the effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at ton duc thang university

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<b>MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY </b>

<b>--- ∞0∞--- </b>

<b>TRAN TU TRINH </b>

<b>THE EFFECT OF EXTENSIVE READING ON READING PERFORMANCE AND VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT </b>

<b>AT TON DUC THANG UNIVERSITY </b>

<b>Major: Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages Major code: 8 14 01 11 </b>

<b>MASTER THESIS </b>

<b>MASTER OF ARTS IN TESOL </b>

<b>Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. PHAM VU PHI HO, Ph.D. </b>

<b>HO CHI MINH CITY, 2021 </b>

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The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityThe effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityThe effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityThe effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityThe effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityThe effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityThe effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityThe effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityThe effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityThe effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityThe effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityThe effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityThe effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityThe effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityThe effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityThe effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang University

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<b>TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC MỞ THÀNH PHỐ HỒ CHÍ MINH KHOA ĐÀO TẠO SAU ĐẠI HỌC </b>

<b>CỘNG HÒA XÃ HỘI CHỦ NGHĨA VIỆT NAM Độc lập – Tự do – Hạnh phúc </b>

<b>GIẤY XÁC NHẬN </b>

Tôi tên là: Trần Tú Trinh

Ngày sinh: 27/08/1993 Nơi sinh: Bạc Liêu

Chuyên ngành: TESOL Mã học viên: 1781401110039 Tơi đồng ý cung cấp tồn văn thông tin luận văn tốt nghiệp hợp lệ về bản quyền cho Thư viện trường đại học Mở Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh. Thư viện trường đại học Mở Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh sẽ kết nối toàn văn thông tin luận văn tốt nghiệp vào hệ thống thông tin khoa học của Sở Khoa học và Công nghệ Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh.

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<b>CỘNG HÒA XÃ HỘI CHỦ NGHĨA VIỆT NAM Độc lập – Tự do – Hạnh phúc </b>

<b>Ý KIẾN CHO PHÉP BẢO VỆ LUẬN VĂN THẠC SĨ CỦA GIẢNG VIÊN HƯỚNG DẪN </b>

Giảng viên hướng dẫn: PGS.TS. PHẠM VŨ PHI HỔ

<i>Tên đề tài: The Effect of Extensive Reading on Reading Performance and Vocabulary </i>

Development at Ton Duc Thang University

Ý kiến của giáo viên hướng dẫn về việc cho phép học viên được bảo vệ luận văn trước Hội đồng: ... Học viên Trần Tú Trinh rất nghiêm túc trong việc học và nghiên cứu. Em Trinh rất chủ động trong việc Nghiên cứu, biết tìm tịi học hỏi, và rất có tiềm năng. Luận văn của em Trinh rất tốt và đạt yêu cầu để bảo vệ Tốt nghiệp bằng Thạc sỹ.

...

<i>Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh, ngày 6 tháng 9 năm 2021 </i>

Người nhận xét

PGS. TS. Phạm Vũ Phi Hổ

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<b>STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP </b>

<b>I certify that this thesis entitled “The effect of extensive reading on reading </b>

<b>performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang University” is my own </b>

work.

I hereby declare that I am the sole author for this work. Except where reference is made in the texts of the thesis, this thesis does not contain materials published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis by which I have qualified for or been awarded another degree or diploma.

No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of the thesis.

This thesis has not been submitted for any degree or diploma in any other tertiary institution.

Ho Chi Minh City, September, 2021

Tran Tu Trinh

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<b>ACKNOWLEDGEMENT </b>

Firstly, I would like to show my gratitude towards Assoc. Prof. Pham Vu Phi Ho, Ph.D., my thesis instructor, for giving me valuable advice and guidance in the process of conducting my thesis. Moreover, I would like to thank him for being patient and enthusiastic to answer my inquiries.

Secondly, I would like to say thank you to the center for offering me the opportunities to conduct the research and the students involved in the study for their cooperation. Without them, I would not have completed my study.

Furthermore, I would like to thank my friends for encouraging and supporting me during the process of doing research.

Last but not least, I would send big thanks to my mother for encouraging and motivating me to complete my research.

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<b>ABSTRACT </b>

This study investigates the effects of extensive reading on EFL students’ reading proficiency, vocabulary acquisition and students’s attitude towards reading at Ton Duc Thang University. The study was conducted over a period of 10 weeks, employing a quasi-experimenatal research design. There were a total of 58 participants, assigned in two groups: control group (CG) (n = 30) and experimental group (EG) (n = 28). While the control group received intensive reading instruction, the experimental group received intensive reading in class and extensive reading as a supplementary reading activity outside the classroom. The extensive reading program was conducted by encouraging students to read the materials taken from Oxford Bookworm Library. Pre-test, post-test, reading diary and semi-structured interview were employed as research instruments to collect data qualitatively and quantitatively. The data was then entered into IBM SPSS Statistics 20.0 for analysis. The findings of the study revealed that the experimental group showed a significantly higher performance in reading proficiency, vocabulary and reading attitude. Some recommendations on how to implement extensive reading were raised at the last chapter for further research.

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<b>ABSTRACT (VIETNAMESE VERSION) </b>

Nghiên cứu này nhằm khám phá sự ảnh hưởng của phương pháp đọc mở rộng đối với khả năng đọc, từ vựng và thái độ của sinh viên Tôn Đức Thắng đối với việc đọc. Nghiên cứu được thực hiện trong 10 tuần, sử dụng phương pháp nghiên cứu thực nghiệm. Có tổng cộng 58 sinh viên tham gia nghiên cứu, được chia làm 2 nhóm: nhóm kiểm sốt (CG) (n=30) và nhóm thực nghiệm (EG) (n=28). Trong khi nhóm kiểm sốt học theo phương pháp đọc chun sâu, nhóm thực nghiệm học theo hướng đọc chuyên sâu kết hợp đọc mở rộng. Việc đọc mở rộng được thực hiện ngồi giờ học. Chương trình đọc mở rộng được thực hiện bằng cách khuyến khích sinh viên đọc tài liệu được lấy từ Oxford Bookworm Library. Các bài kiểm tra đánh giá trước và sau thực nghiệm, nhật ký đọc, và phỏng vấn bán cấu trúc được sử dụng làm công cụ nghiên cứu thu thập dữ liệu theo hướng định tính và định lượng. Dữ liệu sẽ được phân tích bằng phần mềm SPSS phiên bản 20.0. Kết quả của nghiên cứu cho thấy nhóm thực nghiệm có thành tích đọc và từ vựng cao hơn đáng kể so với với nhóm kiểm sốt. Nhóm thực nghiệm cũng có thái độ tích cực đối với việc đọc. Một số đề xuất về cách thực hiện phương pháp đọc mở rộng được nêu ra ở chương cuối, nhằm phục vụ các nghiên cứu sau này.

