Environmental Management, Sustainable Development and Human Health pptx

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT, SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH

Environmental Management,
Sustainable Development and
Human Health
Editors
Eddie N. Laboy-Nieves & Fred C. Schaffner
University of Turabo, Gurabo, Puerto Rico, USA
Ahmad H. Abdelhadi
NewYork Institute of Technology, Amman, Jordan
Mattheus F. A. Goosen
Alfaisal University, Riyadh, KSA
Cover photo credits: Front cover (above): Ricardo Ríos-Menéndez, front cover (below) and back
cover: Eddie N. Laboy-Nieves.

g
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Environmental management, sustainable development, and human health / edited by Eddie N.
Laboy-Nieves …[et al.].
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978–0–415–46963–0 (hbk. : alk. paper)
1. Environmental health. 2. Environmental management–Health aspects.
3. Sustainable development–Health aspects. 4. Economic development–Health aspects.
I. Laboy, Eddie Nelson. II. Title. [DNLM: 1. Environmental Health.
2. Conservation of Natural Resources. 3. Developing Countries.
4. Ecology. 5. Environmental Medicine. 6. International Cooperation.
WA 30.5 E607 2009]
RA565.E516 2009
362.196’98–dc22
2008039742
ISBN: 978-0-415-46963-0 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-203-88125-5 (e-book)
Contents
Preface IX
List of Authors XI
About the editors XV
Globalization and Sustainable Growth
The Environment, Sustainable Development and Human Wellbeing: An Overview 3
M.F.A. Goosen, E.N. Laboy-Nieves, F.C. Schaffner & A.H. Abdelhadi
Globalization, the Environment and Sustainable Development 13
K. Alamar & N. Murali
Sustainable Urban Growth for European Cities 21
H.W. Gottinger
Path to Democratic Environmental Governance in Latin America: A Case Study

from Mexico 33
S.L. Baver
Environmental Issues, Challenges and Initiatives in Southern Africa: A Case Study
from Botswana 43
T. Ntsabane & N. Moleele
Bioethics, Environmental Pollution and Poverty
Bioethical Dimensions of Sustainable Development 59
A.J. Gabaldón & M. Aguilera M.
The Impact of Global Warming and Human Activities on Coral Reefs:
How Much are We Willing to Pay? 67
A. Cróquer
Preventing Environmental Pollution through Monitoring, Clean Technologies,
Education, Economics and Management 85
R.E.R. Gil & L.E.G. Rico
Poverty, Urban Land and Africa’s Sustainable Development Controversy 95
F.N. Hammond & J. Somevi
Organizational Performance and Sustainability
The Environment as a Fifth Component of a Balanced Scorecard for
Improving Organizational Performance 111
M.M. Ajlouni
Creating a Climate for Long-term Ecological and Organizational Sustainability 133
A. Arnaud & D.L. Rhoades
Evolution of Wholesale and Retail Distribution Channels in South Africa 145
L. van Scheers
V
VI Contents
Examining Banking Productivity Across Countries Considering
Off-Balance Sheet Activities 157
K. Lyroudi & D. Angelidis
Assessing Advertising Mediums used by Small Businesses in Soweto to

Promote Sustainable Development 169
L. van Scheers
Environmentally Sustainable Economies: A Panacea for Sound Development 179
M.W. Maila
Environmental Management and Sustainable Development in the Oil and
Gas Industry: A Case Study from Kazakhstan 185
J W. Lee & S.W.Tai
Analyzing Critical Success Characteristics of South African Entrepreneurs 199
L. van Scheers
Environmental Management and Human Progress
Building a Sustainable Mindset 207
S. El-Kafafi
Role of the Arts and Environmental Management in the Secular West and in Islam 217
J.T. Basker
Modeling of Artificial Emotions and its Application Towards a Healthy Environment 229
K.A. Maria, R.A. Zitar, I. Shehabat & N. Ajlouni
New Technologies for Human Development: A Case Study from Eurasia 241
J W. Lee
Integrating a Sustainable Environment into Human Development: Conceptual and
Practical Approach 251
F.H. Beseiso
Chemical Evolution of the Milky Way Galaxy and its Relevance to Life on Earth 265
A.H. Abdelhadi
Governance and Practical Approach for Integrating a Sustainable Environment into
Human Development: A Regional Case Study 271
F.H. Beseiso
Renewable Energy
Renewable Energy in the Caribbean: A Case Study from Puerto Rico 291
J.A. Colucci-Ríos, E. O’Neill-Carrillo & A. Irizarry-Rivera
Contributions of the Energy and Environmental Sectors to Sustainable

