woods geraldine basic english grammar for dummies us

Bạn đang xem bản rút gọn của tài liệu. Xem và tải ngay bản đầy đủ của tài liệu tại đây (4.06 MB, 527 trang )

Trang 2<div class="page_container" data-page="2">

Basic English Grammar ForDummies®

To view this book's Cheat Sheet, simply go to

Grammar For Dummies Cheat Sheet” in theSearch box.

Table of Contents

CoverTitle PageCopyrightIntroduction

About This Book

How This Book Is OrganizedFoolish Assumptions

Conventions Used in This BookIcons Used in This Book

Beyond the Book

Where to Go From Here

Part 1: Getting Started with Basic English GrammarChapter 1: Getting a Grip on Grammar

Getting to Know the Ingredients of Standard EnglishBuilding Language, Block by Block: Parts of SpeechMaking Sentences

Small but Important: Punctuating, Capitalizing, and Spelling

</div>Trang 3<div class="page_container" data-page="3">

Facing Everyday Writing Tasks

Chapter 2: Language in Action

Adjusting Language to Suit Your Audience

Getting Help from Spelling and Grammar CheckersRecognizing Your Grammar Profile

Part 2: Meeting the Parts of Speech

Chapter 3: People to See, Places to Go, Things toRemember: Recognizing Nouns

Identifying Nouns

Sorting Out Singular and Plural Nouns

Attaching “This,” “These,” and Other Words to Nouns

Chapter 4: Perfecting Pronouns

Replacing Nouns with PronounsSolving the Case of PronounsForming Possessive Pronouns

Chapter 5: Doing and Being Words: Verbs

Searching Out Verbs

Asking Questions to Find the VerbTelling Time with Verbs

Recognizing Forms of Some Important VerbsGetting Assistance from Helping Verbs

Chapter 6: Describing with Adjectives and Adverbs

Adding Detail with AdjectivesWriting Well with Adverbs

Choosing between Adjectives and AdverbsPlacing “a” and “an” in the Proper Place

Making Comparisons with Adjectives and Adverbs

Chapter 7: Building Relationships with Prepositions

Recognizing Prepositions

Identifying Objects of Prepositions

Choosing Pronouns as Objects of PrepositionsPlacing Prepositional Phrases in the Proper Place

</div>Trang 4<div class="page_container" data-page="4">

Chapter 8: Connecting and Commenting:Conjunctions and Interjections

Linking Ideas with ConjunctionsIdentifying Interjections

Part 3: Creating Correct Sentences

Chapter 9: Making Progress: Verbs Ending in –ing

Keeping Time with –ing Verb Forms

Choosing between Simple and Progressive TensesCorrectly Spelling –ing Verb Forms

Chapter 10: Putting the Past in Order: The PerfectTenses

Building a Bridge between the Present and the Past: PresentPerfect Tense

Creating a Timeline with Past Perfect TenseBreaking the Rules: Irregular Past FormsGlancing at the Future Perfect Tense

Chapter 11: Seeking Subjects

Locating the Subject of a SentenceMatching Subjects and Verbs ProperlyDealing with Tricky Subjects

Chapter 12: Adding Meaning with Complements

Surveying Complements

Choosing the Proper Complement Pronoun

Chapter 13: Writing Complete Sentences

Halfway Is Not Enough: Expressing a Complete ThoughtCooking Up a Complete Sentence: The Essential Subject–VerbPair

Ending Sentences with Proper PunctuationChanging the Rules for Texting and Messaging

Part 4: Punctuation and Capitalization

Chapter 14: Applying Apostrophes Accurately

Using Apostrophes to Show Ownership

</div>Trang 5<div class="page_container" data-page="5">

Shortening Words with ApostrophesAvoiding Common Apostrophe Mistakes

Chapter 15: Catching a Break with Commas

The Sound of Silence: Why Commas MatterMaking a List with Commas

Placing Commas within Sentences

Placing Commas after Introductory WordsTalking to People: Commas in Direct AddressPunctuating Dates

Chapter 16: Who Said What: Quotation Marks

Telling the Truth with Quotation MarksQuoting or Paraphrasing: Which Is Better?Identifying the Source of a QuotationAdding Punctuation to Quotations

Distancing Yourself with Quotation MarksIdentifying Titles with Quotation Marks

Chapter 17: Going Big: Capital Letters

Knowing the (Capital) ABCs of Capital LettersSetting Up Sentences with Capital LettersNaming Names

Capitalizing Race and Ethnicity

Mr. Mayor or mr. mayor: Capitalizing TitlesMom or mom? Capitalizing Family RelationshipsWriting Capitals in Titles

Capitalizing Abbreviations

Part 5: Grammar in Action

Chapter 18: Texting, Emailing, and Posting

Being Crystal ClearWriting Proper Emails

Writing for Websites and Social Media

Chapter 19: Presentation Slides and Bulleted Lists

Sliding into a Great Presentation

</div>Trang 6<div class="page_container" data-page="6">

Writing Bullet Points

Chapter 20: Writing at School and on the Job

A Is for Accomplished: Writing at SchoolGet to Work: Writing on the Job

Part 6: Fine-Tuning Your WritingChapter 21: Tricky Word Traps

Same Sounds, Different Spelling: Sorting Out Word PairsTogether or Apart? One- and Two-Word ExpressionsStaying Away from Improper Expressions