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CG: Control Group

EFL: English as a Foreign Language EG: Experiemental Group

ER: Extensive Reading

ESL: English as a Second Language FL: Foreign Language

L2: Second Language

PET: Preliminary English Test SD: Standard Deviation Sig.: Significance level

SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3. 1. Differences between CG and EG ... 48

Table 3. 2. Summary of participants’ information ... 48

Table 3. 3. Learning topics for the course ... 51

Table 3. 4. Procedure of the study... 55

Table 4. 1. Group Statistics on the reading pre-test of the control and experimental group………... 68

Table 4. 2. Independent sample t-test on the reading pre-test of the control and experimental group ... 69

Table 4. 3. Paired samples statistics of reading pre- and post-test score of CG ... 70

Table 4. 4. Paired samples t-test of the reading pre-test and post-test score of the control group ... 70

Table 4. 5. Paired Samples Statistics of the reading pre-test and post-test scores of the experimental group ... 71

Table 4. 6. Paired samples t-test of the reading pre-test and post-test scores of the experimental group ... 72

Table 4. 7. Group Statistics on reading post-test of the control and experimental group... 73

Table 4. 8. Independent sample t-test on the reading post-test of the control and experimental group ... 73

Table 4. 9. Group Statistics on the vocabulary pre-test of the control and experimental group ... 75

Table 4. 10. Independent samples t-test on the vocabulary pre-test of the control and experimental group ... 76

Table 4. 11. Paired Samples Statistics of the vocabulary pre-test and post-test scores of the control group ... 77

Table 4. 12. Paired Samples Test of the vocabulary pre-test and post-test scores of the control group ... 77

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Table 4. 13. Paired Samples Statistics of the vocabulary pre-test and post-test scores

of the experimental group ... 78

Table 4. 14. Paired Samples Test of the vocabulary pre-test and post-test scores of the experimental group ... 79

Table 4. 15. Group Statistics on the vocabulary post-test of the control and experimental group ... 80

Table 4. 16. Independent Samples t-test of the vocabulary post-test in the control and experimental group ... 80

Table 4. 17. The average number of books students read per week ... 82

Table 4. 18. The frequency of book reading in 10 weeks ... 83

Table 4. 19. Number of books read by 10 interviewees ... 88

Table 4. 20. General attitude towards ER ... 90

Table 4. 21. Attitudes on ER topics ... 92

Table 4. 22. The extent of confidence after ER ... 93

Table 4. 23. Attitudes towards future reading ... 94

Table 4. 24. Benefits of ER ... 96

Table 4. 25. Benefits of writing a diary ... 97

Table 4. 26. Benefits of reading aloud ... 99

Table 4. 27. Benefits of group discussion ... 100

Table 4. 28. Difficulties in reading stories in English ... 101

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1.1 Background of the study ... 1

1.2 Statement of the problem ... 2

1.3 Purposes of the study ... 4

1.4 Research Questions ... 5

1.5 Hypothesis of the study ... 5

1.6 The significance of the study ... 5

1.7 Scope of the study ... 6

1.8 Overview of thesis chapter ... 6

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ... 8

2.1 Reading skill ... 8

2.1.1. Definition of reading skill ... 8

2.1.2. Reading model ... 9

2.1.3. Reading strategies use ... 11

2.1.4. Reading training activities ... 13

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2.1.5. The relationship between self-efficacy, reading strategies, motivation and

reading achievement... 14

2.2. Extensive Reading ... 15

2.2.1. Definitions of ER ... 15

2.2.2. Ten Principles for teaching ER ... 16

2.2.3. Purposes and benefits of extensive reading ... 19

2.2.4. Limitations of extensive reading ... 20

2.2.5. Principles for including ER in language learning program ... 21

2.3. Theoretical framework of vocabulary ... 23

2.3.1. Definition of Vocabulary ... 23

2.3.2. Issues in Vocabulary Acquisition ... 24

2.3.3. Types of vocabulary learning ... 27

2.3.4. Principles for constructing effective vocabulary learning tasks ... 28

2.3.5. Strategy Development ... 31

2.4. Graded Readers ... 32

2.4.1. Definition of Graded Readers ... 32

2.4.2. Reasons for using graded readers... 32

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3.4.1. Teaching Material ... 50

3.4.2. Treatment Material: Graded Readers ... 51

3.4.3. Training Activities ... 52

3.4.4. Training Procedure ... 54

3.5. The measurement instruments... 59

3.5.1. Reading pre- and post-test ... 59

3.5.2. Vocabulary pre- and post-test ... 61

3.5.3. Reading diary ... 62

3.5.4. The in-depth interview ... 62

3.6. Data collection procedure ... 64

3.7. Data analytical framework ... 66

3.7.1. Research question 1: What is the effect of extensive reading on students’ reading performance? ... 66

3.7.2. Research question 2: What are the students’ attitude towards ER? ... 66

3.8. Chapter summary ... 66

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ... 68

4.1. Reading performance of control and experimental group ... 68

4.1.1. Comparing the scores of control and experimental group in the reading test ... 68

pre-4.1.2. Comparing the scores of pre-test and post-test in the control group ... 70

4.1.3. Comparing the scores of pre-test and post-test in the experimental group .. 71

4.1.4. Comparing the scores of post-test between the control and experimental group ... 72

4.2. Vocabulary performance of the control and experimental group ... 75

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4.2.1. Comparing the scores of control and experimental group in the vocabulary

pre-test ... 75

4.2.2. Comparing the scores of vocabulary pre-test and post-test in the control group ... 77

4.2.3. Comparing the scores of pre-test and post-test in the experimental group .. 78

4.2.4. Comparing the scores of control and experimental group in the vocabulary post-test ... 79

4.3. Reading diary ... 82

4.4. Interview on students’ attitude towards ER ... 88

4.4.1. Students’ general attitude towards ER ... 90

4.4.2. Benefits of ER and ER activity ... 96

4.4.3. Difficulties in reading stories in English ... 101

4.5. Discussion of the findings ... 103

4.5.1. The effect of ER on students’ reading performance ... 103

4.5.2. Students’ attitude towards ER ... 104

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APPENDIX 2. READING POST-TEST ... 129

APPENDIX 3: VOCABULARY PRE-TEST ... 138

APPENDIX 4: VOCABULARY POST-TEST ... 140

APPENDIX 5: SAMPLE OF READING TASKS OF THE CONTROL GROUP OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM ... 142

APPENDIX 6: SAMPLE OF VOCABULARY TASKS OF THE CONTROL GROUP OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM ... 143

APPENDIX 7: GRADED READERS ... 144

APPENDIX 8: SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW ... 146

APPENDIX 9: READING PRE-TEST RESULT ... 147

APPENDIX 10: READING POST-TEST RESULT ... 149

APPENDIX 11: VOCABULARY PRE-TEST RESULT... 151

APPENDIX 12: VOCABULARY POST-TEST RESULT ... 153

APPENDIX 13: INTERVIEW – TRANSCRIPT (VIETNAMESE VERSION) 155 APPENDIX 14: INTERVIEW – TRANSCRIPT (ENGLISH VERSION) ... 165

APPENDIX 15: READING DIARY TEMPLATE ... 174

APPENDIX 16: SAMPLE OF READING DIARY ... 175

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

This chapter consists of the background of the study and statements of the problems that lead to the implementation of the research. In addition, research purpose, research questions, hypothesis and significance of the study are presented. The chapter also provides the scope of the study and the overview of the whole thesis.

