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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION ... 1!

1.1. What is Research? ... 1!

1.2. Kinds of Research Papers ... 1!

1.3. The Applications of Research ... 2!

1.4. Types of Research ... 3!

1.5. Steps in Planning and Conducting Research ... 4!

Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ... 13!

2.1. Definition of Literature Review? ... 13!

2.2. Contents of a Literature Review ... 13!

2.3. Steps of the Literature Review Process ... 15!

2.4. Citation and plagiarism ... 18!

2.5. Quoting, Paraphrasing and Summarizing ... 18!

Chapter 3. RESEARCH METHODS ... 21!

3.1. The Qualitative Method (Phương pháp nghiên cứu định tính) ... 22!

3.2. The Quantitative Methods (Phương pháp nghiên cứu định lượng) ... 23!

4.3.3. Situations in which observations can be made ... 63!

4.3.4. Conducting Observations for Research ... 63!

Chapter 5. ESTABLISHING THE VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF A RESEARCH INSTRUMENT ... 68!

5.1. The Concept of Validity ... 68!

5.2. Types of Validity in Quantitative Research ... 69!

5.2.1. Face and Content Validity ... 69!

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5.2.3. Construct Validity ... 70!

5.3. The Concept of Reliability ... 70!

5.4. Factors Affecting the Reliability of a Research Instrument ... 70!

5.5. Methods of Determining the Reliability of an Instrument in Quantitative Research ... 71!

5.5.1. External consistency procedures ... 71!

5.5.2. Internal consistency procedures ... 72!

5.6. Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research ... 72!

Chapter 6. WRITING UP A RESEARCH PAPER ... 75!

A. HOW TO STRUCTURE A RESEARCH PAPER ... 75!

B. HOW TO WRITE THE STRUCTURES OF A RESEARCH PAPER ... 77!

6.6. Results and discussion chapter ... 83!

6.7. Writing the conclusion ... 85!

6.8. Referencing the research paper: the APA ... 85!

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•! write a research proposal and research paper in FLE

Students are expected to

•! Actively prepared for the class (read and reflect on what they have read for each class meeting)

•! Actively participate in class activities

•! Work cooperatively and collaboratively with peers •! Complete all the assignments by the due date

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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Kothari (2004) states that the term research refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analysing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solution(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalisations for some theoretical formulation.

1.2. Kinds of Research Papers 1.2. 1. Academic Papers

Academic papers (also called scholarly papers), which are in academic journals, contain original research results or reviews existing results or show a totally new invention.

1.2. 2. Assignments and Term Papers (Bài tập lớn, tiểu luận)

Written work is an integral part of a university education. Assignment and research papers perform an individual function in prompting students to think independently about issues and subjects. Students also learn how to assess, select and evaluate information from different sources and to formulate ideas.

Typically, written assignments and term papers are geared to course work covered by a series of lecturers. Students are assigned a particular topic to write about or given a list of topics from which to choose. They receive instructions as to the length of the essay and the due date for submission. Some guidance may be given to students in the form of a suggested reading list. In courses that are well planned, lecturers usually inform students of the written work commitments for the full course at the beginning of the semester so that students can plan their study program effectively.

The topics set for written assignments may give a useful guide to important content areas of a course of study. Assignments encourage students to read critically in a particular content area, to research for and select from available material, to organize their thoughts on a topic, and to submit to the discipline of communicating their thoughts through the presentation of evidence that they have sifted and evaluated to arrive at certain conclusions. Apart from learning the subject matter of a course, this process of independent study has considerable educational value.

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1.2.3. Theses and Dissertations (Luận văn, Luận án)

Students who enroll for an honor degree, a postgraduate diploma or a higher degree are almost invariably required to submit a thesis or dissertation.

A thesis is much more than a large term paper. It normally presents the culmination of a substantial piece of original work over a period of at least a year. Some research replicates previous research with the object of testing the reported findings of that research or testing the relevance of findings of research completed in a different cultural milieu. Other research builds on existing studies to follow up new leads or to refine or qualify the findings of earlier studies. In either case, the thesis is expected to make an original contribution to knowledge.

Students embarking on a thesis are usually much more responsible for selecting and delimiting an area of study than are students writing assignments or essays. However, it is not uncommon for students commencing a thesis to be given a topic or to be guided into areas that are of special interest to department members with whom they will work. Indeed, students may seek enrolment in a particular university because of the special interests of department there.

1.3. The Applications of Research

The application of research can be viewed from four different perspectives:

1.!

the service provider;

2.!

the service administrator, manager and/or planner;

3.!

the service consumer; and

4.!

the professional.

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1.4. Types of Research

Figure 1: Types of research

Types of Research: Application Perspective

Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are

intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or in the future. Thus such work often involves the testing of hypotheses containing very abstract and specialised concepts.

Pure research is also concerned with the development, examination, verification and refinement of research methods, procedures, techniques and tools that form the body of research methodology. Examples of pure research include developing a sampling technique that can be applied to a particular situation; developing a methodology to assess the validity of a procedure; developing an instrument, say, to measure the stress level in people; and finding the best way of measuring people’s attitudes. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the existing body of knowledge of research methods.

Applied research is used in most of the research in the social sciences. In other words,

the research techniques, procedures and methods that form the body of research methodology are applied to the collection of information about various aspects of a situation, issue, problem or phenomenon so that the information gathered can be used in other ways – such as for policy formulation, administration and the enhancement of understanding of a phenomenon

.

Types of Research: Objectives Perspective

Descriptive study attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem,

phenomenon, service or programme, or provides information about, say, the living conditions of a community, or describes attitudes towards an issue. For example, it may attempt to describe the types of service provided by an organisation, the administrative structure of an organisation, the living conditions of Aboriginal people in the outback, the needs of a community, what it means to go through a divorce, how a child feels living in a house with domestic violence, or the attitudes of employees towards management. The main purpose of such studies is to describe what is prevalent with respect to the

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Correlational study is to discover or establish the existence of a

relationship/association/interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation. What is the impact of an advertising campaign on the sale of a product? What is the relationship between stressful living and the incidence of heart attack? What is the relationship between fertility and mortality? What is the relationship between technology and unemployment? What is the effect of a health service on the control of a disease, or the home environment on educational achievement? These studies examine whether there is a relationship between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon and, therefore, are called correlational studies.

Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between

two aspects of a situation or phenomenon. This type of research attempts to explain, for example, why stressful living results in heart attacks; why a decline in mortality is followed by a fertility decline; or how the home environment affects children’s level of academic achievement.

Exploratory research is from the viewpoint of the objectives of a study. This is when a

study is undertaken with the objective either to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study. When a study is

carried out to determine its feasibility it is also called a feasibility study or a pilot study.

It is usually carried out when a researcher wants to explore areas about which s/he has little or no knowledge. Exploratory studies are also conducted to develop, refine and/or test measurement tools and procedures.

Types of Research: Mode of Enquiry Perspective

A study is classified as qualitative if the purpose of the study is primarily to describe a

situation, phenomenon, problem or event; if the information is gathered through the use of variables measured on nominal or ordinal scales (qualitative measurement scales); and if

the analysis is done to establish the variation in the situation, phenomenon or problem without quantifying it. The description of an observed situation, the historical

enumeration of events, an account of the different opinions people have about an issue, and a description of the living conditions of a community are examples of qualitative research.

On the other hand, the study is classified as quantitative if you want to quantify the variation in a phenomenon, situation, problem or issue; if information is gathered using

predominantly quantitative variables; and if the analysis is geared to ascertain the

magnitude of the variation. Examples of quantitative aspects of a research study are: How

many people have a particular problem? How many people hold a particular attitude?