Chapter 22: Avoiding Common Mistakes

Writing Clear DescriptionsCreating Balanced SentencesWriting Clear Pronouns

No! No! Understanding Double Negatives

Chapter 23: Finishing Touches: Advanced GrammarTopics

Fine-Tuning Verbs

Choosing Tenses for Special Verb Forms

Matching Subjects and Verbs in Complicated SentencesDealing with Pronouns Problems

Writing Correct Comparisons

Part 7: The Part of Tens

Chapter 24: Ten Spelling Tips to Remember

Making Plurals of Words Ending in YPlacing I before E

Doubling Letters in Short WordsDoubling Letters in Longer WordsDropping the Silent E

Finishing with AR, ER, and OR

Ending with ANT/ENT and ABLE/IBLEOne or Two?

Which vowel?

</div>Trang 7<div class="page_container" data-page="7">

Checking the Dictionary

Chapter 25: Five “Always” and Five “Never” Rulesof English Grammar

Never Leave a Thought UnfinishedNever Overcorrect

Never Skip Proofreadding Proofreading

About the Author

Connect with Dummies

End User License Agreement

</div>Trang 8<div class="page_container" data-page="8">

List of Illustrations

Chapter 6

FIGURE 6-1: How to identify adjectives.FIGURE 6-2: Questions to find adverbs.FIGURE 6-3: Adjective or adverb.

Chapter 19

FIGURE 19-1: Sample presentation slide.FIGURE 19-2: A title replaces the introduction.

</div>Trang 10<div class="page_container" data-page="10">

Basic English Grammar For Dummies®, 2nd Edition

Published by: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ

07030-5774, www.wiley.com

Published simultaneously in Canada

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrievalsystem or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,

mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except aspermitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States

Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the Publisher.Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to thePermissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street,Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at

Trademarks: Wiley, For Dummies, the Dummies Man logo,

Dummies.com, Making Everything Easier, and related trade dress aretrademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and maynot be used without written permission. All other trademarks are theproperty of their respective owners. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is notassociated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.

LIMIT OF LIABILITY/DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY: WHILETHE PUBLISHER AND AUTHORS HAVE USED THEIR BESTEFFORTS IN PREPARING THIS WORK, THEY MAKE NO

REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES WITH RESPECT TO THEACCURACY OR COMPLETENESS OF THE CONTENTS OF THISWORK AND SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIM ALL WARRANTIES,INCLUDING WITHOUT LIMITATION ANY IMPLIED

WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR APARTICULAR PURPOSE. NO WARRANTY MAY BE CREATEDOR EXTENDED BY SALES REPRESENTATIVES, WRITTEN

</div>Trang 11<div class="page_container" data-page="11">

SALES MATERIALS OR PROMOTIONAL STATEMENTS FORTHIS WORK. THE FACT THAT AN ORGANIZATION, WEBSITE,OR PRODUCT IS REFERRED TO IN THIS WORK AS A CITATIONAND/OR POTENTIAL SOURCE OF FURTHER INFORMATIONDOES NOT MEAN THAT THE PUBLISHER AND AUTHORSENDORSE THE INFORMATION OR SERVICES THE

ORGANIZATION, WEBSITE, OR PRODUCT MAY PROVIDE ORRECOMMENDATIONS IT MAY MAKE. THIS WORK IS SOLDWITH THE UNDERSTANDING THAT THE PUBLISHER IS NOTENGAGED IN RENDERING PROFESSIONAL SERVICES. THEADVICE AND STRATEGIES CONTAINED HEREIN MAY NOT BESUITABLE FOR YOUR SITUATION. YOU SHOULD CONSULTWITH A SPECIALIST WHERE APPROPRIATE. FURTHER,READERS SHOULD BE AWARE THAT WEBSITES LISTED INTHIS WORK MAY HAVE CHANGED OR DISAPPEARED

BETWEEN WHEN THIS WORK WAS WRITTEN AND WHEN ITIS READ. NEITHER THE PUBLISHER NOR AUTHORS SHALL BELIABLE FOR ANY LOSS OF PROFIT OR ANY OTHER

COMMERCIAL DAMAGES, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TOSPECIAL, INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL, OR OTHER

For general information on our other products and services, please

contact our Customer Care Department within the U.S. at 877-762-2974,outside the U.S. at 317-572-3993, or fax 317-572-4002. For technicalsupport, please visit www.wiley.com/techsupport.

Wiley publishes in a variety of print and electronic formats and by on-demand. Some material included with standard print versions of thisbook may not be included in e-books or in print-on-demand. If this bookrefers to media such as a CD or DVD that is not included in the versionyou purchased, you may download this material at

print-. For more information about Wileyproducts, visit www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2024931748

</div>Trang 12<div class="page_container" data-page="12">

ISBN 978-1-394-24472-0 (pbk); ISBN 978-1-394-24473-7 (ebk); ISBN978-1-394-24474-4 (ebk)

</div>Trang 13<div class="page_container" data-page="13">

What a headache! You know what you want to say. You're just not surehow to say it. Fortunately, help is on the way. In fact, it’s already here.