Economic Development: A Case Study from the Caribbean 307
F.C. Schaffner
Contents VII
Ecosystems and Environmental Health
Human Activities and Ecosystem Health 341
F.A. Abdulla, M.H. Abu-Dieyeh & E. Qnais
Environmental Profile and Management Issues in an Estuarine Ecosystem:
A Case Study from Jobos Bay, Puerto Rico 361
E.N. Laboy-Nieves
Impact of Urban Wastewater on Biodiversity of Aquatic Ecosystems 399
E. Emmanuel, K. Balthazard-Accou & O. Joseph
Materials Recycling and Water Treatment
Utilization of Solid Waste Materials in Highway Construction 425
S. Amirkhanian, C. Thodesen & K. Shatanawi
Activated Carbon in Waste Recycling, Air and Water Treatment, and Energy Storage 441
S. Gaspard, A. Durimel, C. Ncibi & S. Altenor
Utilization of Recycled Tires in Hot Mix Asphalt 461
S. Amirkhanian, K. Shatanawi & C. Thodesen
Management, Disposal, Pathogen Reduction and Potential Uses of Sewage Sludge 477
G. de la Rosa, E. Reynel-Avila, A. Bonilla-Petriciolet, G. Cruz-Jiménez,
I. Cano-Aguilera & F. Martínez-González
Membrane Fouling and Cleaning in Treatment of Contaminated Water 503
M.F.A. Goosen, S.K.S. Al-Obaidani, H. Al-Hinai, S. Sablani,
Y. Taniguchi & H. Okamura
Assessment of Sustainability in Water Resources Management: A Case Study
from the Dominican Republic 513
J.R. Pérez-Durán
Author index 571
Subject index 573

Preface
Access to safe drinking water and sanitation is a basic necessity. However, such access is highly
variable around the world and in particular inAfrica, Asia and SouthAmerica. Much progress still
remains to be made in infrastructure improvements and poverty reduction. A recent World Bank
report, for example, noted that more than 100 million people in the Latin American region alone
lack access to potable water and adequate sanitation systems.
Compounding the issue of water availability is contamination of water supplies and the lack of
wastewater treatment facilities. This affects human health. The presence of lead as well as excess
agricultural fertilizer in the environment, for example, constitutes an ecological and human health
concern.
Environmental education plays a major role in achieving changes in attitudes that contribute
to environmental awareness in society. The average person is usually somewhat informed about
environmental problems. However, not many fully understand the basis of these problems or how to
deal with them. One example of rising public awareness is the increasing use of recycled materials,
particularly in road systems, paper making and plastics manufacturing. Environmental education
is especially critical for young people who will be future decision makers.
Alldisciplinesandallsegments ofsocietywillneedtoworktogether,proactively,inseekinglong-
term solutions to environmental problems. The recent establishment of an International Center for
Environmental Studies and Sustainable Development ( is one example
of this new approach. This book project is one of the initiatives of this Center.
Sustainable development is now considered by many organizations and their stakeholders as
being the model to follow. An increasing number of companies currently act and communicate
based on their triple performance (i.e. economic, environmental and social). As educators and
scientists we can follow this example by keeping in mind the bigger picture when it comes doing
our research and educating our young people. This will help to improve the overall health of the
society in which we live.
This main aim of this book is to assess some of the major environmental problems facing the
developing as well as developed regions of the world. Solutions are suggested. It includes several
papers on environmental education projects that will help to raise awareness in young people about
the interrelationships between pollution, the environment and society.