1.5. Steps in Planning and Conducting Research

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Interpret and report

Figure 2: Steps in Planning and Conducting Research

F: feedback (Helps in controlling the sub-system to which it is transmitted) FF: feed forward (serves the vital function of providing criteria for evaluation)

Define Research

Problem

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1. Formulating the Research Problem: There are two types of research problems, viz., those

which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the researcher must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.

The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with those having some expertise in the matter. In an academic institution the researcher can seek the help from a guide who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind. Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms and it is up to the researcher to narrow it down and phrase the problem in operational terms. In private business units or in governmental organizations, the problem is usually earmarked by the administrative agencies with whom the researcher can discuss as to how the problem originally came about and what considerations are involved in its possible solutions.

The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself acquainted with the selected problem. He may review two types of literature—the conceptual literature concerning the concepts and theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies made earlier which are similar to the one proposed. The basic outcome of this review will be the knowledge as to what data and other materials are available for operational purposes which will enable the researcher to specify his own research problem in a meaningful context. After this the researcher rephrases the problem into analytical or operational terms i.e., to put the problem in as specific terms as possible. This task of formulating, or defining, a research problem is a step of greatest importance in the entire research process. The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help discriminating relevant data from irrelevant ones. Care must, however, be taken to verify the objectivity and validity of the background facts concerning the problem. Professor W.A. Neiswanger correctly states that the statement of the objective is of basic importance because it determines the data which are to be collected, the characteristics of the data which are relevant, relations which are to be explored, the choice of techniques to be used in these explorations and the form of the final report. If there are certain pertinent terms, the same should be clearly defined along with the task of formulating the problem. In fact, formulation of the problem often follows a sequential pattern where a number of formulations are set up, each formulation more specific than the preceding one, each one phrased in more analytical terms, and each more realistic in terms of the available data and resources.

2. Extensive Literature Survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research Board for approval. At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied. A good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.

3. Development of Working Hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative

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the manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they provide the focal point for research. They also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the analysis. In most types of research, the development of working hypothesis plays an important role. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem. It also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.

How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the following approach:

(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking a solution;

(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;

(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the problem.

Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking about the subject, examination of the available data and material including related studies and the counsel of experts and interested parties. Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms. It may as well be remembered that occasionally we may encounter a problem where we do not need working hypotheses, specially in the case of exploratory or formulative researches which do not aim at testing the hypothesis. But as a general rule, specification of working hypotheses in another basic step of the research process in most research problems.

4. Preparing the Research Design: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii) Description,

(iii)! Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation. A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that of exploration. But when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation or of an association between variables, the suitable design will be one that minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed. There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as before-and-after without control, after-only with control, before-and-after with control) or formal designs (such as completely randomized design, randomized block design, Latin square design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the researcher must select one for his own project.

The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves usually the consideration of the following:

(i) the means of obtaining the information;

(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);

(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organised and the reasoning leading to the selection;

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(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.

5. Determining Sample Design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true. Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observations increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Not only this, census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances. For instance, blood testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically called a sample.

The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the plan to select 12 of a city’s 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample design. Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples. With probability samples each element has a known probability of being included in the sample but the non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability. Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques. A brief mention of the important sample designs is as follows:

(i) Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability

sampling. This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the universe for constituting a sample which represents the universe. When population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of access, it can be called convenience sampling. If a researcher wishes to secure data from, say, gasoline buyers, he may select a fixed number of petrol stations and may conduct interviews at these stations. This would be an example of convenience sample of gasoline buyers. At times such a procedure may give very biased results particularly when the population is not homogeneous. On the other hand, in judgement sampling the researcher’s judgement is used for selecting items which he considers as representative of the population. For example, a judgement sample of college students might be taken to secure reactions to a new method of teaching. Judgement sampling is used quite frequently in qualitative research where the desire happens to be to develop hypotheses rather than to generalise to larger populations.

(ii) Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or

probability sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the same probability of being selected. For example, if we have to select a sample of 300 items from a universe of 15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers of all the 15,000 items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery. Using the random number tables is another method of random sampling. To select the sample, each item is assigned a number from 1 to 15,000. Then, 300 five digit random numbers are selected from the table. To do this we select some random starting point and then a systematic pattern is used in proceeding through the table. We might start in the 4th row, second column and proceed down the column to the bottom of the table and then move to the top of the next column to the right. When a number exceeds the limit of the numbers in the frame, in our case over 15,000, it is simply passed over and the next number selected that does fall within the relevant range. Since the numbers were placed in the table in a completely random fashion, the resulting sample is random. This procedure gives each item an equal probability of being selected. In case of infinite population, the selection of each item in a random sample is controlled by the same probability and that successive

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(iii) Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select

every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start. This procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a list. In such a design the selection process starts by picking some random point in the list and then every nth element is selected until the desired number is secured.

(iv) Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not

constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a representative sample. In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of non- overlapping subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling the entire procedure, first stratification and then simple random sampling, is known as stratified random sampling.

(v) Quota sampling: In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual

strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different strata, the actual selection of items for sample being left to the interviewer’s judgement. This is called quota sampling. The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the size of that stratum in the population. Quota sampling is thus an important form of non-probability sampling. Quota samples generally happen to be judgement samples rather than random samples.

(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping the

population and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample. Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders. It has issued its cards to 15,000 customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450. For cluster sampling this list of 15,000 card holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150 card holders each. Three clusters might then be selected for the sample randomly. The sample size must often be larger than the simple random sample to ensure the same level of accuracy because is cluster sampling procedural potential for order bias and other sources of error is usually accentuated. The clustering approach can, however, make the sampling procedure relatively easier and increase the efficiency of field work, specially in the case of personal interviews.

Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the total geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters, then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these small areas are included in the sample. Area sampling is specially helpful where we do not have the list of the population concerned. It also makes the field interviewing more efficient since interviewer can do many interviews at each location.

(vii) Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling.

This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like an entire country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns. If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling.

(viii) Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate

size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical quality control.

In practice, several of the methods of sampling described above may well be used in the same study in which case it can be called mixed sampling. It may be pointed out here that normally one should resort to random sampling so that bias can be eliminated and sampling error can be estimated. But purposive sampling is considered desirable when the universe

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conditions under which sample designs other than random sampling may be considered better for reasons like convenience and low costs. The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration the nature of the inquiry and other related factors.

6. Collecting the Data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.

Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:

(i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s

own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes of respondents. This method is no doubt an expensive method and the information provided by this method is also very limited. As such this method is not suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned.

(ii) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers

to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This method of collecting data is usually carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of the interviewer to a large extent.

(iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves

contacting the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays an important role in industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey has to be accomplished in a very limited time.

(iv) By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in contact

with each other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively used method in various economic and business surveys. Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study for testing the questionnaire is conduced which reveals the weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire. Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully so that it may prove to be effective in collecting the relevant information.

Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training. They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents. Much depends upon the capability of enumerators so far as this method is concerned. Some occasional field checks on the work of the enumerators may ensure sincere work.

The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, finanical resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy. Though he should pay attention to all these factors but much depends upon the ability and experience of the researcher. In this context Dr A.L. Bowley very aptly remarks that in collection of statistical data commonsense is the chief requisite and experience the chief teacher.

7. Execution of the Project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research

process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the interviewers. The

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the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently. A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey as much realistic as possible. This, in other words, means that steps should be taken to ensure that the survey is under statistical control so that the collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined standard of accuracy. If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some suitable methods should be designed to tackle this problem. One method of dealing with the non-response problem is to make a list of the non-respondents and take a small sub-sample of them, and then with the help of experts vigorous efforts can be made for securing response.

8. Analysis of Data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data, specially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.

Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s). For instance, if there are two samples of weekly wages, each sample being drawn from factories in different parts of the same city, giving two different mean values, then our problem may be whether the two mean values are significantly different or the difference is just a matter of chance. Through the use of statistical tests we can establish whether such a difference is a real one or is the result of random fluctuations. If the difference happens to be real, the inference will be that the two samples

come from different universes and if the difference is due to chance, the conclusion would be that the two samples belong to the same universe. Similarly, the technique of analysis of variance can help us in analysing whether three or more varieties of seeds grown on certain fields yield significantly different results or not. In brief, the researcher can analyse the collected data with the help of various statistical measures.

9. Hypothesis-testing: After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position

to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalisations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.

10. Generalisations and Interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it

may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often

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11. Preparation of the Report or the Thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report

of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:

1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text, and (iii) the end matter.

In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.

The main text of the report should have the following parts:

(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an

explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.

(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and

recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarised.

(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and

broken-down into readily identifiable sections.

(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the

results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.

At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should also be given specially in a published research report.

2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.

3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information more clearly and forcibly.

4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in conducting research operations may as well be stated.

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Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter >>>

* Identifying role of related literature

* Carrying out steps of the literature review process * Applying search strategies to find EFL sources * Outlining a literature review

2.1. Definition of Literature Review?

A literature review discusses published information in a particular subject area, and sometimes information in a particular subject area within a certain time period. Literature reviews provide a solid background for a research paper's investigation.

The purpose of reviewing existing information is to find what is already known about the topic. This part should answer four questions:

1. What is the present state of knowledge regarding the topic under consideration? 2. How are the studies related to the one being proposed?

3. What is the quality of the studies reviewed?

4. How will the proposed study contribute to the existing literature?

2.2. Contents of a Literature Review

A literature review may be:

* a single entity - an end in itself (essay)

* A preface to and rationale for engaging in research (thesis chapter)

Some points to remember when writing a literature review: * it is not a descriptive list of the information gathered * it is not a summary of one piece of literature after another

* the review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g. essay question, research

objective, etc.)

* your purpose is to convey to the reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic - what are the strengths and weaknesses

* organise the information gathered into sections that present themes

* do not attempt to list all published material, but rather synthesise and evaluate the

literature according to your guiding concept

A literature review should contain: an introduction, a middle (body) and conclusion.

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We will discuss three general approaches to the teaching of a second/ foreign language and identify the learning theories that underpin them. The three approaches are (a) the oral-situational approach (lối tiếp cận bằng lời theo tình huống), (b) the notional-functional approach and (tiếp cận theo hướng ý niệm-chức năng) (c) the task-based approach (tiếp cận dựa trên nhiệm vụ). These approaches have been chosen because they are ‘mainstream’ and thus probably reflect the current practice of language pedagogy in New Zealand.

There are other approaches, e.g. various humanistic approaches (Moskowitz, 1978), content-based language teaching (Brinton, Snow, & Wesche, 1989) and the lexical approach (Lewis, 1993), which figure in the literature on language pedagogy and also draw heavily on theories of language learning but which have not figured widely in school-based language teaching. As it is unlikely that these alternative approaches

will drive language curricula in New Zealand, they are not considered here.

In the Body

* group the literature according to common themes

* provide insight into relationship between central topic and a larger area (i.e. discipline) * proceed from the general, wider view of the research under review to the specific problem

Example:

Outline of the body:

•! The Oral-Situational Approach •! The Notional-Functional Approach •! The Task-Based Approach

Example:

The Oral-Situational Approach

The oral-situational approach was developed by British applied linguists as an alternative approach to the audiolingual approach promoted in the United States. It resembles the audiolingual approach in being based on a structural syllabus (i.e. a specification of the linguistic structures to be taught) but differs from it in that it emphasizes the meanings realised by the different structures, not just their forms, and also the importance of situational teaching structures (i.e. identifying situational contexts for practising the structures).

This approach was dominant in British- influenced teaching contexts from the sixties onwards. It still underlies many textbooks used to teach languages today (Terrell, 2002).

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In the Conclusion

* summarise major contributions of the literature

* evaluate the current "state of the art” literature reviewed * point out major flaws, or gaps in research

* outline issues pertinent to future study

(Source: http//www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/Reviewofliterature.html) Example:

Early research (e.g. Scherer & Wertheimer, 1964) investigating the relationship between teaching and learning sought to compare the relative effectiveness of different pedagogic approaches by examining learning outcomes. However, the results proved inconclusive (Allwright, 1988). This led researchers to focus attention on the actual classroom processes that arise in language instruction (i.e. the teacher and learner behaviours) and to examine the impact that specific processes (e.g. the types of questioning used by the teacher) have on language learning.

2.3. Steps of the Literature Review Process 2.3.1. Step 1: Identifying Key Terms

Before you choose the key words for your literature search, here are some things to consider:

Need to Have a Precise Topic

It is essential that one defines a research question or topic very carefully. For example, it should not be too far-reaching.

Limitations of Study

In specifying precisely one's research topic, one is also specifying appropriate limitations on the research. Limiting, for example, by time, personnel, gender, age, location, nationality etc. results in a more focused and meaningful topic.

Scope of the Literature Review

It is also important to determine the precise scope of the literature review. For example, What exactly will you cover in your review?

How comprehensive will it be?

How long? About how many citations will you use?

Are you focusing on methodological approaches; on theoretical issues; on qualitative or quantitative research?

Will you broaden your search to seek literature in related disciplines?

Will you confine your reviewed material to English language only or will you include research in other languages too?

Keywords are the words you will use to search electronic catalogs, databases and the Internet.

You can miss lots of useful information if you don't use keywords effectively, because computers will only search on the terms you provide.

You should think about:

•! synonyms (e.g. mobile telephones, cell phones) •! plural/singular forms (e.g. women, woman)

•! spelling variations (e.g. globalisation, globalization)

•! variations of a root word (e.g. feminism, feminist, feminine) •! acronyms (e.g. non-governmental organisation, NGO)

•! regional & historic variations (e.g. Native American or Indian) •! broader and narrower terms (e.g. drugs - cannabis, heroin, cocaine)

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Before you start searching, a good strategy is to brainstorm any keywords you can think of that are related to the key concepts in your research question. Then as you search, note any useful alternative words that occur during your searches and add them to your keyword list.

2.3.2. Step 2: Locate literature

Overview

• Use primary and secondary sources. In general, a “primary source” is research reported by

the researcher that conducted the study. A “secondary source” is research that summarizes or reports findings that come from primary sources.

• Search different types of literature: summaries, encyclopaedias, dictionaries and glossaries

of terms, handbooks, statistical indexes, reviews and syntheses, books, journals, indexed publications, electronic sources, abstract series, and databases.

Places to search for reading material:

•! Scholarly online indexing and abstracting databases - search individual indexes relevant to your topic, such as PsycINFO for psychology, ERIC for education, efl-resource.com for English as a Foreign Language.

•! Literature reviews may already exist on some aspect of your topic. Search online databases carefully to find literature reviews. Some databases enable you to limit your search to literature reviews, or use literature review or review as a keyword.

•! Key articles, which are very relevant to the topic, may have bibliographies or reference lists which often lead to other relevant items. These can also be a good guideline about how much you have read on your topic.

2.3.3. Step 3: Critically evaluate and select literature

• Rely on primary sources, including journal articles published in peer-reviewed journals

• Prioritize your search: first look for peer reviewed, scholarly journal articles, then, refereed articles, then books, then conference papers, dissertations.

non-2.3.4. Step 4: Organize the Literature

Once you have some articles that look good, read the abstracts to get an idea of what they say. You may want to skim over the best ones, especially if they have good literature reviews themselves. That will give you an idea how literature reviews are written on this topic!