Basic English Grammar For Dummies, 2nd edition, explains what youneed to know about writing reports, texts, presentation slides, letters,

and, well, anything. Instead of listing outdated rules, Basic English

Grammar For Dummies, 2nd edition, focuses on current usage — what’scorrect today.

Does that last bit surprise you? When you’re sitting in an English

classroom, grammar rules seem set in stone. They’re not. Human beingscreate language. Because human beings change, language does too.

Pronouns (words that stand in for names of people, places, and things)

are a good example. Thou and thy have faded, and they has recaptured an

old meaning, which I explain in the boxed text. Punctuation is alsodifferent. Old books contain more commas ( , ) and fewer exclamationpoints ( ! ) than today’s works.

A NOTE ABOUT PRONOUNS

A pronoun is a word that stands in for a noun or another pronoun. Because of

pronouns, you can write “George said that he forgot his phone” instead of “George said

that George forgot George’s phone.” The pronouns he and his make the sentence flow

</div>Trang 14<div class="page_container" data-page="14">

Some pronouns are masculine (he, him, his), some are feminine (she, her, hers), andothers are neuter (it and they when referring to objects, ideas, or places). The rules for

these pronouns have stayed the same. So have the rules for pronouns referring to a

group of people (they, them, their, theirs).

The rules have changed, though, when a pronoun refers to a person whose gender isunknown or not accurately described as “male” or “female.” For these situations, many

grammarians (including me) select they, them, their, and theirs. Each of these pronouns

may be either singular or plural, depending on the word it refers to. Take a look at someexamples:

The children ate their lunches. (The plural pronoun their pairs with the pluralnoun children.)

If anyone forgot their lunch, the teacher will give them something to eat. (The

singular pronouns their and them refer to the singular pronoun anyone.)Alix arrived late because they were stuck in traffic. (The singular pronoun theypairs with the singular noun Alix, the pronoun Alix prefers.)

The first two examples may look familiar to you. From the 14th century onward, they,

them, and their have been used to refer to one person or a group, just as the pronounyou does. In the 18th century, though, a few grammarians decided that the pronounsthey, them, their, and theirs were correct only for references to a group. According to

these grammarians, the forms he, him, and his and she, her, and hers were the onlyappropriate references to one person. If the gender was unknown, he, him, and his

were said to be the proper choice. You can imagine how popular this decision was with

supporters of women’s equality! In the late 20th century, many writers used pairs — he

or she, him or her, and his or her — for singular references. That practice often resulted

in awkward sentences like “Everyone must bring his or her gym suit with him or her.”Paired pronouns also ignore people whose identity isn’t described by a male or female

label, the situation in the third example about Alix. The singular they/them/their/theirs

solves these problems.

It may take a while to get used to they as a singular word. If you’re expecting one

dinner guest and hear “they're on the way," you may rush to cook more food before you

remember that they is your guest's preferred pronoun. You may also find yourselfwriting for an authority figure who insists you use they, them, their, and theirs as plurals

only. In that situation, you can reword the sentence to avoid pronouns. For moreexamples and information about pronouns, see Chapter 4.

About This Book

The goal of Basic English Grammar For Dummies, 2nd edition, is tohelp you improve your speaking and writing skills, not to add fancygrammar terms to your vocabulary. For this reason, I explain what you

</div>Trang 15<div class="page_container" data-page="15">

need to know in ordinary, nonteacher language. If I can’t avoid atechnical term, I immediately define it and provide examples.

With every grammar rule, I give you a few practice questions. I alsoprovide the answers, so you can check whether you’ve understood theconcept. If I mention an idea but do not explain it immediately, I directyou to a chapter that contains more information.

</div>Trang 16<div class="page_container" data-page="16">

How This Book Is Organized

When they hear the word grammar, many people imagine a teacher

wagging a finger while saying, “Don’t do this!” or “Always do that!” In

my mind, grammar is an umbrella covering all the things that factor into

the way people speak and write, from the form of words to the nature ofa complete sentence to punctuation and much, much more. Becausegrammar is a broad subject, in this book I break it into manageablechunks.

Part 1: Getting Started with Basic EnglishGrammar

Part one takes you on a tour of the elements of English grammar andthen explains how to adjust your level of formality to suit your purpose,situation, audience, and medium.

Part 2: Parts of Speech

Each chapter in this part explains how to identify and use these buildingblocks of language: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs,

prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. (You’ll love the last one.It’s nearly impossible to make a mistake with an interjection.)

Part 3: Creating Correct Sentences

Sentences are like hangers in your closet. They organize ideas! This partsurveys the elements of a sentence (verbs, subjects, complements) andexplains how to write complete, grammatically correct sentences.

Part 4: Punctuation and Capitalization

If you’ve ever asked yourself whether you need a capital letter or ifyou’ve ever puzzled over quotation marks and commas, Part 4 is foryou. I discuss each punctuation mark: its meaning, usage, and

placement. I also explain the most common situations requiring capitalletters.

Part 5: Grammar in Action

</div>Trang 17<div class="page_container" data-page="17">

This part takes grammar into the real world: first to texts and messagesand posts on the internet and then to the workplace and classroom.Along the way, you learn how to format presentation slides and bulletedlists, both essential to modern writing.

