residual current devices 789
4.4.16 Maintenance 790
4.4.17 Conclusion 790
4.5 Statutory examination of plant and equipment
J. McMullen and updated by J. E. Caddick 793
4.5.1 Introduction 793
4.5.2 Legislation 794
4.5.3 Pressure systems 794
4.5.4 Lifting equipment 800
4.5.5 Power presses and press brakes 806
4.5.6 Local exhaust ventilation 808
4.5.7 Electrical equipment and installations 810
4.5.8 Other considerations 811
4.5.9 Conclusion 814
4.6 Safety on construction sites R. Hudson 819
4.6.1 Construction accidents 819
4.6.2 Safe working in the industry 820
4.6.3 Site hazards 829

4.6.4 Access 834
4.6.5 The Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment
Regulations 1998 836
4.6.6 Welfare facilities 841
4.6.7 Other relevant legislation 842
4.7 Managing chemicals safely John Adamson 850
4.7.1 Introduction 850
4.7.2 Chemical data 850
4.7.3 Source of information 851
4.7.4 Risk assessments 852
4.7.5 Minimising the risk 856
4.7.6 Legislative requirements 860
4.7.7 Storage of substances 867
4.7.8 Transport 871
4.7.9 Plant and process design 872
4.7.10 Further safety studies 881
4.7.11 Plant modifications 882
4.7.12 Safe systems of work 882
4.7.13 Laboratories 884
4.7.14 Emergency procedures 887
4.7.15 Conclusions 888
xiv Contents
Part 5 The environment 891
5.1 The environment: issues, concepts and strategies
J. E. Channing 893
5.1.1 Introduction 893
5.1.2 Environmental predictions 894
5.1.3 Sustainable development 895
5.1.4 Environmental hazards 898
5.1.5 Evaluating environmental risks 900

5.1.6 Environmental control strategies 904
5.1.7 Conclusion 906
5.2 Environmental management systems J. E. Channing 908
5.2.1 Introduction 908
5.2.2 Establishing an environmental management system 909
5.2.3 Additional EMAS requirements 919
5.2.4 Conclusions 919
5.3 Waste management Samantha Moss 921
5.3.1 Introduction 921
5.3.2 Waste authorities 922
5.3.3 National waste strategies 923
5.3.4 Defining waste 924
5.3.5 The waste hierarchy 926
5.3.6 Waste management in practice 927
5.3.7 Waste minimisation 942
5.3.8 The cost of failure to manage waste effectively 952
5.3.9 Conclusion 953
5.4 Chemicals and the environment J. L. Adamson 956
5.4.1 Introduction 956
5.4.2 Chemical data 956
5.4.3 Risk reduction 957
5.4.4 The Environmental Protection Act 1990 (EPA) 957
5.4.5 Minimising environmental harm 962
5.4.6 Air pollution: control measures and abatement
techniques 965
5.4.7 Monitoring atmospheric pollution 967
5.4.8 Control of water pollution 970
5.4.9 Groundwater pollution 972
5.4.10 Waste disposal and duty of care 973
5.4.11 Reuse or recycling of industrial waste 982

5.4.12 Environmental management systems 982
5.4.13 Conclusion 984
5.5 The environment at large G. N. Batts 986
5.5.1 Introduction 986
5.5.2 Environmental issues 987
5.5.3 The environment and the media 993
5.5.4 The global impact of environmental issues 994
5.5.5 Ethical investing and green procurement 995
Contents xv
5.5.6 Increasing environmental legislation, controls and
public reporting 996
5.5.7 End-of-pipe control 997
5.5.8 Polluter pays 998
5.5.9 Producer or shared responsibility 999
5.5.10 Environmental management system (EMS) and
sustainable development 1000
5.5.11 Corporate social responsibility 1001
Appendix 1 The Institution of Occupational Safety and Health 1007
Appendix 2 Reading for Part I of the NEBOSH Diploma
examination 1008
Appendix 3 List of abbreviations 1009
Appendix 4 Organisations providing safety information 1015
Appendix 5 List of Statutes, Regulations and Orders 1017
Appendix 6 List of Cases 1025
Index 1031