Now, think about how the ideas in the articles you have might be organized. One of the purposes of the literature review is to provide an overview and synthesis of information; grouping similar articles gives you a framework for your overview.

It is usually wise to move from broad to narrow. Provide your reader with the most general information first, then building toward the specifics of your research concerns.

There are many different approaches to how to organize your literature review, depending on what the literature looks like. Think about what the articles you have are talking about. Do they group themselves naturally to you? Some examples of ways to organize a literature review include:

CHRONOLOGICAL: This is a common approach, especially for topics that have been talked

about for a long time and have changed over their history. Organize it in stages of how the topic has changed: the first definitions of it, then major time periods of change as researchers talked about it, then how it is thought about today.

COMPARISON TO PRESENT HYPOTHESIS: If your literature review is part of an

empirical article or meta-analysis, where you intend to present a hypothesis and come to a conclusion, you can organize the literature review to show the articles that share or support your hypothesis, and those that disagree with it. This gives a chance to show the strengths of the supporting research, discuss any validity/methodology issues with past research that disagrees with your findings, and explain how the past research leads up to and supports yours.

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BROAD-TO-SPECIFIC: Another approach is to start with a section on the general type of

issue you're reviewing, then narrow down to increasingly specific issues in the literature until you reach the articles that are most specifically similar to your research question, thesis statement, hypothesis, or proposal. This can be a good way to introduce a lot of background and related facets of your topic when there is not much directly on your topic but you are tying together many related, broader articles.

MAJOR MODELS or MAJOR THEORIES: When there are multiple models or prominent

theories, it is a good idea to outline the theories or models that are applied the most in your articles. That way you can group the articles you read by the theoretical framework that each prefers, to get a good overview of the prominent approaches to your concept.

PROMINENT AUTHORS: If a certain researcher started a field, and there are several famous

people who developed it more, a good approach can be grouping the famous author/researchers and what each is known to have said about the topic. You can then organize other authors into groups by which famous authors' ideas they are following. With this organization it can help to look at the citations your articles list in them, to see if there is one author that appears over and over.

CONTRASTING SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT: If you find a dominant argument comes up in

your research, with researchers taking two sides and talking about how the other is wrong, you may want to group your literature review by those schools of thought and contrast the differences in their approaches and ideas.

PROBLEM->SOLUTION: This approach groups quotations from articles first that introduce

and describe the problem or problems being addressed in your research. Then group articles by types of solutions that are proposed in the articles.

PROCESS FLOW: If your literature review centers around part of a process, you may want to

describe the stages in that process and group your citations by different stages or steps in that process. Remember, a single article may have several quotes from different sections, each going with a different part of the process! That way you can use many articles' descriptions of your process, or compare and contrast different approaches to it.

There are many other ways to organize a literature review, and you can also combine organization methods. In a doctoral dissertation your literature review may have multiple subsections to discuss several of the points listed above. Feel free to organize it in any way that seems logical to you! If it works for the literature - and your writing style - then go ahead and use it.

2.3.5. Step 5: Write a literature review Selection of sources

•! Have you indicated the purpose of the review? •! Are the parameters of the review reasonable?

•! Why did you include some of the literature and exclude others? •! Which years did you exclude?

•! Have you emphasised recent developments?

•! Have you focussed on primary sources with only selective use of secondary sources? •! Is the literature you have selected relevant?

•! Is your bibliographic data complete?

Critical evaluation of the literature

•! Have you organised your material according to issues? •! Is there a logic to the way you organised the material?

•! Does the amount of detail included on an issue relate to its importance? •! Have you been sufficiently critical of design and methodological issues?

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•! Have you indicated when results were conflicting or inconclusive and discussed possible reasons?

•! Have you indicated the relevance of each reference to your research?

•! The literature review will be judged in the context of your completed research.

•! The review needs to further the reader's understanding of the problem and whether it provides a rationale for your research.

(

2.4. Citation and plagiarism

When writing up your research findings, it is very important to cite anything that is not your own original work, using a combination of in-text citations and a reference list at the end of the piece. The reference list should include all the sources that you consulted in relation to a particular piece of work. Citations should be accurate to enable the reader to locate the item easily. Citations also need to be presented in a consistent and appropriate style.

If you do not acknowledge the work of others in your research, your readers will assume that it is your own work. Plagiarism occurs when you present work containing ideas or quotations from other authors, without acknowledging the original authors. You will never be criticised for referring to the work of others in your work; in fact this will be seen as a strength in your research rather than a weakness.

Plagiarism is akin to theft, and is considered by all to be a serious offence. If proven, plagiarism results in disciplinary action against the guilty party. Most universities have policies that define and help students to avoid committing plagiarism.

To avoid accidental plagiarism conduct your research carefully and record your notes meticulously. Summarise findings in your own words. If you want to use another person’s original work, whether this is words, diagrams, images or data, record the details of the work accurately and immediately.

2.5. Quoting, Paraphrasing and Summarizing

What are the differences among quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing?

These three ways of incorporating other writers' work into your own writing differ according to the closeness of your writing to the source writing.

Quotations must be identical to the original, using a narrow segment of the source. They must

match the source document word for word and must be attributed to the original author.

Paraphrasing involves putting a passage from source material into your own words. A

paraphrase must also be attributed to the original source. Paraphrased material is usually shorter than the original passage, taking a somewhat broader segment of the source and condensing it slightly.

Summarizing involves putting the main idea(s) into your own words, including only the main

point(s). Once again, it is necessary to attribute summarized ideas to the original source. Summaries are significantly shorter than the original and take a broad overview of the source material.

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Why use quotations, paraphrases, and summaries?

Quotations, paraphrases, and summaries serve many purposes. You might use them to: •! Provide support for claims or add credibility to your writing

•! Refer to work that leads up to the work you are now doing •! Give examples of several points of view on a subject

•! Call attention to a position that you wish to agree or disagree with

•! Highlight a particularly striking phrase, sentence, or passage by quoting the original •! Distance yourself from the original by quoting it in order to cue readers that the words

are not your own

•! Expand the breadth or depth of your writing

Writers frequently intertwine summaries, paraphrases, and quotations. As part of a summary of an article, a chapter, or a book, a writer might include paraphrases of various key points blended with quotations of striking or suggestive phrases as in the following example:

In his famous and influential work The Interpretation of Dreams, Sigmund Freud argues that dreams are the "royal road to the unconscious" (page #), expressing in coded imagery the dreamer's unfulfilled wishes through a process known as the "dream-work" (page #). According to Freud, actual but unacceptable desires are censored internally and subjected to coding through layers of condensation and displacement before emerging in a kind of rebus puzzle in the dream itself (page #).

How to use quotations, paraphrases, and summaries

It might be helpful to follow these steps:

•! Read the entire text, noting the key points and main ideas.

•! Summarize in your own words what the single main idea of the essay is. •! Paraphrase important supporting points that come up in the essay.

•! Consider any words, phrases, or brief passages that you believe should be quoted directly.

There are several ways to integrate quotations into your text. Often, a short quotation works well when integrated into a sentence. Longer quotations can stand alone. Remember that quoting should be done only sparingly; be sure that you have a good reason to include a direct quotation when you decide to do so. You'll find guidelines for citing sources and punctuating citations at our documentation guide pages.

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2.6. Example of a good and bad review

Neurnan (2000, p.113) provides an example of a good and bad review:

Example of a bad review

Sexual harassment has many consequences. Adams, Koltke, and Padgitt (1983) found that some women students said they avoided taking a class or working with certain professors because of the risk of harassment. They also found that men and women students reacted differently. Their research was a survey of 1,000 men and women graduate and

undergraduate students. Benson and Thomson's study in Social Problems (1982) lists many problems created by sexual harassment. In their excellent book, The Lecherous Professor, Dziech and Weiner (1990) give a long list of difficulties that victims have suffered.