1.1 Background of the study

Reading plays a significant role in language teaching and learning. It is also a pivotal tool in different fields and indispensable means of communication in an ever-evolving world. Without reading, it is really hard to become successful in this world. According to Lee (1987), reading comprehension makes the presentation of grammatical structure and vocabulary become easier thanks to the context that is provided in reading texts. Omaggio (1993) also stated that the use of authentic materials makes reading comprehension crucial in communicative classroom. It provides learners with linguistic input, such as ideas, vocabulary, structures that are crucial to the achievement of speaking and writing skill. Moreover, according to the findings of research, there is a strong correlation between reading and academic success, which means proficient readers tend to perform better in school than less proficient ones. In addition, reading helps to develop critical thinking, which leads to a successful professional career (Bakir, 2004).

Regarding vocabulary, Pikulski and Templetion (2004) indicate that words are crucial part of life. There was a close relationship between success in earning and management and vocabulary range. Vocabulary helps people communicate their thoughts and ideas properly and effectively and low vocabulary signifies imperfection (Ahoari & Farrokhi, 2014). Wilkins (1972) also claims that “without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed” (as cited in Schmitt, 1010, p.3). Rubin and Thompson (1994) shows “One cannot speak, read or write a foreign language without knowing a lot of words. Vocabulary is at the heart of mastering a foreign language”.

According to Davis (1994) and Thorndike (1973), reading and vocabulary has a mutual relationship. It is evident that vocabulary is necessary for text comprehension. Lack <small>2112412067:37:31 PM7:37:31 PM2112412067:37:31 PM7:37:31 PM2112412067:37:31 PM7:37:31 PM</small>

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of knowledge regarding the meaning of individual words can hinder our understanding. In reverse, reading text can provide a context which meaning of words can be explained. Failure in reading comprehension has been caused by limited vocabulary knowledge (Cromley & Azevedo, 2007). Also, enhancing vocabulary knowledge is widely used as an intervention to improve reading comprehension, including reading strategies (Beck, Perfetti & McKeown, 1982). Besides, a lot of studies revealed that individuals with well-developed vocabulary knowledge tend to show higher reading proficiency.

Because of the strong correlation between reading and vocabulary as well as their importance in studying English, a lot of research has been conducted in order to search for effective approaches that contribute to improvement in reading proficiency and vocabulary knowledge. The findings of various studies showed that extensive reading is beneficial in the improvement of students’ reading proficiency and vocabulary knowledge in foreign language or second language learning (Anderson, et al., 1988). Its benefits are so obvious that teachers need to consider it an important feature in teaching.

According to Christine Nuttall (1982: 168), immersing in the language is the key for knowledge enhancement and the second important approach is to read extensively. Day and Bamford (2004) also emphasize the application of extensive reading in the L2/FL curriculum. Extensive reading (ER) is proved to contribute to the reading ability improvement as well as learner’s overall language proficiency such as spelling, grammar, vocabulary, and writing. Schmitt (2000) suggests that the idea for implementing ER is that only intensive reading is unable to make readers good and fluent. Furthermore, a lot of studies show that students’ motivation and attitude are gained thanks to extensive reading. Nishino (2007) reports that students have a very positive attitude towards extensive reading because their ability to read and write in English is improved. Bell (2001) also states that extensive reading leads to the increase in reading speed and general language proficiency. In addition, in extensive reading, learners expose to the same words many times in context, which make a contribution to vocabulary learning (Gatbonton & Segalowitz, 2005).

1.2 Statement of the problem

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Reading is important because written texts contain richer lexis compared to spoken ones (Nation, 2001) and it provides the context in which words are explained. Meanwhile, vocabulary knowledge is essential in order to understand the text. Reading is considered as an indispensable means of communication in an ever-evolving world and vocabulary is the most important factor in mastering a foreign language. Despite their importance in acquiring a foreign language, a lot of students fail to read English texts and learn vocabulary effectively due to a lot of factors.

Regarding reading, slow reading is a common issue that a lot of ESL/EFL learners are facing (Hamp-Lyons 1983; Cooper 1984). This has been blamed for classroom methodology, known as intensive reading, which mainly focuses on language development. In intensive reading, texts are used to present and reinforce grammatical structures and other aspects of language instead of reading itself (Nuttall 1982:20; Alderson & Urquhart 1984:246-247; Bartram & Parry 1989:7; Hyland 1990:14; Susser & Robb 1990:161-162). According to Day and Bamford, many teachers overestimate the advantages of intensive reading which will produce good and fluent readers. However, its main goal is to help students construct detailed meaning from the text, develop reading skills and enhance vocabulary and grammar knowledges. “This approach will produce skilled readers but not skilled readers”, stated Day and Bamford.

In terms of vocabulary, despite its importance, the best way to acquire vocabulary effectively is not obvious because of different factors (de Groot, 2006). This makes both teachers and students confused, especially what is described in textbooks and syllabuses is not seriously taken into consideration.

Regarding Ton Duc Thang University, non-majored students have to take a period course of English for general purposes. Students mainly learn how to answer reading comprehension questions properly, study the language knowledge focusing on isolated vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation. In addition, students at Ton Duc Thang University usually put equal importance on each word and use their syntactic knowledge to understand the sentence. They read the text really slowly and struggle to understand the whole message (Kitao, Nozawa & Yamamoto, 1985). They tend to read word by word and <small>2112412067:37:31 PM7:37:31 PM2112412067:37:31 PM7:37:31 PM2112412067:37:31 PM7:37:31 PM</small>

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read from the beginning to the end without paying attention to title or making predictions before reading. When exposing to a new word, they usually try to look up the dictionary for its meaning. Even the familiar words may make them confused because it is used in a different context.

