taxonomy ecology and conservation of snakes serpentes in border areas between laos and son la province

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AND TRAINING AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF FORESTRY

DINH SY TUONG

TAXONOMY, ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION OF SNAKES

(SERPENTES) IN BORDER AREAS BETWEEN LAOS

AND SON LA PROVINCE

MAJOR: FOREST SCIENCE CODE: 8620201

MASTER THESIS IN FOREST SCIENCE

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ABSTRACT

This research was conducted to provide the information of snake species in three communes that border with Laos. Twenty-five species of snakes have been recorded within surveys from May 17

th

- May 28

th

2022, June 10

th

- June 22

nd

2022 and June 25

th

- July 2

nd

2022 in Tan Xuan, Chieng Khua and Chieng Tuong communes. The number of snake species in these three communes has increased to 42. Remarkably, there are 9 new recorded of

species was described (Dendrelaphis, Gonyosoma, Lycodon, Oligodon, Hebius, Pareas, Trimeresurus) for Van Ho District and 3 new recorded for Moc Chau District (Rhabdophis, Protobothrops, Parafimbrios). The main

threats to the snake fauna are created by human activities. Therefore, the research has recommended some solutions for reducing the threats consisting of managing, keeping and protecting snakes in these three communes.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ... 4

2.1. Snake fauna diversity in Southeast Asia ... 4

2.2. Snake fauna research in Vietnam ... 4

2.3. Snake fauna research in Laos ... 8

2.4. Snake diversity in border areas with Laos of Son La Province ... 10

CHAPTER 3: GOAL, OBJECTIVES, AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS11 3.1 Goal ... 11

5.1 Field surveys and data collection ... 18

5.2 Distribution characteristic of snakes ... 31

5.3. Comparisons of the species similarity composition between border areas ... 32

5.4. Evaluating conservation status of snake species ... 32

5.5. Conservation issues ... 33

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CHAPTER VI: RESULTS ... 34

6.1. Snake species composition in the study sites ... 34

6.1.1. List of snakes from these three communes ... 34

6.1.2. New records of snakes in the study sites ... 40

6.1.3. Description of non-new recorded snake species in Tan Xuan, Chieng Khua and Chieng Tuong communes ... 56

6.2. Distribution of snake species across habitat types and elevations in the study site ... 67

6.3.2. Threat to snake fauna in the study site ... 75

6.4. Solutions for conservation and management of snake fauna in the study site. ... 79

CHAPTER VII: DISCUSSIONS ... 81

7.1. Ecological characteristics of snake fauna in the study area ... 81

7.2. Comparisons of the species similarity composition between border areas ... 82

7.3. The snake community of Son La compared to that of Houaphan... 84

CHAPTER VIII: CONCLUSION ... 87

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 5.1. List of survey transects, survey time and participants ... 20

Table 5.2. Field survey note ... 27

Table 5.3. Field survey sheet... 28

Table 5.4. Abbreviations of main morphological characteristics ... 28

Table 5.5. Abbreviations of scales in snake group ... 29

Table 5.6. Distribution of snakes along elevation gradients ... 31

Table 5.7. Macrohabitat selection by snakes in these three communes ... 32

Table 5.8. Microhabitat selection by snakes in these three communes ... 32

Table 5.9. List of threatened species ... 33

Table 6.1. List of recorded snakes from three communes ... 35

Table 6.2. List of threatened species ... 73

Table 7.1. Ecological characteristics of snake fauna by humidity, temperature and collected time... 81

Table 7.2. Similarity index (Sorensen-Dice index) on snake species composition between Son La Province and some neighboring province which also border with Laos ... 83

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. Diversity of snakes in Southeast Asia countries during 2010 – 2022 (Source: Uetz et al. 2022) 4

Figure 2.2. Number of snake species descriptions increases over 12 years in

Vietnam (Source: Uetz et al. 2022) ... 5

Figure 4.1. Study site map ... 16

Figure 4.2. Topography map of these three communes that border with Laos17 Figure 5.1. Map of transects survey in Tan Xuan commune ... 18

Figure 5.2. Map of survey transects in Chieng Khua commune ... 19

Figure 5.3. Map of transects survey in Chieng Tuong commune ... 19

Figure 5.4. Location of funnel trap in the study area ... 21

Figure 5.5. Material for trap making (Design by Russell Gray) ... 22

Figure 5.6. Funnel and trap body (Design by Russell Gray) ... 23

Figure 5.7. Connecting the two heads of the funnel and the trap compartment (Design by Russell Gray) ... 24

Figure 5.8. Fixing and completing the funnel trap (Design by Russell Gray) .... 25

Figure 5.9. Diagram of funnel trap system (Design by Russell Gray) ... 26

Figure 5.10. Scale in head pattern of snake (Manthey & Grossmann, 1997) ... 30

Figure 5.11. Body scale count (Manthey & Grossmann, 1997) ... 30

Figure 5.12: Ventral, subcudal and cloacal scale (Manthey & Grossmann, 1997) ... 30

Figure 6.1. Snake diversity in three communes border with Laos by family and genera ... 39

Figure 6.2. Snake species from this study in comparison with previous document ………. 40

Figure 6.3. (A) Dorsal and (B) ventral views of Dendrelaphis ngansonensis (TX2.22.44). Photos by Tuong. S. Dinh ... 41

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Figure 6.4. (A) Dorsal and (B) ventral views of Dendrelaphis pictus (TX2.22.06). Photos by Tuong. S. Dinh ... 42 Figure 6.5. (A) Dorsal and (B) ventral views of Gonyosoma boulengeri (TX2.22.36). Photos by Tuong. S. Dinh ... 43 Figure 6.6. (A) Dorsal and (B) ventral views of Lycodon fasciatus (TX.22.05). Photos by Tuong. S. Dinh ... 45