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Example of a better review

The victims of sexual harassment suffer a range of consequences, from lowered self-esteem and loss of self-confidence to withdrawal from social interaction, changed career goals, and depression (Adams, Kottke, and Padgitt, 1983; Benson and Thomson, 1982; Dziech and Weiner, 1990). For example, Adams, Kotlke, and Padgitt (1983) noted that 13 percent of women students said they avoided taking a class or working with certain professors because of the risk of harassment.

Online resource: Giáo trình điện tử: Phương pháp nghiên cứu tài liệu trong nghiên cứu khoa học: o/meresci/vi/meresci00a.html

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Chapter 3

RESEARCH METHODS

In this chapter >>>

* Understanding the concept of research designs

* Distinguishing between Quantitative research and Qualitative research * Understanding different types of Descriptive research

* Identifying and analyzing different research designs in sample research reports

Research is a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem. Since FLE (foreign

language education) research integrates various sciences (pedagogy, psychology, linguistics, social studies, etc.), research in FLE incorporates all the research procedures usually applied in the mentioned sciences.

Traditionally, methodology of research (including ELF research) distinguishes two basic designs: quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative research depends on quantifiable evidence and relies on statistical analysis of data. Its validity, reliability and ability to state general conclusions depend on a relatively high number of studied cases (usually several hundred).Qualitative research relies on the understanding of pedagogical phenomena through direct observation, communication with participants, or analysis of texts. It values subjective accuracy over generality.

While in the 1990s, research methods of predominantly quantitative design were more valued for their capacity to gain higher degrees objectivity, validity, and reliability, nowadays the interest of researchers seem to be shifting to research methods predominantly qualitative design. Recently, however, some authors see survey research methods (e.g. questionnaires) as an independent research design.

All research methods can act together in all possible combinations to various degrees and that the borders between the methods of qualitative and quantitative research are in fact vaguely and artificially built. Research methods are seen as an interactive continuum made of degrees, quantitative experiment being a border point on one end of this continuum and a qualitative case study being a border point on the other end. (Brown, 2004).

General classification of research methods in FLE

Predominantly quantitative research methods Predominantly qualitative research methods 1.! Variety of surveys (questionnaire,

interview); 2.! Experiment;

3.! Quasi-experiment; (nghiên cứu bán/giả thử nghiệm)

4.! Sociometry; (trắc nghiệm xã hội) 5.! Tests;

6.! Scaling; (Thang đo) 7.! Verbal reports;

8.! Quantitative content analysis; 9.! Cluster analysis; (phân tích nhóm) 10.!Regression analysis; (phân tích hồi qui) 11.!Numerical methods such as

mathematical modelling, etc.

12.!Action research; 13.!Direct observation; 14.!Participant observation; 15.!Case study;

16.!Ethnography; (dân tộc ký) 17.!Historiography;

18.!Qualitative debate; 19.!Qualitative observation;

20.!Qualitative content analysis of written documents;

21.!In-depth interviews; 22.!Unstructured interviewing; 23.!Qualitative experiment; 24.!Focus group;

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25.!Analytic induction; (qui nạp phân tích) 26.!Archival research; (nghiên cứu lưu trữ) 27.!Qualitative content analysis;

Qualitative forms of investigation tend to be based upon recognition of the importance of the subjective, experiential life-world of human beings. Perceptions and interpretations of reality are linked with these meaning structures. Thus, the ‘reality’ of a given educational setting may be seen, not as a fixed and stable entity, but as a type of variable that might be discerned only through an analysis of these multiple forms of understanding. Qualitative methodologies provide avenues that can lead to the discovery of these deeper levels of meaning.

Qualitative methods are essentially concerned with processes rather than consequences, with wholeness rather than independent variables, and with meanings rather than behavioral statistics.

Several inter-related approaches are used in qualitative educational research such as action research, case studies, and ethnography. These approaches tend to be characterized by being context specific, collaborative and interventionist. Ethnography provides the major guidelines in methodology for qualitative research.

3.1.2. Limitations

Because of the subjective nature of qualitative data and its origin in single context, it is difficult to apply conventional standards of reliability and validity. Contexts, situations, events, conditions and interactions cannot be replicated to any extent nor can generalizations be made to a wider context than the one studied with any confidence. Basically, the richness, individuality and subjective nature of a participant’s perspective and understanding is not amendable to the usual scientific criteria. This does not, however, make such understandings any less real or valid for that participant, and their explanatory function for that person’s behavior is highly predictive. One of the major limitations of qualitative research and evaluation is the time required for data collection, analysis and interpretation. There is a critical need for the researcher to spend a considerable amount of time in the research setting in order to examine, holistically and aggregately, the interactions, reactions and activities.

In addition, Parlett (1975) notes that because of the intimacy of participant-observer relationships within the setting, there is no doubt that the researcher’s mere presence will have profound reactive effects on the subjects of the study. Concomitantly, the promise of anonymity, which often serves as the basis for trust, in concert with the requirement of authenticity, makes the qualitative evaluator’s task particularly difficult in terms of the preparation and presentation

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of results. Possible bias, from the viewpoints of both researcher and participants must also be identified and elucidated.

Rist (1975) also notes that: The variable of time may be viewed as a handicap; should one attempt to replicate findings accumulated for nearly three years, a comparable length of time would again be necessary for the adequate observation of a similar group. Similarly, there is no guarantee that the replication could be one of an identical social context...Perhaps the most that is feasible is to achieve a high degree of similarity and to recognize that absolute reproduction is impossible. (p94).

3.1.3. Strengths

The qualitative mode of inquiry is characterized by methodological eclecticism, a hypothesis-free orientation and an implicit acceptance of the natural scheme of things. Because of the need for the researcher to maintain close association with both participants and activities within the setting, the researcher gains an insider’s view of the field. This proximity to the field often allows the evaluator to see and document the qualities of educational interaction too often missed by the scientific, more positivistic inquiries. Such propinquity can reveal subtleties and complexities that could go undetected through the use of more standardized measures.

Qualitative descriptions can play the important role of suggesting possible relationship(s), causes, effects, and even dynamic processes in school settings. Qualitative methods can highlight subtleties in pupil behavior and response, illuminate reasons for action and provide in-depth information on teacher interpretations and teaching style.

Since qualitative reports are not presented as statistical summations, but rather in a more descriptive, narrative style, this type of research might be of particular benefit to practitioner. Qualitative approaches certainly do not provide easy quick answers to the complex issues that front the field of education. But they do offer a viable alternative.

3.2. The Quantitative Methods (Phương pháp nghiên cứu định lượng) 3.2.1. Definition

In the social sciences, quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of social phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships.

Quantitative research is used widely in social sciences such as psychology, economics, sociology, and political science, and less frequently in anthropology and history. Research in mathematical sciences such as physics is also 'quantitative' by definition, though this use of the term differs in context. In the social sciences, the term relates to empirical methods, originating in both philosophical positivism and the history of statistics, which contrast qualitative research methods.

Qualitative methods produce information only on the particular cases studied, and any more general conclusions are only hypotheses. Quantitative methods can be used to verify, which of such hypotheses are true.

The epistemological underpinnings of the quantitative motif ‘hold that there exist definable “social facts” (Rist, 1979). Quantitative research is typified by experimental studies in science- based disciplines where findings are usually expressed in numerical form. Research in the quantitative tradition follows a linear sequence as in Figure 3.