Having considered issues exposed, various research has been conducted on another approach, namely extensive reading in order to measure its effectiveness on students’ reading performance, vocabulary development as well as learners’ attitude towards reading. The findings of various studies showed that extensive reading can lead to the improvement in students’ reading proficiency and vocabulary range in foreign language or second language learning (Anderson, et al., 1988). However, a lot of Vietnamese teachers hesitate to incorporate extensive reading into English reading curriculum because they are afraid that students are not willing to complete the extensive reading outside the classroom. Regarding this concern, Takase (2007) suggests that this problem can be addressed by making extensive reading activity compulsory in the classroom, and once students get engaged and “hooked” on reading, they are likely to continue reading outside the classroom. Therefore, this study investigates the effectiveness of extensive reading on students’ reading comprehension and vocabulary at Ton Duc Thang University (TDTU).

1.3 Purposes of the study

This study was conducted because numerous studies claim that extensive reading has a positive effect on ESL/EFL learners, but this approach is not widely applied in classroom environments in Vietnam. This study aims to compare an extensive reading class and an intensive reading class at Ton Duc Thang University in order to figure out which class performs better in terms of reading, vocabulary and reading attitude. The findings of this study will help teachers to create an effective learning environment by raising students’ interest in reading and improve their reading proficiency as well as vocabulary acquisition. The purpose of this research includes:

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(1) Measure the impact of extensive reading on EFL students’ reading proficiency

(2) Testify the effect of extensive reading on vocabulary acquisition (3) Examine the influence of extensive reading on students’ attitude 1.4 Research Questions

The research is conducted to answer these 3 questions:

1. What is the effect of extensive reading on students’ reading performance? 2. What are the students’ attitudes towards extensive reading?

1.5 Hypothesis of the study

In line with the aforementioned research question, the following hypothesis has been formulated:

Vietnamese EFL English learners at Ton Duc Thang University will gain more achievements in reading, vocabulary and they will be more motivated to read compared to those who receive intensive reading.

1.6 The significance of the study

In terms of reading, intensive reading (IR) is currently being used at TDTU as the reading instruction approach, which focuses on language learning rather than reading fluency. This will make students read every single word rather than trying to understand the whole picture.

Regarding vocabulary, the students mainly focuses on deliberate vocabulary learning, which try to memorize the meaning of a new word that the teacher taught. Lack of understanding its function and use in contexts, which can make students hesitate to apply it in specific situations.

Therefore, the study of ER is conducted with the aim of addressing these issues. ER can be essential and beneficial in many different aspects.

First of all, ER can help to establish a good reading habit. ER offers an abundant source for reading practice, so students can easily choose the reading material that is appropriate for their taste as well as their level. Exposing to the story that meets learners’ needs and interests makes them find pleasure in reading activity

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and gradually it will become their long-lasting habit. ER also provides students with sufficient input which helps students to develop their reading frequency.

Secondly, ER can make a great contribution to tighten the relationship between teacher and students and among students themselves. Story-reading activities can create opportunity for students and teacher to discuss what they have read. Additionally, activities used to check up students’ reading such as reading diary, reading aloud and group discussion require students to involve in reading.

In addition, vocabulary learning occurs when learners encounter repeated words many times in context (Gatbonton & Segalowitz, 2005). Loucky (2003) states that ER offers great opportunities to expose to target language meanings and forms, whereas IR is served to process vocabulary and reading comprehension.

With the values of ER listed above, it is essential to integrate ER in teaching and learning at classes at Ton Duc Thang University.

1.7 Scope of the study

The scope of the study is defined as an investigation into the effectiveness of ER into reading comprehension, vocabulary development and reading motivation at TDTU. Therefore, the study is limited to the context of TDTU. The subjects of the study include 58 non-majored elementary sophomore. They are assigned into 2 groups: control group (30 students) and experimental group (28 students) with the aim of comparing the result of 2 groups. Moreover, during the treatment of experimental group, reading activities, including reading diary, reading aloud and group discussion, are used in the class as ways to keep track of students’ reading process and understand their feelings towards ER. The semi-structured interview is also conducted after the treatment to investigate the learners’ attitude towards ER. 1.8 Overview of thesis chapter

This research consists of five chapters:

Chapter 1 includes the background of the study, statement of problems, purposes of the study, research questions, hypothesis of study, significance of study and scope of study.

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Chapter 2 gives theoretical background for the research and points out research gap by reviewing previous studies related to reading, vocabulary and attitude towards ER.

Chapter 3 provides the research methodology for the study, including research context, participants, research design, instructional design, measurement instruments, method analysis and validity and reliability measurement.

Chapter 4 presents the findings of the study and discussions of the findings. Chapter 5 summarizes the main findings of the study and presents limitations. Also, the chapter gives some recommendations for further research and implementations for further practices.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter involves some previous studies in order to build the theoretical background for this research. This also helps to figure out the reason why the research is essential and the gap in previous studies.

2.1 Reading skill

According to Lynch & Hudson (1991), reading is the most important skill in academic context. Therefore, it is crucial for teachers to be aware of different approaches which can be applied in teaching classroom.

2.1.1. Definition of reading skill

Reading is the process of recognizing, interpreting, and perceiving materials written or printed. It is a complicated cognitive activity that is essential for

acquiring information (Alfassi, 2004, Zhang, 1993). Reading plays a pivotal role in every field of professional service. Reading is considered as an indispensable means of communication in an ever-evolving world. In other words, reading is vital to communication and job opportunities, so students must learn how to read effectively and how to learn from reading.

Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension is the perception, understanding what has been written. In other words, reading comprehension is the ability to process information, identify the main thoughts and feelings that the text transmits, and determine writer’s purpose and viewpoints (Kavcar, Oguzkan & Sever, 1994: 4). Depending on its function and level of attention, reading is divided into two types: intensive reading and extensive reading. Intensive Reading is the approach of reading carefully in order to understand the text, deal with comprehension, grammar and vocabulary exercises. On the contrary, extensive reading is reading for pleasure and its goal is to increase readers’ motivation. While intensive reading is applied in

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almost schools in Vietnam, extensive reading has not been given enough attention or incorrectly applied.

Reading attitude

According to Yamashita (2007), reading attitude involves 3 components: cognitive, affective and coactive. The cognitive components are personal beliefs about the reading nature and value; affective refers to “feelings and emotions about reading”; and coactive refers to the willing to take action. These components are influenced by reading past experience and result in the possibility to continue reading in the future (Mathewson, 2004). In addition, McKenna (2001) states that reading attitudes are related to the attitudes we have towards activities that are potentially competing (p.137). Positive reading attitude is closely linked with high-frequency reading (Mori, 2004), higher reading accomplishment and life-long reading (Logan & Johnston, 2009).

2.1.2. Reading model

A reading model is a theory of exploring readers’ thought while reading and trying to understand a text (Davies, 1995, cited in Skudiene, 2002, p.59). In other words, reading model can explain reader’s reading behavior.