Figure 6.7. (A) Dorsal and (B) ventral views of Oligodon chinensis

(TX2.22.40). Photos by Tuong. S. Dinh ... 46

Figure 6.8. (A) Dorsal and (B) ventral views of Hebius chapaensis

(TX2.22.30). Photos by Tuong. S. Dinh ... 47

Figure 6.9. (A) Dorsal and (B) ventral views of Pareas carinatus

(TX2.22.42). Photos by Tuong. S. Dinh ... 48

Figure 6.10. (A) Dorsal and (B) ventral views of Pareas hamptoni

(TX2.22.41). Photos by Tuong. S. Dinh ... 49 Family Viperidae Oppel, 1811 ... 49

Figure 6.11. (A) Dorsal and (B) ventral views of Trimeresurus cf. guoi

(TX2.22.39). Photos by Tuong. S. Dinh ... 51

Figure 6.12. (A) Dorsal and (B) ventral views of Rhabdophis helleri

(CK2.22.40). Photos by Thinh. L. Nghiem ... 53 Family Viperidae Oppel, 1811 ... 53

Figure 6.13. (A) Dorsal and (B) ventral views of Protobothrops mucrosquamatus (CK.22.37). Photos by Thinh. L. Nghiem ... 54

Family Xenodermatidae Gray, 1849 ... 54

Figure 6.14. Dorsal view of Parafimbrios cf. lao (CK2.22.18). Photos by

Vinh. Q. Luu ... 56

Figure 6.15. (A) Dorsal and (B) ventral views of Ahaetulla prasina

(CK.22.08). Photos by Duc. T. Ha ... 58

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Figure 6.16. (A) Dorsal and (B) ventral views of Calamaria pavimentata

(TX2.22.03). Photos by Tuong. S. Dinh ... 59

Figure 6.17. (A) Dorsal and (B) ventral views of Lycodon futsingensis (TX2.22.17). Photos by Tuong. S. Dinh ... 60

Figure 6.18. (A) Dorsal and (B) ventral views of Oreocryptophis porphyraceus (TX2.22.43). Photos by Tuong. S. Dinh ... 61

Figure 6.19. (A) Dorsal and (B) ventral views of Ptyas korros (TX.22.01). Photos by Duc. T. Ha ... 63

Family Natricidae Bonaparte, 1838 ... 63

Figure 6.20. (A) Dorsal and (B) ventral views of Fowlea flavipunctatus (CK.22.06). Photos by Tuong. S. Dinh ... 64

Figure 6.21. (A) Dorsal and (B) ventral views of Trimerodytes percarinatus (TX2.22.15). Photos by Phuong. V. Nguyen ... 66

Family Viperidae Oppel, 1811 ... 66

Figure 6.22. (A) Dorsal and (B) ventral views of Protobothrops mucrosquamatus (TX2.22.14). Photos by Tuong. S. Dinh ... 67

Figure 6.23: Number of species distribution by elevation ranges ... 69

Figure 6.24: Number of family and species distribution by elevation ranges 69 Figure 6.25: Number of family and species distribution by habitats ... 71

Figure 6.26. Graph show the number of species distribution in microhabitats72 Figure 6.27. Milpa in Tan Xuan Commune ... 75

Photo by Vinh. Q. Luu ... 75

Figure 6.28. Milpa in Chieng Khua Commune ... 76

Photo by Tuong. S. Dinh ... 76

Figure 6.29. One adult Dendrelaphis pictus dead on road by road kill. Photo by Vinh. Q. Luu... 77

Figure 6.30. One adult male Trimeresurus cf. guoi dead on the mipla by human kill in Tan Xuan commnune. Photo by Tuong. S. Dinh ... 77

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Figure 6.31. One adult Dendrelaphis pictus dead on road by human kill.

Photo by Vinh. Q. Luu ... 78

Figure 6.32. One adult Elaphe taeniura dead on the road by human kill in

Chieng Khua commnune. Photo by Thinh. L. Nghiem ... 78 Figure 7.1. Analysis of groupings of similarity in species composition between Son La Province and some neighboring province which also border with Laos (bootstrap replicates 1000 times) ... 83

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Currently, there are about 4000 species of snakes belonging to 520 genera and 20 families distributed in the world except Antarctica, and on most smaller land masses (Uetz et al. 2022). Despite their unwarranted reputation, snakes are critically important animals for our world. Snakes maintain balance in the food web and therefore keep ecosystems healthy. They provide humans an ecological service by controlling pest populations. Snakes are truly interesting and amazing animals, which are celebrated or worshiped in cultures around the globe. Yet, due to increased conflict with humans, several snake species are under threat of extinction. According to (Bohm et al. 2013), the percentage of threatened snake species worldwide is 11.7%. There are many threats to snakes including habitat loss, road kill, human kill and poachers (Santos et al. 2008; Datta et al. 2018).

Vietnam is home for more than 200 snakes, particularly in the tropical forest habitats (Uetz et al. 2022). In Vietnam, snakes distribute from the north to the south region. The threats of snakes in Vietnam, same as in many other countries across the continent, include habitat loss, hunting, poaching, snake wine (Somaweera & Somaweera 2010; Vassilieva et al. 2016).

Vietnam and Laos share a border with a total length of more than 2,000 km (Sterling et al. 2006). The area with limestone mountain ecosystems adjacent to Laos is mainly concentrated in some provinces including: Dien Bien, Son La, Thanh Hoa, Nghe An, Ha Tinh, Quang Binh and Thua Thien-Hue (Do 2001; Sterling et al. 2006, Grismer et al. 2021). This limestone mountain ecosystem has an altitude from 0 to more than 2,000 m above sea level and has a diverse structure such as terrestrial islands, mountain ranges, caves, etc. biological and highly endemic. Furthermore, structures like natural

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islands, providing distinct micro-habitats, will play an important role in the evolution of species (Sterling et al. 2006, Grismer et al. 2021). However, this mountain ecosystem is very sensitive to human impact and once affected, it is very difficult to restore. Limestone ranges in Vietnam have been exploited and unsustainably used for infrastructure development and tourism (Luu & Lo, 2018).