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Figure 3 Linear Sequence in Quantitative Research

A major element of a research study is analyzing the data by statistical techniques. Quantitative research is generally made using scientific methods, which can include:

•! The generation of models, theories and hypotheses

•! The development of instruments and methods for measurement •! Experimental control and manipulation of variables

•! Collection of empirical data •! Modeling and analysis of data •! Evaluation of results

In the social sciences particularly, quantitative research is often contrasted with qualitative research which is the examination, analysis and interpretation of observations for the purpose of discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationships, including classifications of types of phenomena and entities, in a manner that does not involve mathematical models. Approaches to quantitative psychology were first modelled on quantitative approaches in the physical sciences by Gustav Fechner in his work on psychophysics, which built on the work of Ernst Heinrich Weber. Although a distinction is commonly drawn between qualitative and quantitative aspects of scientific investigation, it has been argued that the two go hand in hand. For example, based on analysis of the history of science, Kuhn (1961, p. 162) concludes that “large amounts of qualitative work have usually been prerequisite to fruitful quantification in the physical sciences”. Qualitative research is often used to gain a general sense of phenomena and to form theories that can be tested using further quantitative research. For instance, in the social sciences qualitative research methods are often used to gain better understanding of such things as intentionality (from the speech response of the researchee) and meaning (why did this person/group say something and what did it mean to them?)(Kieron Yeoman).

Define a research problem

Formulate

study

Select samples & instruments

Gather the data

Statistically analyze the data

Draw conclusion

Report the results

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Although quantitative investigation of the world has existed since people first began to record events or objects that had been counted, the modern idea of quantitative processes have their roots in Auguste Comte's positivist framework.

3.2.2. Use of statistics

Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative research outside of the physical sciences, and also finds applications within the physical sciences, such as in statistical mechanics. Statistical methods are used extensively within fields such as economics, social sciences and biology. Quantitative research using statistical methods starts with the collection of data, based on the hypothesis or theory. Usually a big sample of data is collected - this would require verification, validation and recording before the analysis can take place. Software packages such as SPSS and R are typically used for this purpose. Causal relationships are studied by manipulating factors thought to influence the phenomena of interest while controlling other variables relevant to the experimental outcomes. In the field of health, for example, researchers might measure and study the relationship between dietary intake and measurable physiological effects such as weight loss, controlling for other key variables such as exercise. Quantitatively based opinion surveys are widely used in the media, with statistics such as the proportion of respondents in favor of a position commonly reported. In opinion surveys, respondents are asked a set of structured questions and their responses are tabulated. In the field of climate science, researchers compile and compare statistics such as temperature or atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide.

Empirical relationships and associations are also frequently studied by using some form of General linear model, non-linear model, or by using factor analysis. A fundamental principle in quantitative research is that correlation does not imply causation. This principle follows from the fact that it is always possible a spurious relationship exists for variables between which covariance is found in some degree. Associations may be examined between any combination of continuous and categorical variables using methods of statistics.

3.2.3. Measurement

Views regarding the role of measurement in quantitative research are somewhat divergent. Measurement is often regarded as being only a means by which observations are expressed numerically in order to investigate causal relations or associations. However, it has been argued that measurement often plays a more important role in quantitative research. For example, Kuhn argued that within quantitative research, the results that are shown can prove to be strange. This is because accepting a theory based on results of quantitative data could prove to be a natural phenomenon. He argued that such abnormalities are interesting when done during the process of obtaining data, as seen below:

When measurement departs from theory, it is likely to yield mere numbers, and their very neutrality makes them particularly sterile as a source of remedial suggestions. But numbers register the departure from theory with an authority and finesse that no qualitative technique can duplicate, and that departure is often enough to start a search (Kuhn, 1961, p. 180).

In classical physics, the theory and definitions which underpin measurement are generally deterministic in nature. In contrast, probabilistic measurement models known as the Rasch model and Item response theory models are generally employed in the social sciences. Psychometrics is the field of study concerned with the theory and technique for measuring social and psychological attributes and phenomena. This field is central to much quantitative research that is undertaken within the social sciences.

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Quantitative research may involve the use of proxies as stand-ins for other quantities that cannot be directly measured. Tree-ring width, for example, is considered a reliable proxy of ambient environmental conditions such as the warmth of growing seasons or amount of rainfall. Although scientists cannot directly measure the temperature of past years, tree-ring width and other climate proxies have been used to provide a semi-quantitative record of average temperature in the Northern Hemisphere back to 1000 A.D. When used in this way, the proxy record (tree ring width, say) only reconstructs a certain amount of the variance of the original record. The proxy may be calibrated (for example, during the period of the instrumental record) to determine how much variation is captured, including whether both short and long term variation is revealed. In the case of tree-ring width, different species in different places may show more or less sensitivity to, say, rainfall or temperature: when reconstructing a temperature record there is considerable skill in selecting proxies that are well correlated with the desired variable.

In most physical and biological sciences, the use of either quantitative or qualitative methods is uncontroversial, and each is used when appropriate. In the social sciences, particularly in sociology, social anthropology and psychology, the use of one or other type of method can be a matter of controversy and even ideology, with particular schools of thought within each discipline favouring one type of method and pouring scorn on to the other. The majority tendency throughout the history of social science, however, is to use eclectic approaches. Quantitative methods might be used with a global qualitative frame. Qualitative methods might be used to understand the meaning of the conclusions produced by quantitative methods. Using quantitative methods, it is possible to give precise and testable expression to qualitative ideas. This combination of quantitative and qualitative data gathering is often referred to as mixed-methods research.

3.3. Descriptive methods 3.3.1. Definition

Descriptive research methods are pretty much as they sound — they describe situations. They do not make accurate predictions, and they do not determine cause and effect.

3.3.2. Types of descriptive methods

There are three main types of descriptive methods: observational methods, case-study methods and survey methods. This article will briefly describe each of these methods, their advantages, and their drawbacks. This may help you better understand research findings, whether reported in the mainstream media, or when reading a research study on your own.

Observational Method

With the observational method (sometimes referred to as field observation) animal and human behavior is closely observed. There are two main categories of the observational method — naturalistic observation and laboratory observation.

The biggest advantage of the naturalistic method of research is that researchers view participants in their natural environments. This leads to greater ecological validity than laboratory observation, proponents say.

Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research can be used in real-life situations.

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Proponents of laboratory observation often suggest that due to more control in the laboratory, the results found when using laboratory observation are more meaningful than those obtained with naturalistic observation.

Laboratory observations are usually less time-consuming and cheaper than naturalistic observations. Of course, both naturalistic and laboratory observation are important in regard to the advancement of scientific knowledge.

Case Study Method

Case study research involves an in-depth study of an individual or group of indviduals. Case studies often lead to testable hypotheses and allow us to study rare phenomena. Case studies should not be used to determine cause and effect, and they have limited use for making accurate predictions.

There are two serious problems with case studies — expectancy effects and atypical individuals. Expectancy effects include the experimenter’s underlying biases that might affect the actions taken while conducting research. These biases can lead to misrepresenting participants’ descriptions. Describing atypical individuals may lead to poor generalizations and detract from external validity.

Survey Method

In survey method research, participants answer questions administered through interviews or questionnaires. After participants answer the questions, researchers describe the responses given. In order for the survey to be both reliable and valid it is important that the questions are constructed properly. Questions should be written so they are clear and easy to comprehend. Another consideration when designing questions is whether to include open-ended, closed-ended, partially open-ended, or rating-scale questions (for a detailed discussion refer to Jackson, 2009). Advantages and disadvantages can be found with each type:

Open-ended questions allow for a greater variety of responses from participants but are difficult to analyze statistically because the data must be coded or reduced in some manner. Closed-ended questions are easy to analyze statistically, but they seriously limit the responses that participants can give. Many researchers prefer to use a Likert-type scale because it’s very easy to analyze statistically. (Jackson, 2009, p. 89)

In addition to the methods listed above some individuals also include qualitative (as a distinct method) and archival methods when discussing descriptive research methods.