2.1.2.1. Bottom-up Reading Model

In the bottom-up reading process, the readers decode every single letter and word in the text and combine the pieces to form the meaning. In other words, the main focus is the written or printed text, which is read and analyzed from part to the whole. Readers point out the meaning of the text based on the knowledge of lexical items, structural points and phonological patterns. Grough (1972) indicates that in bottom-up model, the reading process takes place from letter to sound, to words, to meaning, which means a bottom-up model emphasizes the linguistic clues and constructs literal comprehension of a text. This makes readers suffer from information overload because too many separate pieces of information need to be memorized without any higher-order connection between them. However, this model has remained popular in classes and were mostly used in post-reading

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instruction. Skudiene (2002) stated that bottom-up models are unlikely to be beneficial for high-proficiency learners because students are able to decode graphical input automatically.

2.1.2.2. Top-down reading approach

Unlike bottom-up model, top down model is considered as concept-driven reading process, arose by Goodman (1971) and Smith (1971). According to Paran (1996), top-down model puts an emphasis on factors related to contexts such as socio-cultural knowledge and proceeds from the whole to part. In other words, top-down processing occurs when the reader activates his/her world knowledge to facilitate comprehending the text. Goodman (1971) reveals that if the reader’s prediction skill becomes better, they are less likely to base on the text for confirmation. Top-down models are mostly used in pre-reading and while-reading activities, according to a research conducted by Skudienne (2002). However, top-down models seem to be inappropriate for low-level learners like beginners or elementary level learners because Carrell and Eisterhold (1983) indicates that top-down processing is likely to occur when at least 5000 words is acquired (Skudienne, 2002, p. 59).

2.1.2.3. Interactive processing approach

This model comes into being with the aim of addressing the issues that both bottom-up and top-down approaches expose. According to Eskey (1988), this model involves the constant interaction between bottom-up and top-down processing skill. It is a combination of bottom-up and top-down approach (Clapham, 1996). According to Horiba (1993), in interactive approach, the reader exploits bottom-up to obtain text information, then, uses top-down to apply background knowledge and schema in order to make sense both of the text and of the words in the text. This means that both kinds of processing (bottom-up and top-down) are equally important in the teaching of reading

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2.1.3. Reading strategies use

Gardner (1987, cited in Kletzien, 1991: 69) states that a reading strategy is a process of employing different actions to form meaning. Olshavsky (1977, cited in Hull, 2000: 68) defines reading strategies are the methods of understanding the writer’s intention. According to Barnett (1989), reading is an interactive series of actions involving top-down and bottom-up approach. Therefore, using appropriate reading strategies is essential for reading comprehension improvement. Strategy refers to the way that readers approach a text to understand what it is about – stated Barnett (p.66). This means numerous strategies or skills need to be employed during reading process. The following will describe 3 strategies including cognitive, metacognitive and compensation strategies.

2.1.3.1. Cognitive strategies

In Chamot and Kupper (1989)’s study, cognitive strategies are approaches that learners deal with the materials themselves in order to complete the task (p. 14). According to Windstead (2004), cognitive strategy is an approach that focuses on learners. Factors, including learning environment, learner’s knowledge base, intrinsic motivation, are taken into account to enhance the learner’s ability to process information via cognitive and metacognitive approaches (p. 30). Cognitive strategies consist of making a prediction based on previous knowledge, figuring out the organization of text based on specific patterns, self-questioning, summarizing, taking notes, translating, inferencing and transferring (Chamot & Kupper, 1989; Numrich, 2989; Oxford, 1990). These strategies are essential in terms of academic performance. Cognitive strategies can be divided into 3 main types: rehearsal, elaboration, and organizational strategies.

Rehearsal strategies include underlining the text, saying a word or phrase aloud, or using a mnemonic. These strategies help students to choose and memorize important information.

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Elaboration strategies involve paraphrasing or summarizing the material, making comparisons, taking notes, giving an idea explanation to others, inquiring and responding to the text.

Organizational strategies consists of selecting the key information, drawing out what to be learned, and employing various techniques to select and organize the information in the material.

2.1.3.2. Metacognitive strategies

Exploiting metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive strategies can have a significant effect on students’ reading performance. Chamot and Kupper (1989) mentions that metacognitive strategies include thinking about the learning process, planning for learning, monitoring the learning task, and evaluating how well one has learned. As proposed by Pintrich (1999), metacognitive strategies involve 3 stages: Planning, monitoring, and regulating.

Planning activities include goals setting for studying, pre-reading text skimming and questions proposal. These activities aim to help learners to employ cognitive strategies and activate their previous knowledge, making it easier to understand the text and how it is organized.

Monitoring activities include keeping track of attention during text reading and self-testing by answering questions to check for understanding (Pintrich, 1999). Regulatory strategies support the monitoring process. Pintrich stated that some students monitor their learning and performance against some goal or criterion, so regulatory strategies are necessary to remind them of reaching the goal and criterion. Regulatory strategies raise questions to monitor students’ comprehension, reducing reading pace when facing with more tricky tasks, revising examination materials, and postponing questions. According to several research, these strategies can enhance second or foreign language reading by adjusting their behavior towards study and overcoming their comprehension limitations of the text (Carrell, 1989; Pintrich, 1999; Whyte, 1993).

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2.1.3.3. Compensation strategies

A common problem that students usually encounter when reading a text is exposing to unfamiliar vocabulary and unknown concept, which prevents them from grasping the reading text (Zhang, 1993). Therefore, active compensation strategies should be taught with the purpose of helping students predict the meaning of unknown words (Oxford, 1990; Sinatra & Dowd, 1992; Zhang, 1993). A comprehension framework for the use of context clues proposed by Sinatra and Dowd (1992) includes: syntactic clues (related to grammatical structures) and semantic clues (involved intra- and inter sentence meaning relationship). Sinatra and Dowd argues that readers should not only understand how the writer uses particular structures, but also identify semantic hints such as restatement, examples and summary clues to guess the meaning of a new word. Oxford (1990) classifies 10 compensation strategies into 2 sets: linguistic clues (guessing meaning from suffixes, prefixes and word order) and other clues (using text structure such as introductions, summaries, conclusions, titles, transitions, and using general background knowledge). These skills help students deal with difficulties caused by lack of vocabulary as well as improve the ability of guessing the theme of a reading text. This can lead to the improvement of reading speed and efficiency (Winstead, 2004; Zhang, 1992, 1993).