This edited book provides a broad coverage of recent advances in environmental management
and sustainable development as it relates to human health. It starts with an overview chapter on the
nature of environmental management and sustainable development. This is followed by well over
30 chapters from experts around the world.
Considerable research has been reported on environmental management and sustainable devel-
opment over the past three decades. International conferences on Sustainable Development were
held in Johannesburg in 2004 and Helsinki in 2005. Numerous books on environmental man-
agement and sustainable development are available; Environmental Education and Advocacy by
Johnson, E.A., 2005; Land, Water and Development: Sustainable Management of River Basin Sys-
tems, Newson, M., 1997; Essentials of Medical Geology: Impacts of Medical Geology on Public
Health, Selinus, O., 2004; Corporate Environmental Management, Darabis, J., 2007; Handbook
of Sustainable Development, Atkinson, G., 2007. Since many of these publications are highly
specific, a book is now needed that combines the state-of-the-art knowledge in environmental
management and sustainable development and in how these areas relate to improving the overall
health of society.
The intended audience for this book includes researchers, practicing engineers, decision makers,
environmentalists, medical researchers, contractors, postgraduate and undergraduate students and
others working in environmental management and sustainable development. The authors hope that
the information provided in this book would help to promote a better knowledge on environmental
IX
X Preface
management and sustainable development and contribute toward the utilization of sustainable
technology and environmental friendly practices by society.
The views expressed in thechapters of this bookare those ofthe authors andnot necessarilythose
of their respective institutions. The authors hope that this book will contribute to the advancement
in research in sustainable development and help decision makers, business people, and engineers
in mounting practical solutions to environmental problems.
Eddie N. Laboy-Nieves
University of Turabo
Fred C. Schaffner

University of Turabo
Ahmad H. Abdelhadi
NewYork Institute of Technology
Mattheus (Theo) F. A. Goosen
Alfaisal University
2008
List of Authors
Adrián Bonilla-Petriciolet
Instituto Tecnológico de Aguascalientes, México. E-mail:
Agustín A. Irizarry-Rivera
University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez. E-mail:
Ahmad H. Abdelhadi
NewYork Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 840878, Amman 11184, Jordan.
E-mail:
Aldo Cróquer
Laboratorio de Comunidades Marinas, Universidad Simon Bolivar Apdo. 8900,
Caracas 1080-A, Venezuela. E-mail:
Anke Arnaud
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Florida, U.S.A. E-mail:
Arnoldo José Gabaldón
Universidad Simón Bolívar, Caracas, Venezuela. E-mail:
Axelle Durimel
Université des Antilles et de la Guyane, Guadeloupe. E-mail:
Carl Thodesen
Clemson University, SC, USA. E-mail:
Chaker Ncibi
High Institute of Agronomy, Chott Meriem. E-mail:
Dawna L. Rhoades
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Florida, U.S.A. E-mail:
Dimitrios Angelidis

University of Macedonia, Greece. E-mail:
Eddie N. Laboy-Nieves
Universidad del Turabo, School of Science and Technology, Box 3030, Gurabo,
Puerto Rico 00778-3030. E-mail:
Efraín O’Neill-Carrillo
University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez. E-mail:
Elizabeth Reynel-Avila
Universidad de Guanajuato, México. E-mail:
Esam Qnais
The Hashemite University, Zarqa, Jordan. E-mail;
XI
XII List of Authors
Evens Emmanuel
Laboratoire de Qualité de l’Eau et de l’Environnement, Université Quisqueya,
BP 796 Port-au-Prince, Haïti. E-mail: Tel: +509 3423 4269/
Fax: +509 2221 4211
F. Nikoi Hammond
School of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of Wolverhampton, UK.
E-mail: , Tel: +00 44 1902 322179, Fax: +00 44 1902 322179
Fouad H. Beseiso
Former Governor of Palestine Monetary Authority, E-mail:
Francisco Martínez-González
Universidad de Guanajuato, México. E-mail:
Fred C. Schaffner
Office of Science and Technology, Puerto Rico Economic Development
Company (PRIDCO) Present address: Universidad del Turabo, School of Science
and Technology, Gurabo, Puerto Rico. E-mail:
Fuad A. Abdulla
NewYork Institute of Technology,Amman, Jordan. E-mail:
Guadalupe de la Rosa