Part 6: Fine-Tuning Your Writing

Part 6 shows you how to avoid falling into tricky word traps and how tosidestep common grammar errors. This part also covers some advanced— okay, picky — points of the language, such as the mood and voice of

verbs and the difference between who and whom.

Part 7: The Part of Tens

Spelling checkers are good, but learning basic spelling rules is better.This part also explains when and how to consult a dictionary and listsfive “always” and five “never” rules of English.

Foolish Assumptions

I don’t know who you are, but I have already spent some time with you— the reader I imagine. When I write, I keep you, the reader, in mymind. This is how I see you:

You know the language, but you are open to learning more.

You want a firmer grasp of the rules of Standard English, the formallanguage of educated people.

You’re busy. You don’t want to waste time memorizing facts youwill never need.

You enjoy a little humor.

Have I described you accurately? I hope so.

Conventions Used in This Book

To help you navigate through this book, I use the following conventions:

</div>Trang 18<div class="page_container" data-page="18">

Italic is used to emphasize and highlight new words or defined

Monofont is used for web addresses.

Sidebars, which look like text enclosed in a shaded gray box, consistof information that’s interesting to know but not necessarily criticalto your understanding of the chapter or section topic.

Icons Used in This Book

Flip through Basic English Grammar For Dummies, 2nd edition. Smalldrawings appear in the margin. Those pictures are called icons. Icons

alert you in these ways:

This icon signals a shortcut or an extra bit of information. A tipis a whisper in your ear, helping you master a grammar rule.

This icon tells you where errors often pop up, so you can avoidmistakes.

For every topic, you find a few questions labeled with this icon.Answer them to see whether you have mastered the material.

</div>Trang 19<div class="page_container" data-page="19">

Key ideas appear with this icon.

Beyond the Book

Like me, you probably spend a lot of time on the internet. I have placedextra material there, to add to what you find on the screen of your e-

reader or between the paper covers of Basic English Grammar For

Dummies, 2nd edition. Here’s what you get, all for free:

Cheat Sheet: The Cheat Sheet lists important facts from this book.

Print it out and tape it to your desk or put it in your pocket. Glance atthe Cheat Sheet at

when you want to refresh your memory about key grammar rules.

An extra Part of Tens: The last two chapters in this book are lists.

One explains five “always” and five “never” rules for properEnglish. The other reviews spelling rules. For a chapter listing teneasy ways to improve your writing skills, go to

Articles: I love language, and I have more to say about every topic

in this book. For articles that tell you a little bit more about parts ofspeech, parts of a sentence, and other aspects of grammar, go to

If you want to study advanced grammar topics, you’ll find them in

another book I wrote, All-in-One English Grammar For Dummies. That

book includes many quizzes and exercises on basic and advanced topics.You can practice until you’re perfect!

Where to Go From Here

</div>Trang 20<div class="page_container" data-page="20">

You don’t have to read Basic English Grammar For Dummies in order.

Nor do you have to read the entire book. You can, of course. If you do,you will be my favorite reader.

I realize, however, that you’re busy. You probably want to select justwhat you need. To get started, read the Table of Contents. Mark off

topics that interest or puzzle you. You should also take a look at the tableat the end of Chapter 2, which presents common grammar issues andtells you which chapters explain them. Read the chapters you’veselected.

Another way to personalize your approach to grammar starts with thequestion sets in each chapter. Try some. If you get everything right, feelfree to skip that section. (Also, take a moment to pat yourself on theback for a job well done.) If something stumps you, spend some time inthat section of the book. Read the explanations, and glance at relatedmaterial in other chapters.

If you’re facing a specific task — a school report or a work presentation,perhaps — turn to Part 5. There, you find information about commonwriting formats. Check out the online material, too.

No matter which path you choose to follow through Basic English

Grammar For Dummies, 2nd edition, you will arrive at the same place.You will be a stronger, more confident writer and speaker.

</div>Trang 21<div class="page_container" data-page="21">

Part 1

Getting Started with BasicEnglish Grammar

</div>Trang 22<div class="page_container" data-page="22">

IN THIS PART …

Surveying the elements of grammar

Adjusting levels of formality to suit your audience and purpose

</div>Trang 23<div class="page_container" data-page="23">

Coping with everyday writing tasks

Afriend recently told me that studying grammar was a waste of time.

“Who cares whether somebody says had gone or went?” he added. “The

world has more important problems!” My response was that grammar

does matter. People may judge your intelligence and ability based on the

way you speak and write. Standard English, the term given to language

that follows commonly accepted rules, can lead to better jobs and highergrades. In this chapter, you survey key elements of Standard English.

Getting to Know the Ingredients ofStandard English

When you bake a cake, you need all the right ingredients. If you forgetone, the cake is tasteless. English has a number of ingredients, too. Youcan’t ignore any if you wish to express yourself properly in StandardEnglish. Here are the ingredients:

Parts of speech: Words are like people. Both base a portion of their

identity on the work they do. Words that name people or things, for

example, are nouns. English teachers call the identity of a word the

part of speech. Understanding how to select the appropriate part of

speech is an important aspect of grammar.

</div>Trang 24<div class="page_container" data-page="24">

Parts of a sentence: Words seldom like to be alone. (This is another

quality that words and people have in common.) When words join

together, they form sentences. Complete sentences are essential in

formal writing.