Son La Province is located in the Northwest region of Vietnam bordering with Laos (Houaphanh province). In 2009, Nguyen et al. recorded 42 snake species for Son La province. In the following years Pham et al. (2013 and 2014) recorded 11 more species. In 2015, there were two species

recorded for the first time in Vietnam: Trimerodytes yunnanensis by Le et al. and Parafimbrios lao by Teynié et al. at Sop Cop and Copia Nature Reserve. By 2019, also in the Copia Nature Reserve, a new species Achalinus timi by

Ziegler et al. for science was described. In 2019, Luu et al. published a new

record of Ptyas nigromarginata for Son La. In 2020, Pham et al. published 5

more new record species of snakes. In 2021, Dinh et al. published a new

record of Naja kaouthia for this province. Currently, there is one new species Achalinus vanhoensis have been published in Van Ho district by Ha et al.

(2022), combination with the previous data to bringing the total number of snakes to the whole Son La province to 64 species.

Tan Xuan, Chieng Tuong and Chieng Khua are three communes of Son La Province that border with Laos, there is not many specific investigations, studies and reports on fauna from these communes, in Tan Xuan commune already have 2 previous research from Nguyen et al. (2009) and Nguyen et al. (2010) have been published 32 species in Xuan Nha commune and Xuan Nha Nature Reserve. Currently the information on vertebrates in these three

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communes is almost unknown, especially about snakes are a group of little concern such as: species diversity, conservation status and habitat.

Therefore, I will conduct research on the topic: "Taxonomy, Ecology

and Conservation of snakes (Serpentes) in border area between Laos and Son La Province". The main purpose of this study is to explore the diversity,

ecology and conservation of snakes in the area mentioned above.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Snake fauna diversity in Southeast Asia

The number of snake species have slightly increased in some of Southeast Asia countries from 2010 up to now, including: Timor Leste increased only 1 species bring the number of snakes from 14 to 15 species, Myanmar, Malaysia, Laos, Philippines and Cambodia increased by 12, 10, 8, 6 and 5 species, respectively with total being 223 (Malaysia), 191 (Myanmar), 147 (Philippines), 113 (Laos) and 102 (Cambodia). Thailand and Indonesia have increased 20 species a total of 238 and 371 respectively. Vietnam have the highest increases of snakes in Southeast Asia with 37 species and total 262. In two other countries, Singapore and Brunei there were no new species descriptions for snakes (Uetz et al. 2022).

Figure 2.1. Diversity of snakes in Southeast Asia countries during 2010 – 2022 (Source: Uetz et al. 2022)

2.2. Snake fauna research in Vietnam

In 2022, the total number of snake species in Vietnam is 262 (Uetz et al. 2022). Snakes are widely distributed in many areas of Vietnam including plains, midland, mountainous, nature forest, stream and river. The number of snake species has increased rapidly when new species have been described

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consecutive in recent years. Thirty-two new snake species are found in twelve years (Figure 2.1)

Figure 2.2. Number of snake species descriptions increases over 12 years in Vietnam (Source: Uetz et al. 2022)

The book Herpetofauna of Vietnam was published by Nguyen et al. (2009) noted that Vietnam has 190 species of snakes. Also in 2009, there are

5 new species of snake have been found in Vietnam including: Calamaria abramovi in Kon Tum Province by Nikolai L Orlov (2009), Calamaria gialaiensis in Gia Lai Province by Ziegler et al. (2009), Colubroelaps nguyenvansangi in Lam Dong province by Orlov et al. (2009), Calamaria sangi in Kon Tum Province by Nguyen et al. (2009), Protobothrops trungkhanhensis in Cao Bang Province by Orlov et al. (2009). Based on the

data from Uetz et al. (2022), compare with the previous study and the new species combine, the total number of snakes in 2009 were 228 species. In 2010, there was only 1 new species have been found in Thua Thien – Hue,

229 231232

234 236237

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Calamaria concolor by Orlov et al. (2010) to increased the number of snakes

in Vietnam into 229 species. Beside that, there was research about the species diversity in Xuan Nha Nature Reserve, Son La Province by Nguyen et al. (2010) have been recorded 28 snake species for the species composition in this Nature Reserve. In 2011, 2 new species have been found Vietnam

including Opisthotropis cucae in Kon Tum Province by David et al. (2011) and Emydocephalus szczerbaki in Ba Ria - Vung Tau by Dotsenko (2011),

Geissler et al. have been published 51 snakes in Cat Tien National Park, Dong Nai and Lam Dong Province and Nguyen et al. published 20 species for the Biosphere Reserve Cat Ba Archipelago, Hai Phong at the same year. In 2012,

1 new species have been found in Cao Bang Province Oligodon nagao by

David et al. (2012). In 2013, there were 2 new species have been found in

Vietnam, Azemiops kharini in Tam Dao Province by Orlov et al. (2013) and Oligodon cattienensis in Lam Dong Province by Vassilieva et al. (2013), also

in 2013, Luu et al. published 58 snakes in Phong Nha – Ke Bang National Park. Moreover, Hoang et al. (2013) provided a checklist of herpetofauna for Kon Ka Kinh National Park including 21 snake species, Nguyen & Hoang, (2013) provided a checklist of herpetofauna for Binh Chau – Phuoc Buu Nature Reserve including 28 snake species, Dang & Nguyen, (2013) provided a checklist of vertebrate for Phia Oac – Phia Den National Park including 7 snake species. In 2014, Le et al., has published 46 snakes in Dien Bien, Pham et al., has published 51 snakes in Son La Province and Ziegler et al., published 30 snakes in Ha Giang Province and Nguyen et al., has published 10 snakes in Xuan Son National Park, Phu Tho Province. In 2015, there were