Foreword
Bill Callaghan, Chairman – Health & Safety Commission
In 1972 Lord Robens wrote
[We are] in no doubt that the most important single reason for

accidents at work is apathy. There is a curious paradox here.
Society as a whole reacts keenly to major disasters. There is
also some ephemeral reaction to the annual statistics of
industrial death and injury.…Even rarer is personal awareness
of diseases which manifest themselves long after periods of
exposure in an unhealthy working environment.
We have made much progress since the Robens Report and the Health
& Safety at Work Act. Our record is a good one internationally.
However, we need to improve performance to meet the challenging
targets of revitalising Health & Safety. The benefits of good health and
safety provision are not universally appreciated; poor risk management
often only becomes apparent once it is too late. Some employers hope that
incidents of occupational ill health or injury will not happen to them.
They overlook the pure financial cost of such events – in terms of lawyers’
fees, insurance, legal claims, downtime, recruiting and training replace-
ments, and even their own reputation.
Not enough employers appreciate the value of a committed, interested
workforce that knows it is cared for and involved. Obvious concern for
xviii Foreword
health and safety is one way employers can show they value their
workforce. We need to invest in a culture that involves employers and
employees working together in partnership. A committed workforce
brings continuity, drives down costs of recruitment and training, and
reduces absence. A good reputation for health and safety suggests
reliability and encourages investors, shareholders and customers.
Since Lord Robens wrote his report, the world has moved on. The
demographics of the country and the workplace have changed; education
levels have risen; the balance of work has shifted from manufacturing to
service industries. With developing technology and research, new risks
and hazards have evolved. But so too has our understanding and ability

to combat them.
We need to make work a better place to be. This book is a support for
those of you who want to take forward this work. Together we can
improve the competitiveness of British industry. Together we can make
good health and safety the cornerstone of a civilised society.
Preface to sixth edition
Since publication of the 5th edition there have been significant develop-
ments in health and safety. First, the importance of the roles of directors
and managers in health and safety has been highlighted by a number of
major incidents, in some of which lives were lost. Subsequent investiga-
tion established serious shortcomings in the commitment and support for
health and safety at very senior levels in the organisations concerned.
Safety is like water, it flows downhill and if the spring at the top is dry it
is unlikely that the seeds planted below will be nurtured and flourish.
There is a growing conviction that the attitudes at the most senior levels
in an organisation are crucial to its safety performance. We have taken
this on board and added two new chapters on the management of risk,
one of which emphasises the need for a sound organisational structure to
achieve effective risk management. Other existing chapters have been
significantly enlarged. They reflect developments in the behavioural
approach to risk management and current thinking on effective manage-
ment systems including the development of a international standard on
safety management that will inevitably emerge.
Second, what has been a fringe subject but is rapidly becoming part of
the safety manager’s responsibilities is the quality of the environment –
both in the workplace and in the wider context of global pollution.
Interest in this subject is stimulated by the growing concerns for what we
are doing to the global environment through man’s thoughtless and
barely controlled emission of ‘greenhouse’ and ozone-depleting gases
and fumes. But this has in turn focused attention on more local issues

such as the quality of the working environment and how we dispose of
our waste – solid, liquid and gases. To reflect the growing importance of
this subject we have added a completely new part (Part 5) dealing solely
with environmental issues.
Health, safety and the environment tend to be linked together and
frequently fall to the safety department to administer, whereas quality
management remains firmly in the hands of the design and production
departments. Each management system demands the same attitudes and
approaches to attaining high standards without increasing costs or
burdens beyond an acceptable limit and we see the development of the
integration of the three management systems as an inherent and essential
part of an enterprise’s operational procedures.
xx Preface to sixth edition
The official recognition of IOSH as a professional body through the
granting to them of a Royal Charter has made membership an even
greater valued goal. This, in turn, will demand high standards of
academic attainment in the qualifying examinations. While the uni-
versities have established their own standards of excellence that they
demand of their graduates – standards that are moderated by IOSH –
other teaching and training establishments have to rely on nationally
available standards. Following discussions, led by the National Training
Organisation for Employment (ENTO) in which a range of interested
parties participated, a set of occupational health and safety standards was
developed. These have been integrated with the Scottish and National
Vocational Qualifications (S/NVQ) to form the basic academic back-
ground leading to membership of the Institution of Occupational Safety
and Health (IOSH). Examinations against these new standards will be
administered by the National Examination Board in Occupational Safety
and Health (NEBOSH) and certified through the awarding of a Diploma.
Much of the content of the book is pertinent to those studying for this