Mechanics: Surprised? Usually, mechanics repair cars and other

machines. In language, the term mechanics refers to the little things

that help readers understand what you mean. Spelling and

capitalization are included in mechanics, as well as punctuation, the

placement of periods, commas, question marks, and other symbols.Without proper mechanics, your writing suffers.

Word order: In English, location partly determines meaning. The

dog bit John is different from John bit the dog. In the first version,

the dog is in trouble. In the second, John has a problem. You shouldknow the rules that govern the placement of words.

Word choice: Some words sound alike (eye and I, for example).

Others are nearly twins (for instance, affect and effect). Selecting the

wrong word can wreck your writing.

Word forms: Today, I walk. Yesterday, I walked. The form of the

word walk changes to reveal the time period of the action. Knowing

the correct form is essential.

The rules for word forms and word order have changed only a few times

in the last 500 years. Style — the preferred capitalization, punctuation,

and word choice — shifts more frequently. That’s why a 19th-centurybook seems odd to modern readers. Style changes with geography, too.In a list of three or more items, American writers usually place a comma

before the word and. British writers generally omit that comma. Style

also depends on context. Science journals and literary magazinescapitalize titles differently, for example.

In Basic English Grammar For Dummies, 2nd edition, I explaincurrent style points that most authorities agree on. For important

</div>Trang 25<div class="page_container" data-page="25">

projects, you can ask your teachers or supervisors to explain their

preferred style. You can also consult a manual. Many schools and

companies publish their own manuals of style, explaining everydetail of what you must or must not write. A few popular manualsare available in bookstores and libraries. Select one that covers your

field of interest. Some popular manuals are the Modern Language

Association Handbook (literature, history, arts), The ChicagoManual of Style (general writing), the Publication Manual of theAmerican Psychological Association (science), and the MIT Guideto Science and Engineering Communication (science, math,

technology). If you’re keeping score at home, this book follows The

Chicago Manual of Style.

Building Language, Block by Block:Parts of Speech

According to one survey, the English language includes more than onemillion words. All those words can be sorted into one of eight boxes: the

parts of speech. Take a look at the Big Eight:

Not every box has the same number of words in it. The interjectioncontainer is light. The noun and verb containers are huge. The other

boxes fall somewhere in between.

</div>Trang 26<div class="page_container" data-page="26">

To give you an idea of how the parts of speech look within a sentence,here are some examples. The parts of speech are underlined and labeled:

Nora likes algebra. (Nora and algebra are nouns.)I told you the story already. (I and you are pronouns.)The baby shook the rattle. (Shook is a verb.)

Great speeches require intense practice. (Great and intense are

Glen wrote his name carefully and correctly. (Carefully and correctly

are adverbs.)

A play by that author received great reviews from the critics. (By and

from are prepositions.)

Nora and Faisal like opera, but Sal prefers jazz. (And and but are

Wow, those tickets are expensive! (Wow is an interjection.)

Most of the time, you think only about the meaning of a word, not itspart of speech. However, some important grammar rules depend uponknowing the difference between one part of speech and another. For

example, an adjective is a word that describes people, places, or things.An adverb is also a description, but it can’t do an adjective’s job.

Take a look at these examples. Pay close attention to the underlinedwords:

WRONG: Today the weather is beautifully.

WHY IT’S WRONG: Beautifully is an adverb. You need an

adjective here.

RIGHT: Today the weather is beautiful.

WHY IT’S RIGHT: The adjective beautiful works well here.

WRONG: Bill and Tina agenda the next meeting.

WHY IT’S WRONG: Agenda is a noun. You need an action word (a

verb).

</div>Trang 27<div class="page_container" data-page="27">

RIGHT: Bill and Tina wrote the agenda for the next meeting.

WHY IT’S RIGHT: The verb wrote provides the action. Agenda

correctly appears as a noun.

WRONG: The puppy lifted it’s paw.

WHY IT’S WRONG: You need a pronoun in this spot. It’s means “it

RIGHT: The puppy lifted its paw.

WHY IT’S RIGHT: Its is a pronoun.

In Part 2, you find in-depth information on every part of speech. Well,

every part of speech except for interjections. An interjection is a wordthat briefly comments on the rest of the sentence. Ouch, wow, and oh are

interjections. I don’t provide in-depth commentary on interjections. Theyhave no depth! They simply add a little interest to your conversation.

Every dictionary tells you the part of speech of the word, usuallyright in front of the definition. Some words may have several labelsbecause they change their identity in different sentences. For moreinformation on how to understand every part of a dictionary

definition, see Chapter 24.

Making Sentences

A judge sentences criminals to prison. There, criminals must followmany rules. You may feel that English sentences are prisons, too. So

many rules apply to them! However, English sentences are definitely not

prisons. They are structures to hold your thoughts. They help your readerpick apart one idea from another. Take a peek at this paragraph:

going to the beach bad idea no pets allowed want take the dog hedoes not bite you know kind and friendly he is to the park instead

</div>Trang 28<div class="page_container" data-page="28">

Oh, my! In that paragraph, all the ideas are jumbled together. Now takeanother look at the same paragraph, this time with proper sentences:

Going to the beach is a bad idea. No pets are allowed. I want totake the dog. He does not bite. You know how kind and friendly heis. We should go to the park instead.