Universidad de Guanajuato, México. E-mail:
Gustavo Cruz-Jiménez
Universidad de Guanajuato, México. E-mail:
H. Okamura
Water Re-use Promotion Center, Japan
Hans Werner Gottinger
STRATEC, Munich, Germany. E-mail:
Hilal Al-Hinai
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman.
E-mail:
Irene Cano-Aguilera
Universidad de Guanajuato, México. E-mail:
Issa Shehabat
Faculty of Information Technology, Philadelphia University, Amman, Jordan
Jacqueline Taylor Basker
NewYork Institute of Technology,Amman, Jordan. E-mail:
Joseph Somevi
School of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of Wolverhampton,
UK. E-mail: , Tel: +00 44 1902 322179,
Fax: +00 44 1902 322179
José A. Colucci-Ríos
University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez. E-mail:
List of Authors XIII
José Raúl Pérez Durán
Advisor on Water Resources, Instituto Nacional de Recursos Hidráulicos (INDRHI) –
National Institute for Water Resources, Dominican Republic; EMR
(Engineering, Management and Risk) Group, E-mail:
Jung-Wan Lee
Kazakh-British Technical University, Republic of Kazakhstan.
E-mail:

K. Alamar
Dept of Economics, Arul Anandar College, Karumathur, India 625 514
Katerina Lyroudi
University of Macedonia, Greece. E-mail: ,
Ketty Balthazard-Accou
Laboratoire de Qualité de l’Eau et de l’Environnement, Université Quisqueya,
BP 796 Port-au-Prince, Haïti. E-mail: Tel: +509 3423 4269/
Fax: +509 2221 4211
Khaldoun Shatanawi
Clemson University, SC, USA. E-mail:
Khulood Abu Maria
College of Information Technology,Arab Academy of Business and Financial Sciences,
Amman, Jordan
Louise van Scheers
School of Business Management, University of South Africa, E-mail:
Luis E. Galván Rico
Universidad Simón Bolívar, Departamento de Tecnología de Servicios,
Caracas, Venezuela. E-mail:
Mago William Maila
Department of Teacher Education, University of South Africa, PO Box 392, UNISA 0003,
TSHWANE, Republic of South Africa. E-mail: ,
Tel: 012 429 4395, Fax: 012 429 4909
Marisol Aguilera M.
Universidad Simón Bolívar, Caracas, Venezuela. E-mail:
Mattheus F. A. Goosen
Alfaisal University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. E-mail:
Moh’d Mahmoud Ajlouni
Dept. of Banking & Finance,Yarmouk University, Jordan. E-mail:
Mohammed H. Abu-Dieyeh
The Hashemite University, Zarqa, Jordan. E-mail:

N. Murali
Dept of Economics, Arul Anandar College, Karumathur, India 625 514
E-mail:
XIV List of Authors
Naim Ajlouni
Princess Ghazi College of Information Technology, VP, Al-Balqa
Applied Science University, Jordan
Nkobi Moleele
University of Botswana
Osnick Joseph
Laboratoire de Qualité de l’Eau et de l’Environnement, Université Quisqueya,
BP 796 Port-au-Prince, Haïti. E-mail: Tel: +509 3423 4269,
Fax: +509 2221 4211
Raed Abu Zitar
Faculty of Engineering and Computer Science New York Institute of Technology
(NYIT) Amman, Jordan. E-mail:
Rosa E. Reyes Gil
Universidad Simón Bolívar, Departamento de Biología de Organismos,
Caracas, Venezuela. E-mail:
Sandro Altenor
Université des Antilles et de la Guyane Guadeloupe, Université Quisqueya,
Haïti. E-mail:
Sarra Gaspard
Université des Antilles et de la Guyane, Guadeloupe. E-mail:
Serji Amirkhanian
Clemson University, SC, USA. E-mail:
Sherrie L. Baver
The City College and The Graduate Centre-City University of New York,
E-mail
Shyam. Sablani

Biological Systems Engineering, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington,
USA. E-mail:
Siham El-Kafafi
Manukau Institute of Technology, Manukau Business School, Auckland, New Zealand.
E-mail:
Simon W. Tai
Bang College of Business, KIMEP, Republic of Kazakhstan. E-mail:
Sulaiman K. S. Al-Obaidani
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University,
Oman. E-mail:
Tidimane Ntsabane
University of Botswana, E-mail:
Y. Taniguchi
Water Re-use Promotion Center, Japan
About the Editors
EDDIE N. LABOY-NIEVEShasa Ph.D. in Ecologyandworks asAssociate
Professor in the School of Science and Technology, Universidad delTurabo
(), Puerto Rico. He has nearly 20 years teaching undergraduate
and graduate level courses related to environmental sciences. He worked
as Manager of the Jobos Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve (Puerto
Rico). His research interests are focused on environmental characterization
of mangroves, coral reefs and seagrass beds, and the ecological aspects of
shallow water sea cucumbers. Dr. Laboy-Nieves has authored, co-authored,
edited and peer-reviewed many publications. He is the Puerto Rico President
of the International Center for Environmental and Sustainable Development
Studies (), the organization that promoted the publish-
ing of this volume. He serves as Scientific Advisor for many community,
national, and international organizations.
FRED C. SCHAFFNER is Associate Dean for Graduate Studies and
Research and Director of the Doctoral Program in Environmental Sciences