It is important to emphasize that descriptive research methods can only describe a set of observations or the data collected. It cannot draw conclusions from that data about which way the relationship goes — Does A cause B, or does B cause A?

Unfortunately, in many studies published today, researchers forget this fundamental limitation of their research and suggest their data can actually demonstrate or “suggest” causal relationships. Nothing could be further from the truth.

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References

Jackson, S.L. (2009). Research Methods and Statistics: A Critical Thinking Approach 3rd edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Task : Look at the following studies. Comment on their components: research questions,

methods. You may wish to suggest some improvement.

2. What are advantages and disadvantages of using these techniques?

3. What techniques should be used in the while-reading stage to develop the reading skills for the 11th form students in Hanoi?

Methodology:

Research design: survey, classroom observation

Participants: 100 11th form students and 20 English teachers at three schools in Hanoi Instruments: questionnaire, classroom observation

* Student survey questionnaires seek information on students’ attitudes towards learning reading skill, their purpose of learning reading, their difficulties in learning reading and solutions, their evaluation of reading materials in textbook, frequency with which different types of reading activities are used in class, and work arrangement in reading lessons.

Teacher survey questionnaires seek information on teachers’ ratings of the importance of reading skills, their evaluation of reading materials in textbook, difficulties their students have when reading, reading strategies they train the students, and frequencies with which they use different reading activities, and work arrangement in reading lessons.

2. What are the effective ways of exploiting authentic materials in teaching reading skills?

3. Are all of these above really effective and practical? Methodology:

Research design: survey

Participants: 1st year English major students and their teachers, high school students and their teachers (number is not reported)

Instruments: questionnaires for students, interviews with teachers

* Questionnaires for high school students seek information on their attitudes towards types of reading materials used in class, frequencies with which authentic materials are used, students’ attitudes towards authentic materials, and teachers’ methods of teaching reading.

* 1st Questionnaires for 1st year students seek information on types of reading materials used in class, frequencies with which authentic materials are used, their attitudes towards authentic materials.

2nd Questionnaire for 1st year students (conducted 1 year after) seek information on

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frequencies with which authentic materials are used in class, purpose of using authentic materials, students’ method of reading authentic materials, students’ evaluation of the effectiveness and difficulty of authentic materials, and students’ preferred ways of using authentic materials.

Interviews with high school teachers seek information on their attitudes towards authentic materials, the possibility to use authentic materials for their students, their perceived difficulties if using authentic materials, and their methods of adapting and designing tasks with authentic materials if they have a chance to use this kind of materials.

Interviews with university teachers seek information on their attitudes towards authentic materials, frequencies with which they use this kind of material, sources they get authentic materials from, their perceived difficulties of using this kind of materials, their methods of using this kind materials, and common tasks they design for this kind of materials.

Study 3

Title: Common classroom activities to help develop speaking skills for students of foreign

language gifted classes in Nguyen Binh Khiem high school

Methodology:

Research design: survey

Participants: 100 10th and 11th form students in Nguyen Binh Khiem high school and teachers of English (number of teachers is not reported)

Instruments: student survey questionnaires, teacher survey questionnaires, classroom observation.

* Student survey questionnaires seek information about students’ attitudes towards learning speaking, the frequencies with which they practice this skill, their purposes of learning speaking, their attitudes towards speaking lessons, types of speaking activities they prefer, types of work arrangements they prefer, and suggestions for improving speaking lessons. Teacher survey questionnaires seek information about teachers’ attitudes towards teaching speaking skill, the frequencies with which they teach this skill, their evaluation of students’ speaking ability, type of speaking activities they use, their perceived difficulties in teaching

speaking skill, and suggestions for improving students’ speaking skill.

Research design: Survey and error analysis

Participants: 200 11th and 12th form students from 4 high schools in Tam Ky responding to student survey questionnaire; 15 teachers responding to teacher survey questionnaire

Instruments: 200 student survey questionnaire, 15 teacher survey questionnaire, class

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observation, informal talk with teachers and students, 100 written tests

* Student survey questionnaires seek information about common types of errors made by students, frequencies with which each type of errors is made, students’ perceived causes of errors, students’ attitudes towards errors and teacher correction techniques, and suggestions for improvement of their own sentence-level control.

Teacher survey questionnaires seek information about common types of errors made by students, frequencies with which each type of errors is made, frequencies with which errors are corrected by teachers, teachers’ perceived causes of errors, teachers’ correction techniques, and suggestions for improvement of students’ sentence-level control.

o0o

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Chapter 4

INSTRUMENTS FOR DATA COLLECTION

There are two major approaches to gathering information about a situation, person, problem or phenomenon, person, to collect the required information; however, sometimes the information required is already available and need only be extracted. Based upon these broad approaches to information gathering, data can be categorised as:

•! primary data; •! secondary data.

formation gathered using the first approach is said to be collected from primary sources, whereas the sources used in the second approach are called secondary sources.

Figure 4 Methods of data collection

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4.1. QUESTIONNAIRES

In this Chapter >>>

* advantages and disadvantages: what to use for and when to use.

•! considerations in constructing a questionnaire: considerations of length and layout, writing good items, and piloting.

•! considerations in administering a questionnaire: sampling, ways of administration, and strategies to increase response rate and response quality.

4.1.1. What is a Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the answers to which are recorded by

respondents. In a questionnaire respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down the answers. The only difference between an interview schedule and a questionnaire is that in the former it is the interviewer who asks the questions (and if necessary, explains them) and records the respondent’s replies on an interview schedule, and in the latter replies are recorded by the respondents themselves. This distinction is important in accounting for the respective strengths and weaknesses of the two methods.

In the case of a questionnaire, as there is no one to explain the meaning of questions to respondents, it is important that the questions are clear and easy to understand. Also, the layout of a questionnaire should be such that it is easy to read and pleasant to the eye, and the sequence of questions should be easy to follow. A questionnaire should be developed in an interactive style. This means respondents should feel as if someone is talking to them. In a questionnaire, a sensitive question or a question that respondents may feel hesitant about answering should be prefaced by an interactive statement explaining the relevance of the question. It is a good idea to use a different font for these statements to distinguish them from the actual questions.

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Example 1

4.1.2. Ways of Administering a Questionnaire

A questionnaire can be administered in different ways.

Example 2

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The mailed questionnaire – The most common approach to collecting information is to

send the questionnaire to prospective respondents by mail. Obviously this approach presupposes that you have access to their addresses. Usually it is a good idea to send a prepaid, self-addressed envelope with the questionnaire as this might increase the response rate. A

mailed questionnaire must be accompanied by a covering letter (see below for details). One

of the major problems with this method is the low response rate. In the case of an extremely low response rate, the findings have very limited applicability to the population studied.

Collective administration – One of the best ways of administering a questionnaire is to

obtain a captive audience such as students in a classroom, people attending a function, participants in a programme or people assembled in one place. This ensures a very high response rate as you will find few people refuse to participate in your study. Also, as you have personal contact with the study population, you can explain the purpose, relevance and importance of the study and can clarify any questions that respondents may have. The author’s advice is that if you have a captive audience for your study, don’t miss the opportunity – it is the quickest way of collecting data, ensures a very high response rate and saves you moneyon postage.