This one is easier to understand, isn’t it? The extra words, capital letters,and punctuation organize your thoughts into complete sentences.

Complete and proper sentences are not always necessary. Whenyou speak with your friends, for instance, you may use half-

sentences. Read this conversation. Imagine that Joe and Barbara arespeaking to or texting each other:

Joe: Want to go to the beach?Barbara: Not without my dog.Joe: Okay, the park instead.

These comments work well because Joe and Barbara are not in a formalsituation. To find out when formal English is necessary and when

conversational English will do, turn to Chapter 2. For more aboutgrammar and texting, see Chapter 18.

To create grammatically correct sentences, you must pay attention toseveral issues. The following sections briefly show you these issues.

Action or being words

Every sentence has at least one word that expresses action or being. That

word is a verb. In these sentences, the verbs are underlined:Candice loves her ring. (loves = action word)

Rex ate every dog biscuit in the box. (ate = action word)

Alonzo will be pleased with your work. (will be = being words)

</div>Trang 29<div class="page_container" data-page="29">

Were the lights on? (Were = being word)

Selecting the right verb form is important. Glance at these examples.Notice the underlined verbs:

WRONG: You was wrong.

WHY IT’S WRONG: In Standard English, the verb form wasdoesn’t pair properly with you.

RIGHT: You were wrong.

WHY IT’S RIGHT: Were is the verb form that matches you. (To

learn more about this topic, see Chapter 5.)

WRONG: The mayor speaked to voters yesterday.

WHY IT’S WRONG: Speaked is not correct in Standard English.

RIGHT: The mayor spoke to voters yesterday.

WHY IT’S RIGHT: Spoke is the irregular verb form you need in this

sentence. (More information on irregular verb forms appears inChapter 10.)

WRONG: John studying for his exam.

WHY IT’S WRONG: The verb form studying is not complete.

RIGHT: John is studying for his exam.

WHY IT’S RIGHT: Now the verb is complete. (See Chapter 9 formore about these verb forms.)

As you see, you can make many mistakes with verbs. The chapters Imention in the preceding examples will help you avoid errors.

In a sentence, someone or something does the action or exists in the state

of being. That word is the subject. Notice the underlined subjects in

these sentences:

Cindy arrived at ten o’clock. (Cindy = subject)

</div>Trang 30<div class="page_container" data-page="30">

We had sandwiches for lunch. (We = subject)

The sandwiches were delicious. (sandwiches = subject)Do you like peanut butter? (you = subject)

It is smooth and sticky. (It = subject)

Jelly and jam go well with peanut butter. (Jelly and jam = subjects)

Most times, you know who or what you want to write about. Thesubject, in other words, is usually easy to select. When the subject is apronoun, errors often occur. Examine these examples. The underlinedwords are important:

WRONG: Him and John failed the Latin test.

WHY IT’S WRONG: In Standard English, him can’t be a subject.

RIGHT: He and John failed the Latin test.

WHY IT’S RIGHT: He is a proper subject.

WRONG: Are youse ready?

WHY IT’S WRONG: Youse is not the plural of you in Standard

RIGHT: Are you ready?

WHY IT’S RIGHT: You is Standard English. You is both singular

(one) and plural (more than one).

WRONG: Us friends should stick together.

WHY IT’S WRONG: Us is not a subject pronoun in StandardEnglish.

RIGHT: We friends should stick together.

WHY IT’S RIGHT: We is a subject pronoun in Standard English.

Chapter 4 explains which pronouns work as subjects.

Pairing subjects with verbs can also cause trouble. Check theseexamples. Pay attention to the underlined words:

</div>Trang 31<div class="page_container" data-page="31">

WRONG: Mr. Smith and Ms. Jones has been promoted.

WHY IT’S WRONG: Has been promoted pairs up with one person.In this sentence, you have two people, Mr. Smith and Ms. Jones.

RIGHT: Mr. Smith and Ms. Jones have been promoted.

WHY IT’S RIGHT: The verb have been promoted matches well with

Mr. Smith and Ms. Jones. Both are plural (more than one).

WRONG: The list of grammar rules are too long.

WHY IT’S WRONG: The subject of the sentence is list, a singularword. It cannot pair with are, a plural verb form. Did you focus on

rules? Rules is not the subject of this sentence. It’s part of a

description, of grammar rules.

RIGHT: The list of grammar rules is too long.

WHY IT’S RIGHT: The singular verb form, is, pairs correctly withthe singular subject, list.

To find out more about matching singular subjects to singular verb formsand plural subjects to plural verb forms, check out Chapter 11.

Complements and descriptions

Your thoughts are rich and varied. You want to say more than “Mary is”

or “I run.” Some elements, called complements, complete ideas. In these

sentences, the complements are underlined:Mary is happy.

Deborah mailed the letter.

Meera and Drew are always nervous in the dentist’s office.Give Jean her pizza.

Did you tell Bob the secret?

Usually, complements fall into place correctly. Pronouns can causeproblems when they act as complements. (Have you noticed that

</div>Trang 32<div class="page_container" data-page="32">

pronouns are troublemakers?) For more information on complements,check out Chapter 12. To sort out pronouns, see Chapter 4.