in the School of Science and Technology at Universidad del Turabo
(www.suagm.edu/utdoctoral/doct_env_sc.html). He has a Ph.D. in Biology
from the University of Miami (Florida). He spent two years as a post doc
at the National Audubon Society Research Department (Florida). In Puerto
Rico, he has worked as Scientific Consultant for the Puerto Rico Indus-
trial Development Company, the Department of Natural and Environmental
Resources, the US Fish and Wildlife Service, and has held academic and
executive positions at the University of Puerto Rico. He has served as Con-
sultant to numerous community and environmental groups, President of the
Special Commission for the San Juan Ecological Corridor, and member of
the Board of Directors of the Caguas Botanic and Cultural Garden, in Puerto
Rico. Dr. Schaffner has written over fifty scientific articles, white papers
and technical reports.
AHMAD H. ABDELHADI is Assistant Professor in the College of Arts
and Sciences of the New York Institute of Technology, Amman Campus
(www.nyit.edu), a non-profit independent private institution of higher edu-
cation with campuses in the United States and abroad. He obtained his
doctoral degree in Galactic Dynamics from Clemson University, South Car-
olina, in 2003. He worked at James Madison University in Virginia before
moving to the New York Institute of Technology as an Associate Chair for
the College of Arts and Sciences and later Associate Campus Dean in the
Amman Campus. His work on pre-solar silicon carbide grains and compu-
tational methods received support from the NASA Origin of Solar System
Program. His scientific interests include computational methods in galactic
dynamics, galactic chemical evolution, and chaotic systems. Dr. Abdelhadi
has lectured in many conferences and published number of papers.
XV
XVI About the Editors
MATTHEUS (THEO) F. A. GOOSEN is Associate Vice President for
Research at Alfaisal University (www.alfaisal.edu), a new private non-profit

institution in Riyadh, KSA. Previously he held the position of Campus
Dean (CAO) at the New York Institute of Technology in Amman, Jordan.
Dr. Goosen has also held academic dean positions at the Universidad del
Turabo in Puerto Rico, USA, and at the Sultan Qaboos University in Muscat,
Oman. He obtained his doctoral degree in Chemical/Biomedical Engineer-
ing from the University of Toronto, Canada, in 1981. After graduation he
spent three years as a post doc at Connaught Laboratories in Toronto and
then ten years at Queen’s University in Kingston. He has been on the Board
of Directors of two companies. Dr. Goosen has published extensively with
over 150 papers, book chapters, books, and patents.
Globalization and Sustainable Growth

The Environment, Sustainable Development and Human
Wellbeing: An Overview
Mattheus F.A. Goosen
Alfaisal University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Eddie N. Laboy-Nieves & Fred C. Schaffner
Universidad del Turabo, Gurabo, Puerto Rico
Ahmad H. Abdelhadi
NewYork Institute of Technology (NYIT), Amman, Jordan
SUMMARY: The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the multidisciplinary interre-
lationships between human health and the environment. Coordinated approaches are necessary for
solving the majorenvironmental andsustainability problems facing the developing as well as devel-
oped regions of the world. Specific emphasis was placed on globalization and sustainable growth,
bioethics and poverty, organizational performance and sustainability, environmental management
and individual progress, human and ecosystem health, and water resources and recycling.
1 INTRODUCTION
The interrelationship between economic progress, environmental management and individual well-
being is a complicated process, affecting both the quality and sustainability of the society in which
we live (Abdulla et al., 2009, Maila, 2006). There is a growing realization by the general public