2 new species Oligodon arenarius in Ba Ria-Vung Tau by Vassilieva, (2015) and Cylindrophis jodiae in Central Vietnam by Amarasinghe et al. (2015),

Pham et al. (2015) has published 25 snakes in Son La Province. In 2016, a

new species Oligodon condaoensis was found in Hon Ba Island by Nguyen et

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al. (2016), during 2016, Pham et al., published 25 snakes in Phu Yen District, Son La Province and Nguyen et al., published 38 snake species in Xuan Lien Nature Reserve, Thanh Hoa Province. In 2017, another new species from

genus Oligodon was found Quang Nam Province, Oligodon culaochamensis

by Nguyen et al. (2017). There were few research about species diversity also in 2017 including: Tran Thi Hong Ngoc reported 18 species of snakes in Trang An World Heritage - Natural Culture Area, Nguyen et al., report 21 snakes in Muong Bang area, Phu Yen, Son La Province and Pham et al., has published 20 snakes in Son La and Dien Bien Province. In 2018, there were 2

new species have been found in Vietnam, Opisthotropis voquyi in Bac Giang and Parafimbrios vietnamensis in Lai Chau by Ziegler et al. (2018), there are

2 papers dealing with snake species published including: Le et al. reported with 25 species in Yen Bai Province and Nguyen et al. reported 43 species in Hoa Binh Province. In 2019, Hoang Van Ngoc & Pham Van Anh has published 51 snakes in Thai Nguyen Province, Pham Van Anh & Nguyen Quang Truong published 26 snakes in Lai Chau Province, Nguyen et al., has published 26 snakes in Binh Dinh Province and there are 9 new snake species

have been published including: Opisthotrips haihaensis in Quang Ninh Province, Calamaria dominici in Dak Nong, Achalinus juliani in Cao Bang

Province, Achalinus timi in Son La Province, Achalinus emilyae in Quang

Ninh by Ziegler et al. (2019), Lycodon namdongensis in Thanh Hoa Province by Luu et al. (2019), Calamaria strigiventris in Lam Dong Province and Liopeltis pallidonuchalis in Gia Lai Province by Poyarkov et al. (2019), and Lycodon pictus in Cao Bang Province by Janssen et al. (2019). There are 3

new snake species have been published including:Oligodon rostralis in Biduop-Nui Ba NP, Lam Dong by Nguyen et al. (2020), Achalinus tranganensisin Trang An, Ninh Binh by Luu et al. (2020) and Achalinus zugorum in Ha Giang Province by Miller et al. (2020). Also in 2020, Luu et al

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already reported in BV-NP 50 species including 36 snake species. Also, this year, Pham et al reported 61 species of snake in Son La Province. In 2021,

there are 3 new species have been published including: Ahaetulla rufusoculara in Soc Trang province by Lam et al., Hebius igneus in Tuyen Quang province by David et al., Pareas temporalis in Lam Dong province by

Le et al. Currently in 2022, there are 5 new species have been published

including: Lycodon anakradaya and Lycodon truongi in Khanh Hoa by Nguyen et al., Pareas abros in Quang Nam, Thua-Thien Hue and Pareas kuznetsovorum in Phu Yen by Poyarkov et al., Achalinus vanhoensis in Son

La by Ha et al..

2.3. Snake fauna research in Laos

The knowledge on the species diversity of snakes in Laos has remarkably increased during the last decade. Stuart (1999) reported the first checklist of snakes from Laos with a total of 57 recognized species. Teynié et al. (2004) published an updated checklist of reptiles from southern Laos with a total of 27 snake species. Four years later, Stuart and Heatwole (2008) recorded 13 additional species of colubrid and viperid snakes from the country. Nguyen et al. (2009) published the checklist of amphibian and reptiles from Vietnam with a total of 79 snake species distribution in Laos based on the species of Vietnam. In 2010, Das published 100 species of snake from the book “A field guide to the reptiles of South-East Asia”. The species number of snakes from Laos was 104 also in 2010 (Teynié and David 2010). In 2012, two new

species of snake have been found from Laos including: Lycodon davidi (Vogel et al. 2012), and Oligodon nagao (David et al. 2012). In 2014, a new

species from family Natricidae have been describe in Louangphabang, Laos

name: Opisthotropis durandi (Teynié et al. 2014). In 2015, another new species Parafimbrios lao from family Xenodermatidae have been found in

Louangphabang, Laos (Teynié et al. 2015). Vassilieva et al. (2016) published

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the field guide to the amphibians and reptiles of the lowland monsoon forests of Southern Vietnam with a total of 43 snake species distribution in Laos based on the species of Vietnam. Two year later, a new species from genus

Lycodon have been discovered in Khammounane, Laos Lycodon banksi by

Luu et al. (2018). Another two year later, Ding et al. (2020) published a new

species Pareas geminatus in Houaphan and Xaisomboun Province, Laos. Next year, a new species Calamaria nebulosa have been found in Phongsaly

Province, Laos by Lee, 2021. At present, the number of snake species from Laos is 113 species (Uetz et al. 2022).