Your writing would be very boring without descriptions. Notice theunderlined descriptions in these examples:

Every morning, I run through the park.Pink paint covered the bumpy wall.

Silk thread is more expensive than cotton thread.Wind in that area blows the fallen leaves away.

The book of speeches helped me prepare for graduation.Singing, the choir entered the church.

As you see, descriptions come in many shapes and sizes. Chapter 6explains what type of description is best for every situation.

Small but Important: Punctuating,Capitalizing, and Spelling

Punctuation marks, capital letters, and spelling may seem unimportant.Don’t overlook these little things, though. They add more to your writingthan you may expect. Take punctuation, for example. Some years ago, adairy company had to pay $5 million to its drivers because of a missingcomma in a state law! This section gives you an overview of

punctuation, capitalization, and spelling.

You can’t read without punctuation, the little marks that show the readerwhere to pause, when someone is speaking, and so on. These are thebasic punctuation marks that you should know:

Apostrophe: This is a little curved hook above the line. An

apostrophe, along with the letter s, shows possession:

Ellen’s car (Ellen owns the car.)

</div>Trang 33<div class="page_container" data-page="33">

the boys’ locker room (The locker room belongs to the boys.)the Vice President’s staff (The staff belongs to the Vice

Isn’t that lemonade too cold? (Isn’t is short for is not.)

To learn more about apostrophes, turn to Chapter 14.

Period, question mark, exclamation point: These three

punctuation marks signal the end of a sentence. A period is a littledot. It follows a sentence that makes a statement. A question mark is

made from a curve and a dot. It follows a sentence that asks a

question. An exclamation point is a vertical line and a dot. It shows

emphasis — the punctuation mark that shouts. Look at thesepunctuation marks in action:

Mary’s socks are blue. (The period ends the statement.)Are Tim’s shoes blue also? (The question mark ends thequestion.)

No, they are not! (The exclamation point adds emphasis.)To learn more about these three important punctuation marks, seeChapter 13.

Comma: This little curved hook starts on the line and reaches below.

A comma tells the reader to pause. Notice the commas in thesesentences:

Katie, my friend, is visiting from Chicago.

Katie arrived yesterday, but she has to leave tomorrow.

</div>Trang 34<div class="page_container" data-page="34">

Chicago, which is in the state of Illinois, is a large city.Tim, have you ever visited Chicago?

If you read these sentences aloud, you can hear the short silences thatappear at each comma. If commas trouble you, check out Chapter 15.

Quotation marks: Quotation marks are pairs of curved marks that

appear above the line. Their most common job is to mark off theexact words that someone said or wrote. Notice the quotation marksin these examples:

“Be quiet,” said the librarian.

The children cried, “We were not very loud.”

“In the library,” replied the librarian, “any noise is too loud.”To use quotation marks properly, you must follow many rules. Turnto Chapter 16 for everything you need to know about quotationmarks.

In an old piece of writing, capital letters show up in strange places.Standards for capitalization had not yet been set. For example, theDeclaration of Independence is more than 200 years old. In the middleof one sentence is this famous phrase:

the pursuit of Happiness

These days, happiness would appear in lowercase (noncapitals). The

Founders of the country could place a capital wherever they wanted. Youdon’t have the same freedom. You must follow the rules. Glance at thesesituations, which require capital letters:

Speaker or writer: The pronoun I always refers to the person who is

writing. It is always capitalized:

When I am asleep, I do not snore.

Do I have to pay extra for my suitcase?

</div>Trang 35<div class="page_container" data-page="35">

First word in a sentence: A capital letter begins every sentence.

The letter serves as a signal that one sentence has ended and anotherhas begun. Read these examples:

Nana sings to the baby. She has a terrible voice! The babydoes not mind. He loves her anyway.

Palm trees grow in my yard. Warm weather suits them. Rainstorms water the trees. They require little care.

Are you curious about numbers? You can’t capitalize 22 or

15 or any numeral. So, what happens when a number appears at the

beginning of a sentence? Good question! The answer is that youshould not begin a sentence with a numeral. If you need a numberthere, use the word:

WRONG: 20 people live in that building.RIGHT: Twenty people live in that building.

Names: I am Geraldine Woods, not geraldine woods. Nearly all

names require capital letters. (Some companies choose lowercase

letters for products. The iPad is an example of a name that doesn’t

begin with a capital letter.)

Of course, these aren’t the only rules that govern capital letters. Turn toChapter 17 for more information.

In silly television shows, spell is a magic word. In grammar, spell is also

a magic word. To spell correctly, placing every letter in the right spot, isimportant. Take a close look at the following paragraph. Can you

identify five misspelled words?

Jenny enjoys sewing. She pushs the needle into the cloth with herthum. Tina, who is makeing a new skirt, offen chats with Jennywen they sew.

</div>Trang 36<div class="page_container" data-page="36">

Before you check your answers, think for a moment. The precedingparagraph contains proper sentences. It clearly states the facts. Yet, it isnot a good piece of writing. The misspelled words turn a good paragraph

into a bad one. Here are the correctly spelled words: pushes, thumb,

making, often, when.

In Chapter 24, you find some rules for English spelling.

Unfortunately, many, many English words don’t follow those rules.To check your spelling, you may need help from the dictionary.Chapter 24 also explains how to understand and use the dictionary.