2.1.4. Reading training activities

Students’ reading comprehension performance can be improved through instructional interventions (King, 1994; Paris & Jacobs, 1984; Pressley, 2000; Winstead, 2004). According to the findings of studies, instructional activities can increase students’ awareness and comprehension skills. Therefore, teachers should provide their students with necessary instructions to complete reading tasks well (Chamot, 1998; Chamot & Kupper, 1989; Oxford, 1993; Zhang, 1993). The steps are proposed in order to apply instructional activities:

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Diagnosis: Raise students’ awareness towards different strategies: identifying and assessing students’ current language strategies through observations, questionnaires, interviews, diaries, self-report survey, think aloud procedures, etc.

Preparation: Giving explanation of the concept and its importance of learning strategies

Instruction: Providing direct and informed instructions on learning strategies through explanation, modelling, practice, and integration, and providing different practice opportunities with various learning tasks.

Evaluation: Helping students evaluate their own strategy use, evaluating the whole strategy training and revising the training component.

2.1.5. The relationship between self-efficacy, reading strategies, motivation and reading achievement

According to Bandura (1997), self-efficacy is a belief that students have about their ability and capability of succeeding in a task. There are four factors that contribute to students’ self-efficacy: a successful experience, a vicarious experience, verbal convincing and emotional states. With stronger feelings of self-efficacy, students take on tasks despite facing difficulties, work harder, and achieve more (Mills, Pajares, & Hernon, 2006).

Self-efficacy can make a great contribution to students’ performance (Wong, 2005). Bandura (1994) shows that self-efficacy has an impact on motivation, which affects a person’s purpose setting, the attempt they make to reach their goals and the desire to keep going even if facing with failure (p. 72). Students who are confident in their ability tend to expect high grades on their exams and expect great work performances to bring certain benefits. On the contrary, students with low self-efficacy are not confident about their ability and anticipate the low scores on tests. Thus, low self-efficacy learners tend to decline to join learning activities while these activities can help them to address their issues in learning (Schunk, 1991). According to Shell and Murphy (1989), self-efficacy is closely related to students’ reading achievement. Reading performance can be predicted by examining self-

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efficacy. Another study conducted by Chamot et all. (1993) indicates that learning strategies used has a close relationship with self-efficacy perceptions. A study of Chinese university students’ reading self-efficacy and reading strategies carried out by Li and Wang’s (2010) suggests that those with higher self-efficacy tend to employ more reading strategies.

According to the expectancy and value framework of motivation, motivation is governed by 2 factors: students’ perception ability and the value students get from the task based on their wish (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Value indicates pleasure received, significance of good performance, and task usefulness. (McGeown et al., 2015, p.457).

2.2. Extensive Reading 2.2.1. Definitions of ER

According to Bright & McGregor (1997), extensive reading is described as reading a large number of materials in target language over a certain time period. Extensive reading is reading for pleasure (Day & Bamford, 1998). It exposes learners to a variety of materials that match with their linguistic ability (p.259). Its aim is to improve learners’ reading skill instead of reading to serve study purposes. (Extensive Reading Guide, 2011, p.1). Extensive reading helps to develop good habit of reading, improve knowledge of vocabulary and structure, and encourage students’ interest in reading (Richards & Schmidt, 2002, pp.193-194). Also, Frank Smith (1988) points out that people learn to read by reading and a lot of other research stated that the ability to read fluently is best achieved through reading extensively.

Extensive Reading should be taught following Day and Bramford’s (2002) “Top Ten Principles for Teaching Extensive Reading”. Reading material is suitable with learners’ level of language proficiency, reading is individual and silent, and reading is for enjoyment.

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2.2.2. Ten Principles for teaching ER

Ten principles is offered for teaching extensive reading as a tool for professional development (Day, R. & Bamford, J., 2002) These are considered as the basic characteristics of extensive reading.

1) The reading material is easy

In order to achieve the desired result, texts must be compatible with learner’s levels. Hu and Nation (2000) states that knowing 98% of the words in a fiction text is essential for understanding without help. Easier materials allows beginners perform better (1991: 8) because learners read by themselves. In addition, choosing easy material keeps students more engage in in reading.

2) A variety of reading material on numerous topics must be available. Lots of reading material on different topics can satisfy students’ interest and purpose. They can easily find the books/topics they are interested in, which stimulate their reading. Moreover, it also allows students to apply different approach to reading depending on the type of texts they are exposing.

3) Learners choose what they want to read

According to this principle, leaners are free to select reading material and encouraged to cease reading when the text is too difficult for them to understand.

4) Learners read as much as possible

The key factor in acquiring reading is to read in a large quantity. The students should read at least one book a week in order to benefit from extensive reading and establish a good reading habit.

5) The purpose of reading is usually related to pleasure, information and general understanding

In an extensive reading approach, learners are encouraged to read as the language readers do: read for the same purpose and follow the same way. Therefore, the purpose of ER is not for 100% reading comprehension, but for readers’ personal experience and interest. In other words, readers only need to get sufficient

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understanding to fulfill a particular purpose, like the obtaining of information, the enjoyment of a story, or the passing of time.

6) Reading is its own reward

The purpose of extensive reading is to increase reading experience. Therefore, there are usually no comprehension questions after ER. Instead, teachers can design check-up activities for students. This is necessary because of these reasons: to figure out what students understood and experienced from the reading, to measure students’ attitude towards extensive reading and the amount of texts they read, to create opportunities for sharing experience, to link reading to other aspects of the curriculum. Thus, students can be asked to perform these tasks: write about their favorite characters, write about the best or worst book they have read, or do a dramatic reading of an exciting part of a novel. Such activities can enhance students’ motivation in reading.

7) Reading speed is usually faster rather than slower

When selecting materials that are within learners’ linguistic competence and for personal enjoyment and for general purpose rather than academic ones, people tend to read more fluently. According to Nuttall (1996: 128), reading rate, pleasure and understanding have a mutual relationship. She states that weak readers normally read at a slow pace, does not show interest in reading and does not spend much time reading (p.127). In contrast, good readers read at a faster pace, show better reading understanding, feel interested in reading and end up reading faster. Therefore, students should be discouraged from looking up for new words in dictionaries while reading and encouraged to apply reading strategies such as guessing for unknown words, focusing on general meaning and being comfortable with a certain level of ambiguity.

8) Reading is individual and silent

Extensive reading is a personal interaction with the text, and allows readers to read at their own pace. They are free to choose when and where to read by themselves.

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9) Teachers orient and guide their students

High-level students may find reading boring and feel demotivated in case of easy reading material. Therefore, teachers’ role is to orient these students, making them realize how easy and interesting reading texts can help them to become better readers. Students should be explained that ER not only leads to reading proficiency improvement but also their general language. Teachers can ensure students that a general, less than 100% understanding of what they read is appropriate for most reading purposes and they are free to choose what they are interested. In addition, there will be activities to know more about students’ own experience instead of tests after reading.