- Snake fauna research in north-eastern region of Laos

Houaphan is a northeastern province of Laos that border with Son La province of Vietnam. The study of herpetofauna in this area still limited, there are only 6 publications about snake fauna in this province. In 1998, Bryan

Stuart have been published 6 snake species (including: Python bivittatus, Malayopython reticulatus, Elaphe taeniura, Lycodon cf. capucinus, Oreocryptophis porphyraceus, Bungarus candidus) in Nam Et-Phou Louey

National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Houaphan province. In 2008, Stuart

and Heatwole recorded 1 individual of Trimerodytes percarinatus from Phou

Louey National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Houaphanh province. In

2015, Teynié et al. found a new species Parafimbrios lao from family

Xenodermatidae in Houaphanh province by a second specimen. 5 year later, Nguyen et al. (2020) give the information of 5 more species that distribution

in Houaphanh province including: Dendrelaphis cf. cyanochloris, Hebius chapaensis, Pareas hamptoni, Pareas macularius, Pareas margaritophorus. Also in 2020, Ding et al. (2020) published a new species Pareas geminatus in

Houaphan. Next year, Zuklin et al. (2021) observe more 8 species in Nam Et

Phou Louey National Park including: Ahaetulla prasina, Boiga multomaculata, Ptyas korros, Ptyas multicincta, Fowlea flavipunctatus,

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Ophiophagus hannah, Trimeresurus albolabris, Trimeresurus vogeli. Currently in 2022, a new country record of species Trimerodytes yapingi in

this area have been published by Dinh et al., the number of snakes in Houaphan province is 23 species (temporary).

2.4. Snake diversity in border areas with Laos of Son La Province

In 2009, Nguyen et al. have been recorded 25 species in Xuan Nha Commune. Next year, Nguyen et al. (2010) provided a checklist of amphibian and reptile with total 28 snake species. Recently, there is no article or any research about herpetofauna in Chieng Tuong, Chieng Khua and Tan Xuan. All of document or research in Son La focus on Xuan Nha Nature Reserve, Sop Cop Nature Reserve, Copia Nature Reserve, Thuan Chau District, Song Ma District, Phu Yen District (Pham et al. 2013; Pham et al. 2014; Pham et al. 2020).

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CHAPTER 3: GOAL, OBJECTIVES, AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS 3.1 Goal

 To provide basic information about diversity of snake species composition and to recommend solutions for conservation of snake fauna in

three study sites of Son La province border with Laos.

3.2 Specific Objectives

 To investigate the snake species composition in the study sites.

 To identify the distribution of snake species across habitat types and

elevations in the study sites.

 To assess threats to snake fauna in the study sites.

 To recommend solutions for conservation and management of snake

fauna in the study sites.

3.3 Research Questions

- How many snakes are there?

- Which habitat types and elevation does they usually live?

- What factor can be their threats?

- Which solution can be used in order to protect and manage their populations?

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CHAPTER IV: STUDY AREA 4.1. Location

a. Tan Xuan Commune

According to the resolution 155 of Son La Province People's Council (2006) and People's Committee of Tan Xuan Commune (2013): Tan Xuan has total nature area 15,819.3 hectares, in which agriculture land is 985.1

hectares. Tan Xuan commune has 9 villages including: Buot, Dong Ta Lao, Tay Ta Lao, Nga, Bun, Lay, Moc Moc, A Lang, Sa Lai villages.

Coordinates: Latitude: 20⁰ 37’56.30” North/ Longitude:104⁰ 44’25.54” East The North border Xuan Nha commune, Chieng Xuan commune, Moc Chau district, Son La Province.

The South border Tam Chung commune, Trung Ly commune, Muong Lat district, Thanh Hoa Province.

The East border Cun Pheo commune, Mai Chau district, Hoa Binh Province, Trung Son commune, Quan Hoa district, Thanh Hoa Province. The West border Sop Bau district, Laos; Chieng Son commune, Moc Chau district.

b. Chieng Khua Commune

According to the People's Committee of Chieng Khua Commune (2020): Chieng Khua is a commune in Moc Chau district, Son La province, Vietnam. Chieng Khua commune has an area of 84.36 km².

Coordinates: Latitude: 20⁰ 50’33.46” North/ Longitude:104⁰ 27’38.46” East Chieng Khua commune is located adjacent to:

- The Northeast borders Chieng Hac commune. - The East borders Muong Sang commune.

- The West borders Chieng Tuong commune, Yen Chau district. - The South borders the Lao People’s Democratic Republic. - The Southeast borders on Long Sap commune.

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c. Chieng Tuong Commune

According to the People’s Committee of Chieng Tuong commune (2021): Chieng Tuong is a highland commune, bordering Yen Chau district; located along the Long Phieng Chieng Khua inter-commune road, 52 km from the district center, 21 km from the border with Laos. The total natural area is 6,995.5 ha, including 9 families and brothers living together, the commune has 9 villages (in which: 4 border villages).

Coordinates: Latitude: 20⁰ 50’33.46” North/ Longitude:104⁰ 27’38.46” East - The Eastern borders Chieng Khua commune.

- The Northern borders Long Phieng commune.

- The West borders Mong Nam area, Xieng Kho district, Houaphan province, Laos

- The Southern border is adjacent to Mong Nam commune (Laos).

4.2. Climate

a. Tan Xuan Commune

According to the climate zoning of Son La province, Tan Xuan is a commune located in Zone II, influenced by the climate of the northwest

mountainous region with the following main characteristics:

- The average temperature in the year is 19.5

o

C. - The average annual humidity is 85%.

- The total average rainfall is 125mm/month.

- Sunny: The average total number of sunshine hours per year is 1,850 hours/year.

Tan Xuan is influenced by two main wind directions: the northeast monsoon blows in the cold season and the southeast wind blows in the hot season. In the cold season months, the amount of evaporation is higher than the rainfall, so it often causes drought, especially in the cold season months, the temperature drops to low 30 – 70 for many years, greatly affecting the productivity of crops and livestock.

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b. Chieng Khua Commune

According to the monitoring data of the hydro-meteorological station in the Moc Chau area, the measured climate and weather factors are as follows:

- The average temperature in the year is 17.5°C. - The average annual humidity is 80%.

- Total average rainfall is 130 mm/month.