Diploma and to guide students to the relevant parts, a suggested reading
list has been included as an appendix.
Major changes have and still are taking place in the procedures and
conduct of cases in the courts following the recommendations of the
Woolf report. The aim is to make the administration of justice more
dynamic through the more flexible use of resources and representations.
Those changes in court procedure that have already been made have been
incorporated into chapter 1 Explaining the law. It is to be hoped that we,
and in particular claimants for compensation following injuries, will
benefit from these changes through the quicker settlement of litigations
and other matters of legal contention put before the courts.
Although we have included much that is new in the way that health,
safety and environmental responsibilities are viewed and accepted, we
have not ignored the solid foundation on which the past high levels of
health and safety in the UK have been based. The text includes those basic
concepts, techniques and practices that have served so well the cause of
health and safety of workpeople for so many years. Not least among these
are the relationships that have developed between employers and
employees that are so essential for good performance in, not only health
and safety, but all the aspects of occupational activities.
Risk assessments have been a growing and central feature of health and
safety activities through their application to general employment and
chemical hazards. The gay abandon with which the phrase risk assessment
is used gives rise to the risk that it is becoming a ‘buzz’ word and that the
essential nature of the technique is being brought into disrepute by
misunderstanding of its role and purpose in the overall pattern of health
and safety activities. Our approach has been to put the technique into
perspective and view it in the overall context of all the other actions that
are taken to reduce the risks faced by workpeople and to improve the
quality of their working life.

Many injuries and much of the ill health from work activities can be
laid at the door of inappropriate physical demands being made on the
operators. Not only through strains and sprains from overloaded limbs
Preface to sixth edition xxi
but subjection to unsuitable working environment, difficult manual
operations, etc. A new chapter on Applied ergonomics has been included
that approaches the subject from the point of view of what the body and
its limbs can reasonably do. This will allow the manager and practitioner
to design processes and operations in the confidence that the work to be
carried out will not overstretch the operator beyond the limits of what the
human body is physically capable of doing.
While there appears to have been a reduction in the rate of propagation
of new EU directives – a respite resulting from the updating of many of
the existing directives to bring them in line with technological develop-
ments since they were first adopted – there has been no relief from the
flow of European and international standards that put the meat on the
bones of legislative requirements. A number of these standards are based
on UK originals that have been modified (some might say diminished) to
relate to the employment and industrial climates of other EU member
states. Once a standard is adopted as harmonised (European) or
international, it takes precedence over the equivalent national standard.
A notable casualty in this process has been BS 5304 Safety of Machinery.
However, because it is so well known and provides such a breadth of
guidance on good safety practices, BSI have re-issued it as a ‘Published
Document’ PD 5304 which is advisory and cannot be used as evidence of
conformity with legislative requirements and as such it is referred to in
the text.
An objective of the book has always been, and still is, to provide
information and guidance in understanding health and safety legislative
requirements and standards. Also to assist all those involved in this field

in attaining the highest standards, whether as a practising manager,
safety practitioner or student. We hope that this new edition carries this
objective forward and in so doing points the way for future
developments.
John Ridley
John Channing
September 2002

Preface to first edition
Since the first welfare Act was put on the Statute Book in 1802 there has
been a steady development in safety and health legislation aimed at
improving the lot of those who work in mills, factories, and even in
offices. In the past two decades official concern has increased, culminat-
ing in 1974 in the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act. ‘Safety at Work’ has
now taken on a new and more pertinent meaning for both employer and
employee.
Developments in the field of safety extend throughout much of the
world, indicating an increasing concern for the quality of working life. In
Europe the number of directives promulgated by the European Economic
Community are evidence of this growing official awareness of the
dangers that the individual faces in his work.
Health and safety laws in the UK are the most complex and
comprehensive of all employment laws. Consequently employers are
looking to a new breed of specialists, the occupational safety advisers, for
expert advice and guidance on the best means for complying with, and
achieving the spirit of, the law. These specialists must have the necessary
knowledge of a wide range of disciplines extending from safety and
related laws to occupational health and hygiene, human behaviour,
management and safety techniques, and of course, the hazards inherent
in particular industries or pursuits. With this demand for expert advice