Administration in a public place – Sometimes you can administer a questionnaire in a public place such as a shopping centre, health centre, hospital, school or pub. Of course this depends upon the type of study population you are looking for and where it is likely to be found. Usually the purpose of the study is explained to potential respondents as they approach and their participation in the study is requested. Apart from being slightly more time consuming, this method has all the advantages of administering a questionnaire collectively

4.1.3. Kinds of Questionnaires

According to Brown (2001, p. 6), “questionnaires are any written instruments that present respondents with a series of questions or statements to which they are to react either by writing out their answers or selecting from among existing answers”.

Broadly speaking, questionnaires can yield three types of data about the respondent:

factual, behavioural, and attitudinal.

Factual questions (also called “classification” questions or “subject descriptors”) are used to

find out about who the respondents are. They typically cover demographic characteristics (e.g. age, gender, and race), residential location, marital and socioeconomic status, level of education, religion, occupation, as well as any other background information that may be relevant to interpreting the findings of the survey. Such additional data in L2 studies often include facts about the learners’ language learning history, amount of time spent in an L2 environment, level of parents’ L2 proficiency, or the L2 course book used.

Behavioural questions are used to find out what the respondents are doing or have done in the

past. They typically ask about people's actions, life‘-styles, habits, and personal history. Perhaps the most well-known questions of this type in L2 studies are the items in language learning strategy inventories that ask about the frequency one has used a particular strategy in the past.

Attitudinal questions are used to find out what people think. This is a broad category concerns

attitudes, opinions, beliefs, interests, and values. These five interrelated terms are not always

distinguished or defined very clearly in the literature.

a. Attitudes concern evaluative responses to a particular target (eg. people, institution, situation,

and so on). They are deeply embedded in the human mind, and are very often not the product of rational deliberation of facts —they can be rooted back in our past or modelled by certain

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significant people around us. For this reason, they are rather pervasive and resistant to change.

b. Opinions are just as subjective as attitudes, but they are perceived as being more factually

based and more changeable. People are always aware of their opinions but they may not be fully conscious of their attitudes (Aiken, 1996).

c. Beliefs have a stronger factual support than opinions and often concern the question as to

whether something is true, false, or "right".

d. Interests are preferences for particular activities

e. Values on the one hand concern preferences for "life goals” and "ways of life” (eg. Christian

values); on the other hand they are also used to describe the utility, importance, or worth attached to particular activities, concepts, or objects (e.g., instrumental/ utilitarian value of L2 proficiency).

REFLECTION

What kind of data can we collect through questionnaire?

The main attraction of questionnaires is their unprecedented efficiency in terms of (a) researcher time, (b) researcher effort, and (c) financial resources.

By administering a questionnaire to a group of people, one can collect a huge amount of information in less than an hour, and the personal investment required will be a fraction of what would have been needed for, say, interviewing the same number of people. Furthermore, if the questionnaire is well constructed, processing the data can also be fast and relatively straightforward, especially by using some modem computer software. These cost benefit considerations are very important, particularly for all those who are doing research in addition to having a full-time job (Gillham, 2000).

Cost effectiveness is not the only advantage of questionnaires. They are also very versatile, which means that they can be used successfully with a variety of people in a variety of situations targeting a variety of topics. As a result, the vast majority of research projects in the behavioural and social sciences involve at one stage or another collecting some sort of questionnaire data.

4.1.4. Constructing the Questionnaire I agree...

"Questionnaires can be designed to minimize, but not eliminate, dishonest, and

careless reporting." (Aiken, 1997, p.58)

Constructing a good questionnaire involves a series of steps and procedures, including:

* Deciding on the general features of the questionnaire, such as the length, the format, and the main parts.

* Writing effective items/ questions and drawing up an item pool. * Selecting and sequencing the items.

* Writing appropriate instructions and examples.

* Piloting the questionnaire and conducting item analysis.

General Features

First of all, we need to specify the maximum length of time that the completion of the

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questionnaire could take; then we need to consider general format characteristics; and finally we need to think about the issue of anonymity, particularly if we are going to target sensitive/

confidential

Length

When we design a questionnaire, the general temptation is always to cover too much ground by asking everything that might turn out to be interesting. This must be resisted: in questionnaire design less is often more because long questionnaires can become counter-productive.

How long is the optimal length? It depends on how important the topic of the questionnaire is for the respondent. If we feel very strongly about something, we are usually willing to spend several hours answering questions. However, most questionnaires in the L2 field concern topics that have a low salience from the respondents’ perspective, and in such cases the optimal length is rather short. Perhaps only in exceptional cases should a questionnaire:

* Be more than 4 pages;

*Take more than 30 minutes to complete.

A questionnaire that is longer and requires more time than that to complete may be considered too much of an imposition.

A further factor to consider is that if we are restricted in the time we can have access to the respondents, the maximum length should be set with the slowest readers in mind in order to give everybody a chance to finish within the allotted time.

Layout

An attractive and professional design involves the following:

* Booklet format: Not only does the questionnaire have to be short but it also has to look short. Perhaps the format that feels most compact is that of a booklet. It can be achieved by taking a

double-sized sheet (A3 size), photocopying two normal-sized pages on each of the sides, and then folding the sheet into two. This format also makes it easy to read and to turn pages (and what is just as important, it also prevents lost pages ...)

* Appropriate density: With regard to how much material we put on a page, a compromise needs

to be achieved: On the one hand, we want to make the pages full because respondents are much more willing to fill in a two-page rather than a four-page questionnaire even if the two instruments have exactly the same number of items.

On the other hand, we must not make the pages look crowded (for example by economizing on the spaces separating different sections of die questionnaire). Effective ways of achieving this trade-off involve reducing the margins, using a space-economical font (e.g. 11 or 12 point Times

New Roman), and utilizing the whole width of the page, for example by printing the response

options next to the questions and not below (as illustrated in the following example)

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Foreign languages are an important part of the school curriculum.

I like the sound of English.

On Length and Crowdedness

“Perhaps the most common mistake of the beginner in questionnaire construction is to crowd questions together in the hope of making the questionnaire look short... While length is important, the respondent's perception of the difficulty of the task is even more important on self-administered questionnaires. A less crowded questionnaire with substantial white space looks easier and generally results in higher cooperation and fewer errors." (Sudman and Bradburn, 1983, p.244)

* Orderly layout: even if the page is dense, a well-designed, orderly layout that utilizes various

typefaces and highlighting options (e.g. bold characters or italics) can create a good impression, whereas an unsystematic layout, even if it is more spacious, can appear chaotic.

* Paper quality: Even the quality and colour of the paper might make a difference. Researchers

suggest that it may be useful to separate the various parts of the questionnaires with a certain colour-code of the paper used as it clarifies the structure (Robson, 1993).

* Sequence marking: Each main section of the questionnaire can be marked with Roman

numbers, and each question with consecutive Arab figures, and then all the subparts of a question can be lettered (see example below). This creates a sense of structuredness. It is also beneficial to include a phrase such as "Continued on back” at the bottom of the first side of a page that is printed on both sides. Finally, it is probably obvious but still worth mentioning that a question should not be split between two pages.

Example of sequencing marking

I ATTITUDES TOWARD LANGUAGE LEARNING 1. Language learning is an exciting activity.

2. Language learning often makes me happy. II. LANGUAGE CHOICE

3. If you could choose, which foreign languages would you choose to learn next year at school? Please mark three languages in order of importance.

(a)! ... (b)!... (c)! ...

Continued on back ...

Sensitive Topics and Anonymity

Sensitive items and anonymity are a serious issue that needs to be considered right from the beginning. Questionnaire designers should not ask any sensitive questions unless absolutely necessary for the project. Sensitive questions are not confined to explicitly illegal or embarrassing subjects but also include basic demographic items such as age or marital status or involve evaluation of authority (e.g. students evaluate their teachers and course).

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