- Total average sunshine hours per year is 1,850 hours/year

c. Chieng Tuong Commune

Chieng Tuong has two distinct seasons: the rainy season and the dry season. The rainy season often causes floods and inundation in some villages, washing away crops and agricultural products of the people. The dry season lasts from December to August next year, there are months when the temperature rises to 32 – 33 degrees while the peak is up to 34 – 35 degrees. Being a highland commune with few rivers and streams, combined with a long dry season, and scarce water resources, many villages lack daily water for up to a week, even people in the village have to wake up early to wait for water for daily use for families.

4.3. Forestry resources

a. Tan Xuan Commune

According to the 2010 inventory data, the forest area of the commune is 10,178.68 ha, the coverage is 64%. Of which, 452.61 ha is protection forest, 2,246.27 ha is production forest, 7,479.80 ha is special-use forest. The forest area of the commune is still relatively large, with many rare and precious animals and plants. In the coming time, it is necessary to continue to protect the existing forest area, especially the special-use forest area.

The natural area of the commune: 15,855.00 ha. Which includes:

- Agricultural land 11,100.92 ha, accounting for 69.45% of the total natural area of the commune.

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+ Wetland rice land: 63.80 ha

+ Land for upland rice cultivation: 340.00 ha + Land for growing annual crops: 392.24 ha + Land for perennial crops: 34.50 ha

+ Protection of forest land: 452.61 ha + Special-use forest land: 7,479.80 ha + Production forest land: 2,246.27 ha + Land for aquaculture: 1.70 ha

- Non-agricultural land: 162.96 ha, accounting for 1.03% of the total natural area.

+ Residential land (residential areas): 23.96 ha.

+ Land for headquarters, non-business agencies: 0.97 ha. + Defense land: 3.50 ha

+ Land for public purposes: 45.13 ha

+ Land for cemeteries and graveyards: 3.00 ha.

+ Land for rivers, streams and water surface for special use: 62.44 ha - Unused land 4,705.08 ha, accounting for 29.68% of the total natural area.

b. Chieng Khua Commune

Strengthen the management and protection of existing forests, propagate, inspect, protect, prevent and handle acts according to competence and regulations; signed a contract with the village management board and households to take care of and protect the forest in 2019.

In 2019, the inspection found 5 violations, down 31 cases compared to the same period in 2018, of which the main violations were illegal clearing of forests for cultivation in 5 cases with a damaged area of 5,674m

2

. The People’s Committee made a dossier and issued a decision to suspend 2 cases. Transfer 3 cases to the district for handling

The terrain of the commune is complicatedly divided, there are 3 types of terrain as follows:

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- High mountainous terrain, concentrated in the areas adjacent to Chieng Tuong commune, Yen Chau district and the area bordering Vietnam – Laos, the average altitude is about 1000 – 1200 m a.s.l.

- The terrain is a low hill and alluvial, with an average altitude of 700 – 900 m above sea level, this terrain is distributed in Xa Lu, Ong Ly …

c. Chieng Tuong Commune

The total natural area of the commune is 6,993.00 ha, of which agricultural land is 4203.53 ha, forestry land and capable of growing industrial crops is 3362.75 ha, specialized land 108.77 ha, land at 10.86 ha, unused land 2597.10 ha. The land of Chieng Tuong commune is mainly hilly and rocky, suitable for growing short- and long-term industrial crops, although it is a mountainous and rocky area, it is capable of producing precious timber trees, medicinal herbs and stones as raw materials for production. Production and construction materials.

Figure 4.1. Study site map

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Figure 4.2. Topography map of these three communes that border with Laos

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CHAPTER V: METHODS 5.1 Field surveys and data collection

a. Preparation and Equipment

Before conducting field survey, we have to study, identify snake species, searching information from documents and internet related to investigation and composition of snake in that area. Besides, the map linked to the study area and materials about snake identification were also prepared in advanced. Therefore, there were some special tools and chemicals for survey activities such as: surgical instruments, bottle for preserving specimens, camera, headlamp, etiket, GPS, ethanol, ethyl acetate, cloth bag, snake tong and snake hook.

b. Field surveys

- Site selection: Survey sites have been selected at elevation ranges

from 400 to 1000 m above sea level (a.s.l.).

- Survey time: from May 17

th

2022 to May 25

th

2022; June 10

th

2022 to June 21

st

2022 and June 25

th

2022 to July 2

nd

2022.

Figure 5.1. Map of transects survey in Tan Xuan commune

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Figure 5.2. Map of survey transects in Chieng Khua commune

Figure 5.3. Map of transects survey in Chieng Tuong commune

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Table 5.1. List of survey transects, survey time and participants

No Location Transect

number Transect name

Survey time (day)

Survey team (people)

1

Tan Xuan Commune,

Van Ho District

Transect 1 Lay village – Bun village 2 3 Transect 2 Bamboo forest (Bun village) 3 4 Transect 3 Bun stream (Bun village) 4 4 Transect 4 Rice field (Bun village) 2 4 Transect 9 In stream (Bun village) 3 4

2

Chieng Khua Commune,

Moc Chau District

Transect 5 Rice field (Ong Ly village) 3 4 Transect 6 Ong Ly stream (Ong Ly village) 4 4

Transect 11 Huoi Tu forest (Ong Ly village) 1 4 Transect 12 Huoi Luong stream (Ong Ly village) 1 4 3 Chieng

Tuong Commune,

Yen Chau District

Transect 7 Pa Khom Cave (Pa Khom village) 2 4

Transect 8 Pa Khom Stream (Pa Khom village) 2 4

c. Data collection

- Main collection time from 19:00 pm to 23:00 pm

- Collecting method: All specimens catched by hand (if venomous) or by snake tong and snake hook (if venomous). After that taking photographs and note information of species in survey note, the common species released to their environment. Individuals could not identify in the field or potential new species. They (1-2 specimens for one potential new species or unknown species) were collected for taxonomic and identification at the laboratory of VNUF

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- Funnel trap: In the line transect survey, investigators will observe both sides and along of the transect to find the species. However, with hiding behaviour like snake will be very difficult to detect, especially for some species that have the ability to camouflage like the environment. In addition, even when investigators detect the species, it is difficult to accurately identify them at the field because many species have same morphologically to other species, so it is necessary to collect specimens for examination and categorize, then release them back into their environment. To ensure this method is working well, it is necessary to increase the frequency and duration of surveys on the line transect. However, this solution will be inefficient in terms of finance and time, and it will impact on the species living around the transect. Therefore, in order to enhance the ability to record species and not affect their living around the transect, as well as save time and finance for surveys on snakes, the solution of setting the funnel traps will ensure more optimal results (Scott et al. 1994 and Fisher & Rochester, 2012).