has grown a need for a nationally recognised qualification in this new
industrial discipline. With this in mind the Institution of Occupational
Safety and Health (IOSH) published in 1978 a syllabus of subjects for
study by those seeking to become professionally qualified in this field.
This syllabus now forms the foundation upon which the National
Examination Board in Occupational Safety and Health (NEBOSH) sets its
examinations.
Prepared in association with IOSH, this book covers the complete
syllabus. It is divided into five parts to reflect the spectrum of the five
major areas of recommended study. Each part has a number of chapters,
which deal with specific aspects of health or safety. To enable readers to
extend their study of a particular subject, suitable references are given
together with recommendations for additional reading. Further informa-
tion and details of many of the techniques mentioned can also be
xxiv Preface to first edition
obtained through discussions with tutors. A table is given in Appendix II
to guide students in their selection of the particular chapters to study for
the appropriate levels and parts of the examination.
A major objective of this book has been to provide an authoritative, up-
to-date guide in all areas of health and safety. The contributing authors
are recognised specialists in their fields and each has drawn on his or her
personal knowledge and experience in compiling the text, emphasising
those facets most relevant to the safety advisers’ needs. In this they have
drawn material from many sources and the views they have expressed
are their own and must not be construed as representing the opinions or
policies of their employers nor of any of the organisations which have so
willingly provided material.
It has been common practice to refer to the safety specialist as the
‘safety officer’, but this implies a degree of executive authority which
does not truly indicate the rˆole he plays. Essentially that rˆole is one of

monitoring the conditions and methods of work in an organisation to
ensure the maintenance of a safe working environment and compliance
with safety legislation and standards. Where performance is found
wanting his function is to advise the manager responsible on the
corrective action necessary. Reflecting this rˆole, the safety specialist is
throughout the book referred to as the ‘safety adviser’, a title that more
closely reflects his true function.
The text has been written primarily for the student. However, a great
deal of the content is directly relevant to the day-to-day work of
practising managers. It will enable them to understand their safety
obligations, both legal and moral, and to appreciate some of the
techniques by which a high standard of safe working can be achieved. It
will also provide an extensive source of reference for established safety
advisers.
The text of any book is enhanced by the inclusion of tables, diagrams
and figures and I am grateful to the many companies who have kindly
provided illustrations. I would also like to acknowledge the help I have
received from a number of organisations who have provided information.
Particularly I would like to thank the journal Engineering, the Fire
Prevention Association, the Health and Safety Executive, the British
Standards Institution and the International Labour Office.
I also owe grateful thanks to many people for the help and
encouragement they have given me during the preparation of this book,
in particular Mr J. Barrell, Secretary of IOSH, Mr D.G. Baynes of Napier
College of Science and Technology, Mr N. Sanders, at the time a senior
safety training adviser to the Road Transport Industry Training Board, Dr
Ian Glendon of the Department of Occupational Health and Safety at the
University of Aston in Birmingham, Mr R.F. Roberts, Chief Fire and
Security Officer at Reed International’s Aylesford site and David Miskin,
a solicitor, for the time each gave to check through manuscripts and for

the helpful comments they offered.
I am also indebted to Reed International P.L.C. for the help they have
given me during the editing of this book, a task which would have been
that much more onerous without their support.
John Ridley
Contributors
John Adamson, MRSC FBIOH, Dip.Occ.Hyg., ROH, MIOSH, RSP
Manager Health, Safety, Hygiene and Fire, Kodak Chemical
Manufacturing
L. Bamber, BSc, DIS, FIRM, FIOSH, RSP
Consultant, Risk Solutions International
G. N. Batts BSc, M.Phil., PhD, DIC
Environmental Adviser, Kodak European Region
Dr A. J. Boyle, BSc, MSc, PhD, CPsychol, AFBPhS, FIOSH, RSP
Chris Buck, BSc(Eng), MIEE, FIOSH, RSP
Consultant
J. E. Caddick, BSc(Hons), CEng, MIMechE
Zurich Risk Services
Ray Chalklen, MIFireE
Fire consultant
John Channing, MSc(Safety), MSc(Chemistry) FIOSH, RSP
Formerly Manager Health, Safety and Environment, Kodak
Manufacturing
Director, Pharos Consultancy Services Limited
Dr A. R. L. Clark, MSc, MB, BS, MFOM, DIH, DHMSA
Dr T. Coates, MB, BS, FFOM, DIH, DMHSA
Nick Cook, MRSC, CChem, MIOSH
Occupational Hygienist, Kodak Ltd
Jonathan David, BSc
The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

Frank S. Gill, BSc, MSc, Ceng, MIMinE, FIOSH, FFOM(Hon),
Dip.Occ.Hyg.
Consultant ventilation engineer and occupational hygienist
Professor Andrew Hale, PhD, CPsychol., MErgS, FIOSH
Safety Science Group, Delft University of Technology, Netherlands