The final element of orientation is practical. Students are introduced reading materials in different difficulty levels so that they can choose the ones that fit their capability. Teachers should assist students in choosing materials if they have difficulties in searching the appropriate ones. During the extensive reading, teachers should monitor what and how much each student reads, and their reaction to what they read. From information collected, teachers can encourage students to read more as well as giving proper solutions for them.

10) The teacher is a role model of a reader

As declared by Nuttal, reading occurs when someone hears or sees someone else doing rather than instructed (1996: 229). This can be understood through Maley’s explanation that it is necessary to notice how influential we are on students. Students not only study academic knowledge, but also consider teachers as the role model to follow. Students tend to memorize teacher behavior instead of their knowledge and skills when they leave us (1999: 7). In other words, teachers should turn themselves into readers, show the right attitude and behaviors towards reading. According to Henry, teachers of extensive reading have to read the same materials that students read so that teachers will become a part of them. Teachers and students can discuss what they read and together can find the value and pleasure in the written word.

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2.2.3. Purposes and benefits of extensive reading

The primary purpose of extensive reading is to let students expose to various genres and topics, to enhance their interest in reading and to boost reading autonomy. In extensive reading, students will be responsible for their own reading instead of having to do follow-up exercises. Extensive reading brings benefits to learners in many ways.

According to Light (1970), extensive reading leads to the improvement in reading speeds, and lessens the bad effects caused by slow, text-based, intensive approaches. Extensive Reading can formulate good reading habits and create successful feelings for students after completing the books given to them for reading. Learners then become motivated and positive, which encourages them to read more. Learners become eager to read (Mason & Krashen, 1997) and they are encouraged to read for general meaning of what they read, and skip any specific information they do not fully understand instead of trying to understand word-by-word (Day & Bamford , 2000: 12).

Additionally, extensive reading is considered “pedagogically efficient” (Huckin and Coady, 1999: 182) approach, which make a contribution to vocabulary acquisition and reading at the same time. Extensive reading also has an influence on learner’s reading attitudes and the fact that repeatedly exposing to interesting and meaningful L1/L2 reading materials greatly lead to the improvement of reading rate, comprehension and vocabulary (Asraf & Ahmad, 2003; Davis, 1995; Ellis, 1995; Elley, 2000; Elley & Mangubhai, 1983; Hitosugi & Day, 2004; Kirin, Poolsap, & Plongthong, 2012; Mason & Krashen, 1997; Yamashita, 2008). Learners can increase autonomy and learners can find reading interesting and motivating and have more opportunities to meet words in different contexts (Thornbury, 2002). Extensive reading also helps increase an individual’s vocabulary recognized by memory without efforts to discover the meaning (Coady, 1997; Nagy, Herman and Anderson, 1985; Nation and Coady, 1988) and lead to substantial vocabulary learning. The confirmation of Hayashi (1999), together with

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Krashen’s (1985) “Input Hypothesis” the lower Affective Barrier set also showed that there is a correlation between Comprehensive Input and language acquisition. Learners’ vocabulary could be improved by extensive reading. According to Elley (1991), children who read extensively seem to learn incidentally, and have positive attitudes towards books when immersed in meaningful text.

Other research has also been carried out and shows positive effects of extensive reading on vocabulary development and general improvement in second language proficiency. A study done by Cho and Krashen (1994) proves a really impressive influence of extensive reading. Four Koreans immigrated into the U.S from 5 months to 7 years, showed little interest in reading in English at first, but after finishing reading 8 to 23 books, their vocabulary has been improved. Yamashita (2008) also explores the effects of extensive reading on different aspects of foreign language ability.

2.2.4. Limitations of extensive reading

One of the disadvantages of conducting extensive reading program is the lack of reading materials which suit students’ level. Not all of schools are able to provide students various reading materials on different topics. Therefore, teachers are in charge of providing them reading materials for extensive reading.

The large number of students in a class can make it difficult to implement extensive reading because each student might have a variety of topics in their mind. Thus, teachers can provide certain reading materials for students to choose every week in order to minimize the various topics of reading materials.

Another limitation is that test is not used to measure students’ reading progress. Follow-up activities after reading (Day and Bamford, 2004) are used instead. One activity can be used to keep track of students’ reading is using reading journal in order to let students report back their reading in certain ways. Moreover, group discussion about what students read can be employed. Sweet (2000) suggests that group discussion creates an environment where critical readers and learners are more likely to happen. They can discuss together, then share the result of their

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discussion in classroom. Reading aloud can also be utilized as a follow-up activity. Harmer (2007) states that reading aloud is exciting, motivating and enjoyable for a class (p.117).

2.2.5. Principles for including ER in language learning program

There are 3 key principles for including extensive reading in a language learning program:

1. Learning Conditions

Vocabulary learning occurs because mental conditions are set which encourage learning. Vocabulary learning depends on the frequency of meeting a word and the extent of attention at each meeting. The more meeting, the more likely learning is to occur. The deeper the quality of the meetings, the more likely learning is to occur. Vocabulary learning from extensive reading is primarily affected by repetition and varied meetings. According to Paul Nation (1997), a linguist and researcher in the field of vocabulary and vocabulary acquisition, vocabulary learning is a process of accumulating knowledge gradually through repeated word exposure. This means the more learners expose to the same words in a text, the more varied context is, the more likely that they recognize, acquire and even produce it. Based on some studies comparing the effects of repetition and quality of the meetings, quality shows a greater impact on vocabulary acquisition (Laufer, in press; Webb, 2005).

Incidental or intentional attention to a word shows a considerable impact on the quality of the meetings. The quality involves different levels, such as word recognition, knowledge retrieval and knowledge elaboration. While intentional learning does not stick with the context, vocabulary learning from ER allows learners to expose to the same words many times, and to different contexts so that they can acquire varied uses of words. Word repetition also allows learners to retrieve previous knowledge, which have a positive influence on learning. Barcroft (2007) suggests that its importance has been shown through glossing research.

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Learners tend to better retrieve words that are not explained every time they occur. Glossing hinders knowledge retrieval because of meaning availability.

Nation (2014) states that large number of input is essential to meet high frequency words and to meet them enough times for learning to occur. Extensive reading provides sufficient repetitions, which meets this requirement. It also sets up different contexts, so learners can expose to different word use. Therefore, learners can strengthen and enhance their knowledge after each new meeting.

In addition, learners also have more opportunities for intentional learning by looking up dictionary, which contribute to their vocabulary learning (Hulstijn, Hollander, & Greidanus, 1996; Knight, 1994; Laufer & Hill, 2000; Peters, 2007). On the contrary to some views that dictionary use can be time-consuming (Luppescu & Day, 1993) and discourage context guessing, the use of dictionary to look up the meanings of words has more advantages in case learners are given proper training. Guessing from context, then looking up the dictionary is considered as a way of confirming a guess rather than replacing a guess. The time of finding word meaning is now fast thanks to online dictionary. In other words, extensive reading provides opportunities for word guessing from context and dictionary look-up in order to acquire vocabulary.