Figure 5.4. Location of funnel trap in the study area

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- Steps for design and set up funnel trap Step 1: material preparation

Trap material: flexible metal mesh, with a mesh size of 1x1 mm; 1 mm diameter ductile steel wire.

Cut 2 sheets of material 100 cm x 70 cm and a circle with a diameter of 100 cm, then cut the circle in half (Figure 5.5).

Figure 5.5. Material for trap making (Design by Russell Gray)

Step 2: trap making

Fold the rectangular 100 cm mesh of compartment 1 down about 3 cm from the other side (1), fold the remaining 3 cm up and pin it back to create

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creases on both sides (3). Press the pinned side down the fold of the other side to open the compartment and fold the other two sides to form a rectangular (4-5) prismatic structure.

Fold the staples back and pin them flat on the drawer (6). Then, fold the half circle along the straight sides until there is a hole about 6 cm to 10 cm wide and pin it to the top of the fold, then join the two overlapping body and funnel pieces to pin in place (7). (8) (Figure 5.6).

Figure 5.6. Funnel and trap body (Design by Russell Gray)

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Insert the funnel into the compartment, fold the top of the funnel over the edges of the compartment and pin it in place.

Insert compartment 2 (C2) into the funnel of compartment 1 (C1) about 10 cm, then fold the body of C1 into the body of C2 and secure it with a stapler. At the same time, it is possible to knit a 1 mm diameter flexible steel wire between the two folds of C1 and C2 to connect the two compartments (Figure 5.7).

Figure 5.7. Connecting the two heads of the funnel and the trap compartment (Design by Russell Gray)

Push the edges on the back of the 2 compartments close together to form a triangular fold on both sides, then fix with pins and then tie the tail of the trap with flexible iron wire (Figure 5.8).

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Figure 5.8. Fixing and completing the funnel trap (Design by Russell Gray)

Set up the funnel trap in the field survey

Step 1: Select mixed forest habitat with many wooden tree species, slope less than 15-degree, high humidity and few people walking around. At least 20 meters from trails.

Step 2: Choose the central tree

Look around, choose a tree with a diameter of about 15-20 cm. Ensure enough firmness, do not tilt, do not fall by the impact of human or wind.

Step 3: shape determination before set up trap

From the central tree determined into 3 grid lines, corresponding to 3 corners of about 120 degree each, stretch the nylon rope to fix the line with 3 trees in 3 branches, each line has a total length of 10 m.

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Step 4: Trap set up

Dig a trench 20 cm deep, 10 cm wide, and spread evenly to both sides, and at the same time take a bamboo stick, split it in half, and then drive it deep into the ground with a depth of about 20-25 cm to make a pillar, each pillar is placed 1 m apart.

After digging a trench to spread the net along the length of the trench, determine the depth of the net corresponding to the depth of the trench and fix the net with a small malleable iron wire (with a diameter of 0.5 mm) to the bamboo pole and rope nylon.

After making the grid, the 3 grid lines connect together to form a Y shape.

Set traps at the ends of the net, each grid line put 2 funnel traps at 2 ends, trap mouths facing each other. After setting up the trap, fix the trap with flexible iron wire by connecting the trap to the net.

Figure 5.9. Diagram of funnel trap system (Design by Russell Gray)

- Specimen fixing and preserving:

- Anaesthetization: Within 24 hours after collecting, the selected animals anaesthetized and euthanized in a closed vessel with a piece of cotton wool containing ethyl acetate (Simmons, 2002).

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- Collection tag: Every collected specimen labeled directly with a tag providing information about the locality (e.g., TX; CK; CT, field number and the date of collection. Later, it had labeled with a museum number (VNUF).

- Fixing in 80% ethanol for 4-6 hours, and then transfer to 70% ethanol for permanent storage. Tissue samples preserved separately in 95% ethanol for further study.

- Specimen management: Collected specimens deposited in the collection of Vietnam National University of Forestry (VNUF), Hanoi, Vietnam

- The following abiotic data was recorded for every single collected individual.

- Geographic coordinates and elevation track with GPS Garmin 62st or GPSmap 78s. Air temperature and humidity were measured with a digital compact thermos-hygro-barometer (Atech, model: KW307-CSJ, accuracy 0.1% for temperature, 1% for relative humidity). Additionally, information regarding the habitat as well as the distance to the ground and the presence of a stream or trail will be record.

All the data in the survey time recorded in a survey note and survey sheet (Table 5.2 & 5.3)

Table 5.2. Field survey note

Transect name………; Day….... month…. year 2022

Species name………; Name of GPS……… Coordinate……….../...; Elevation……..m Temperature……0C, Humidity %...; Time ...: …….’