Many words sound the same but have different spelling andmeaning. Other words are nearly alike in appearance or sound, buttheir definitions are not alike. Check Chapter 21 for help with theseconfusing words.

Facing Everyday Writing Tasks

Do you spend a lot of time sitting at a desk? If you do, you probably facewriting tasks such as these:

School assignments: You write an essay on an exam or for

homework. You answer questions based on a reading assignment.Perhaps you have to write a book review or a lab report. Your teachermay ask for a research paper, a short story, or a slide presentation.All these writing jobs call for good grammar. All follow patterns thatare easy to learn. Knowing proper English and formatting will raiseyour grades.

Work-related writing: You send a memo to your co-workers or to

your supervisor. The boss wants a report or a presentation. Perhaps itis your responsibility to answer emails or letters from customers. In

</div>Trang 37<div class="page_container" data-page="37">

the business world, good writing is expected — and often rewarded.Grammar rules apply to every writing task in the working world.Knowing the best format for each type of writing is also important.

Personal writing: Outside of school and work, you may post a

comment on a website. Perhaps you must send a letter to a landlordor a government official. You probably email or text friends andfamily members. In many situations, informal language and

nonstandard grammar are fine. In others, you need your best writingskills.

When you face an everyday writing task, you should understand therules and traditions that apply to it. Chapters 18, 19, and 20 tell youeverything you need to complete your writing work easily andeffectively.

Sometimes, it’s fine to bend the rules of grammar and to useinformal language. For example, would you send this text to afriend?

Would you accompany me to the cafeteria at your earliestconvenience?

Or, is this your reply when your friend asks, “Who’s there?”It is I.

If you answered “yes,” you probably eat alone and receive very fewphone calls. With friends, proper grammar may turn a fun socialoccasion into something more formal. To find out more about whenproper English is required and when you should relax the rules, seeChapter 2.

</div>Trang 38<div class="page_container" data-page="38">

Chapter 2

Language in Action

IN THIS CHAPTER

Choosing the correct level of formality

Using grammar-checking software effectively

Identifying your grammar strengths and weaknesses

Some people speak of “good” and “bad” English. I prefer the term

Standard English for speech and writing that follows every rule. Of

course, no one obeys every rule all the time. No one should! Whenyou’re chatting with friends, you relax. Your language should relax, too.In this chapter, I show you how to move up and down the ladder offormality, depending on situation, audience, and purpose. I also explainhow to use computer programs and apps to improve your command ofEnglish. Finally, I give you a checklist to help you make a personalgrammar-improvement plan.

Adjusting Language to Suit YourAudience

For convenience, I sort English into three levels of formality. Take alook at this message, sent three different ways:

Gotta go.Wanna come?

I have to go. Do you feel like coming with me?I must leave. Would you like to accompany me?

The first statement is the sort of language people use when they’re

chatting with friends. I call this level friendspeak. (This is not an official

</div>Trang 39<div class="page_container" data-page="39">

term. I made it up.) The second level is also friendly, but the sentences

follow more rules than those in the first. I call this level conversational

English. The third example hits the highest level of formality, StandardEnglish. Language on this level conforms to every standard, or rule, of

English. In this section, you look at each of these three “Englishes.”

Friendspeak is my term for the language you use when you’re most

relaxed. It works well when you’re dealing with peers. The power levelis balanced. Look at these two conversations. Both actually took place inmy classroom:

Conversation 1:

Student to Teacher: He and I went to the gym. He did 60 push-ups.

I can’t do as many push-ups as he can.

Teacher to Student: He exercises regularly. That’s why he’s strong.Conversation 2:

Same Student to Another Student: Me and him went to the gym.

He did 60 push-ups, and I’m like, no way.

Other Student: Dude, he like, lives in the gym.

These two conversations say the same thing, but not in the same way.When speaking with a teacher, the student knows to follow the rules.The teacher also follows grammar rules. Why? The teacher–studentrelationship is a formal one. In the second conversation, breaking therules is the point. The students have nothing to prove to each other. Theymake mistakes on purpose to show that they have a personal, friendlyrelationship.

Excellent grammar usually gives you an advantage in life. Whenyou speak with friends, though, perfectly proper sentences may

</div>Trang 40<div class="page_container" data-page="40">

sound snobby. For this reason, more casual language (either

friendspeak or conversational English, which I cover in the next

section) is sometimes more suitable than Standard English.

I don’t deal with friendspeak in this book. Chances are, you already

know it. This level of language is fine in these situations:Talking with friends

Chatting with close family members, especially those who are thesame age

Writing to friends in emails and texts

Employ friendspeak only when you are sure that the people

you’re addressing are comfortable with this type of language.

Conversational English

Conversational English is the language just about everyone uses for —surprise! — conversations. This level of language breaks some of therules of Standard English, but it’s not as loose as friendspeak.

I use conversational English in this book. As I write, I imagine that I’mspeaking with you, the reader. I pretend that I know you and that we’respending some free time together. I don’t see myself as a teacher in aformal classroom situation.

Conversational English is suitable for these situations:Chats with friends and family

Conversations with neighbors and other acquaintances

Notes, emails, instant messages, letters, and texts to friends andfamily

Comments posted on social mediaInformal conversations with teachers

</div>