According to Pigada and Schmitt (2006), guessing based on the context can consolidate known word knowledge. Guessing from context is conducted based on different hints consisting of information from linguistic context, previous knowledge, knowledge of the world and certain fields, common-sense and morphological clues. Guessing from context improves word retention. In short, extensive reading allows learners to expose the same words many times in varied uses, which promote their ability to guess from context, retrieve, retain and elaborate knowledge.

2. The four strands

According to the principle of the four strands, to maximize language learning, a language course should put equal importance to (a) learning through

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comprehensible listening and reading input, (b) learning though pushed spoken and written input, (c) deliberate language-focused learning, and (d) learning through fluency development in each of the four skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing (Nation, 2007; Nation, 2013a). Extensive reading accounts for half of the meaning-focused input strand and a quarter for the fluency development strand.

3. Cost/ Benefit analysis

According to this principle, time allocation on an activity depends on the benefits it brings. A study conducted by Elley and Mangubhai (1981a) in rural Fijian primary schools shows that by dedicating 75% of the time on the English course to extensive reading, the learners in the experimental group made the equivalent of fourteen months progress over the nine months of the course. This suggests that the teacher should include a substantial extensive reading program during the course. Other experiments on vocabulary gaining from reading also show that a reasonable number of words are learnt incidentally to various strengths of knowledge (Brown Waring & Donkaewbua, 2008; Horst, 2005; Pigada & Schmitt, 2006; Pulido, 2004; Waring & Takaki, 2003).

2.3. Theoretical framework of vocabulary 2.3.1. Definition of Vocabulary

Vocabulary refers to the knowledge of words and word meaning. Vocabulary is the most important factor in mastering a foreign language. Students have to acquire a certain number of words to communicate effectively in a foreign language. In terms of reading, vocabulary plays an important role in reading comprehension. One cannot achieve reading comprehension if they do not know the meaning of most of the words. According to Anderson and Freebody (1981), text difficulty can be predicted based on the number of difficult words in a text, and the extent of text understanding relies on a reader’s general vocabulary knowledge. However, knowledge of vocabulary is not only able to know partial knowledge but provide in-depth knowledge of the words. However, acquiring vocabulary

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knowledge is not enough to become a successful reader. In fact, several studies point out that many vocabulary instruction methods do not succeed in gaining comprehension development (Mezynski 1983; Pearson and Gallagher 1983; Stahl and Fairbanks 1986). Because reading texts can contain unfamiliar words, word inference greatly contributes to vocabulary development (Nagy, Anderson, and Herman 1987; Nagy, Herman and Anderson 1985). In other words, vocabulary development depends more on reading itself. As Biemiller (2005) suggests, teaching vocabulary, like learning to read words, will not ensure success in reading. However, failure will definitely occur if learners do not have enough skills to identify words or do not have enough vocabulary. According to National Reading Panel’s synthesis of vocabulary research, vocabulary instructions are suggested to:

 be direct for a specific context (Nagy & Judith, 2000)  encounter vocabulary items many times (Stahl, 2005)

 include vocabulary words that the learners will find useful in many contexts.

 restructure vocabulary tasks as necessary.

 involve active engagement which goes beyond definitional knowledge so that vocabulary learning is effective

 use computer technology effectively to help teach vocabulary

 cover multiple vocabulary instruction methods, which may result in optimal learning (NICHD, 2000)

2.3.2. Issues in Vocabulary Acquisition

There is a common assumption that word meaning is the most important factor, so form element is not highly appreciated. According to a lot of research, L2 learners often struggle with word form. A study on words with similar form by Laufer (1988) shows that students usually get confused with words that have similar forms. The most confusing words are words that are similar except for suffixes (comprehensible/comprehensive), and for vowels (adopt/adapt). Bensoussan and

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Laufer (1984) also found that word forms that are mis-analyzed sometimes result in misinterpretation. For example, outline can be interpreted as “out of line”. In addition, there are other words that have similar form in the L2 (Grainger and Dijkstra, 1992) that makes students confused such as pool, polo, pollen, pole, pall, and pill. According to Bogaards (2001), the form of lexical items supports subsequent vocabulary learning, such as learning additional polysemous meaning senses. Therefore, both form and meaning should be considered important.

Another issue in vocabulary acquisition process is the use of L1 in L2 vocabulary learning. Swan (1997) points out that L1 has a significant impact on the learning and use of L2 vocabulary in different ways. Based on psycholinguistic studies, L1 is active during L2 lexical processing in both beginners and high frequency learners (Hall, 2002; Jiang, 2002; Sunderman & Kroll, 2006). The initial form-meaning link consists of the new L2 word form being attached to a representation of the corresponding L1 word which already exist in memory (Hall, 2002), so an L1 translation is a natural vehicle for achieving this, such as with L2-L1 word cards. At the initial stage of learning a language, learners tend not to absorb much contextualized knowledge, so using the L1 to establish initial meaning is beneficial. However, the exposure of new lexical item in L2 contexts is essential to improve contextual word knowledge at next stages. In other words, using L1 to study vocabulary may be appropriate at some stages, but not others. Thus, different teaching methods should be sued at different stages of vocabulary learning.

Moreover, it is believed that the higher frequency of exposing to a new word will lead to the higher likeliness of studying it. According to Craik and Lockhart’s (1972) Depth/Levels of Processing Hypothesis, if an item is given more attention and more manipulation, it is more likely to be remembered. Hulstijin and Laufer (2001) suggests that need, search and evaluation are three components of vocabulary learning process. Need is the desire to complete a task, such as needing to know a particular word in order to understand a passage. Search is the effort to find the required information, such as looking up the dictionary to know the

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211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

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the effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at ton duc thang university

<b>MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY </b>

<b>--- ∞0∞--- </b>

<b>TRAN TU TRINH </b>

<b>THE EFFECT OF EXTENSIVE READING ON READING PERFORMANCE AND VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT </b>

<b>AT TON DUC THANG UNIVERSITY </b>

<b>Major: Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages Major code: 8 14 01 11 </b>

<b>MASTER THESIS </b>

<b>MASTER OF ARTS IN TESOL </b>

<b>Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. PHAM VU PHI HO, Ph.D. </b>

<b>HO CHI MINH CITY, 2021 </b>

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

<b>GIẤY XÁC NHẬN </b>

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

<b>Ý KIẾN CHO PHÉP BẢO VỆ LUẬN VĂN THẠC SĨ CỦA GIẢNG VIÊN HƯỚNG DẪN </b>

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

211The effect of extensive reading on reading performance and vocabulary development at Ton Duc Thang UniversityWednesday, June 12, 2024

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