Habitat………… ………; Specimens metaphor……

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Table 5.3. Field survey sheet

NameField

Table 5.4. Abbreviations of main morphological characteristics

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Table 5.5. Abbreviations of scales in snake group

No Abbreviation Explanation

2 In Internasal scale

4 SL Supralabial scales 5 IL Infralabial scales

9 Pf Prefrontal scale 10 PostOc Postocular scales 11 Preoc Preocular scales

13 Atem Anterior temporal 14 Ptem Posterior temporal 15 VEN Ventral scales 16 SC Subcaudal scales 17 DSR Dorsal scale rows

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Figure 5.10. Scale in head pattern of snake (Manthey & Grossmann, 1997)

Figure 5.11. Body scale count (Manthey & Grossmann, 1997)

a) Oblique count, b) V-shape count, c) Alternate count

Figure 5.12: Ventral, subcudal and cloacal scale (Manthey & Grossmann, 1997)

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taxonomy ecology and conservation of snakes serpentes in border areas between laos and son la province

<b>DINH SY TUONG </b>

<b>TAXONOMY, ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION OF SNAKES </b>

<i><b>(SERPENTES) IN BORDER AREAS BETWEEN LAOS </b></i>

<b>AND SON LA PROVINCE </b>

MAJOR: FOREST SCIENCE CODE: 8620201

<b>MASTER THESIS IN FOREST SCIENCE </b>

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<b>ABSTRACT </b>

This research was conducted to provide the information of snake species in three communes that border with Laos. Twenty-five species of snakes have been recorded within surveys from May 17

- May 28

2022, June 10

- June 22

2022 and June 25

- July 2

2022 in Tan Xuan, Chieng Khua and Chieng Tuong communes. The number of snake species in these three communes has increased to 42. Remarkably, there are 9 new recorded of

<i>species was described (Dendrelaphis, Gonyosoma, Lycodon, Oligodon, Hebius, Pareas, Trimeresurus) for Van Ho District and 3 new recorded for Moc Chau District (Rhabdophis, Protobothrops, Parafimbrios). The main </i>

threats to the snake fauna are created by human activities. Therefore, the research has recommended some solutions for reducing the threats consisting of managing, keeping and protecting snakes in these three communes.

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<b>CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ... 4 </b>

2.1. Snake fauna diversity in Southeast Asia ... 4

2.2. Snake fauna research in Vietnam ... 4

2.3. Snake fauna research in Laos ... 8

2.4. Snake diversity in border areas with Laos of Son La Province ... 10

<b>CHAPTER 3: GOAL, OBJECTIVES, AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS11 </b>3.1 Goal ... 11

5.1 Field surveys and data collection ... 18

5.2 Distribution characteristic of snakes ... 31

5.3. Comparisons of the species similarity composition between border areas ... 32

5.4. Evaluating conservation status of snake species ... 32

5.5. Conservation issues ... 33

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<b>CHAPTER VI: RESULTS ... 34 </b>

6.1. Snake species composition in the study sites ... 34

6.1.1. List of snakes from these three communes ... 34

6.1.2. New records of snakes in the study sites ... 40

6.1.3. Description of non-new recorded snake species in Tan Xuan, Chieng Khua and Chieng Tuong communes ... 56

6.2. Distribution of snake species across habitat types and elevations in the study site ... 67

6.3.2. Threat to snake fauna in the study site ... 75

6.4. Solutions for conservation and management of snake fauna in the study site. ... 79

<b>CHAPTER VII: DISCUSSIONS ... 81 </b>

7.1. Ecological characteristics of snake fauna in the study area ... 81

7.2. Comparisons of the species similarity composition between border areas ... 82

7.3. The snake community of Son La compared to that of Houaphan... 84

<b>CHAPTER VIII: CONCLUSION ... 87 </b>

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<b>LIST OF TABLES </b>

Table 5.1. List of survey transects, survey time and participants ... 20

Table 5.2. Field survey note ... 27

Table 5.3. Field survey sheet... 28

Table 5.4. Abbreviations of main morphological characteristics ... 28

Table 5.5. Abbreviations of scales in snake group ... 29

Table 5.6. Distribution of snakes along elevation gradients ... 31

Table 5.7. Macrohabitat selection by snakes in these three communes ... 32

Table 5.8. Microhabitat selection by snakes in these three communes ... 32

Table 5.9. List of threatened species ... 33

Table 6.1. List of recorded snakes from three communes ... 35

Table 6.2. List of threatened species ... 73

Table 7.1. Ecological characteristics of snake fauna by humidity, temperature and collected time... 81

Table 7.2. Similarity index (Sorensen-Dice index) on snake species composition between Son La Province and some neighboring province which also border with Laos ... 83

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<b> LIST OF FIGURES </b>

Figure 2.1. Diversity of snakes in Southeast Asia countries during 2010 – 2022 (Source: Uetz et al. 2022) 4

Figure 2.2. Number of snake species descriptions increases over 12 years in

Vietnam (Source: Uetz et al. 2022) ... 5

Figure 4.1. Study site map ... 16

Figure 4.2. Topography map of these three communes that border with Laos17 Figure 5.1. Map of transects survey in Tan Xuan commune ... 18

Figure 5.2. Map of survey transects in Chieng Khua commune ... 19

Figure 5.3. Map of transects survey in Chieng Tuong commune ... 19

Figure 5.4. Location of funnel trap in the study area ... 21

Figure 5.5. Material for trap making (Design by Russell Gray) ... 22

Figure 5.6. Funnel and trap body (Design by Russell Gray) ... 23

Figure 5.7. Connecting the two heads of the funnel and the trap compartment (Design by Russell Gray) ... 24

Figure 5.8. Fixing and completing the funnel trap (Design by Russell Gray) .... 25

Figure 5.9. Diagram of funnel trap system (Design by Russell Gray) ... 26

Figure 5.10. Scale in head pattern of snake (Manthey & Grossmann, 1997) ... 30

Figure 5.11. Body scale count (Manthey & Grossmann, 1997) ... 30

Figure 5.12: Ventral, subcudal and cloacal scale (Manthey & Grossmann, 1997) ... 30

Figure 6.1. Snake diversity in three communes border with Laos by family and genera ... 39

Figure 6.2. Snake species from this study in comparison with previous document ………. 40