as well as practicing engineers, decision makers, environmentalists, and medical researchers, that
these three areas are interconnected.
In the past, the world’s ecosystems were able to absorb the ecological damage resulting from
extensive industrialization and development. However, withtherapidincreases in global population
andindustrialization, as wellasenhanceddemandsonnaturalresourcessuchas fresh watersupplies,
the earth is no longer able to sustain a healthy and balanced ecosystem (Misra 2000, Laboy-Nieves,
2009). A coordinated approach is required to solve environmental problems.
Sustainable development is now considered by many organizations and their stakeholders as
being the model to follow. For instance, an increasing number of companies currently acts and
communicates based on their triple performance in economic, environmental and social areas
(Misra 2000, Goosen et al., 2004 and 2009). As educators and scientists, there is a need to follow
this example by keeping in mind the larger view to help improve the overall health of the society
in which we live.
The aim of this chapter is to provide a brief overview of how sustainable development, envi-
ronmental management and human health are interconnected, with an emphasis on globalization,
bioethics and poverty, organizational performance and sustainability, environmental management
and human progress, ecosystem health, and water resources and recycling.
2 GLOBALIZATION AND SUSTAINABLE GROWTH
Alamar and Murali (2009) noted that for sustainable development to be meaningful, over-
consumption has to be brought under control. In addition, in a free market economy, the private
sector may not bother to conserve nature. For the sake of profit, it may destroy forests, overuse
mineral resources, or pollute air and water. This sector may not take into account social costs or
3
4 Environmental Management, Sustainable Development and Human Health
benefits (Misra, 2000). Today there is an obsession with economic expansion. Growth should be
defined not only in terms of the financial side but also in terms of societal and cultural parameters.
The application of technology for the pursuit of profit has resulted in the overexploitation and the
excessive utilization of natural resources.
The expansion of industries and domestic markets has drastically altered, for example, the
atmospheric concentrations of numerous trace gases (Sharma, 2007). This has distorted nature’s

auto-balancing mechanism.Asaresult, theworldis now facedwithseveral environmentalproblems
including acid rain, melting of glacial ice, large scale evaporation of water in the tropics, and an
increase in cloudiness at higher altitudes. Developing countries, and notably the least developed,
are expected to be the most vulnerable to the impacts of global climate change, although their
current contribution to the problem is minimal.
Weather change can also have a significant impact on health through vector-borne diseases
because of changes in the survival and reproduction rates of the carriers, the intensity and temporal
pattern of vector activity, and the life cycle of pathogens within the vectors. Food production,
availability and security, fresh water supply, forest biodiversity, coastal settlements, and fishing
will also be adversely affected.
Extreme poverty still affects the lives of one out of every five persons in the developing world
(Sharma, 2007). Soil degradation from erosion and poor irrigation practices continue to harm
agricultural lands, jeopardizing production. Sharma (2007) noted that without a transition to more
resource-efficient and less polluting farming methods, it will be difficult to meet world food needs
without increasing the environmental burden that stems from intensive agriculture.
Sustainable development has three components: social, economic and ecological (Misra, 2000).
Nevertheless these are not always compatible. Sustainability requires a rare balance between these
three sets of goals. Once ecological sustainability has been achieved, then it is possible to attain
economic sustainability. If this condition is maintained then social stability can be attained.
For sustainable development tobe meaningful, overconsumptionhas to be broughtunder control.
Industrial expansion in the present day has to be made within the carrying capacity of the planet.
Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development. They are entitled to a
healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.
Baver (2009) focused on the emerging global concept of democratic environmental governance
using Mexico as the case study area. The goal of the research was to examine how several of
the country’s new national institutions, procedures, and capacities were affecting environmental
performance aswell as publicperceptions of governmental legitimacy. It wasreported that Mexico’s
position as a leader in environmental governance in the developing world did not emanate from
the government itself; rather it was derived from a combination of pressures from civil society
activistsand international organizations and institutions(Rodríguez Bribiesca, 2007). Baver (2009)

noted that struggle for democratic governance in this policy area may have contributed to a more
accountable and transparent political system.
Three pillars are integral to the concept of democratic environmental governance: citizen access
to environmental information held by public authorities; public participation in environmental
decision-making; and citizens’effective access to justice. The United States was a global leader in
these three pillars through the mid-1980s, having legislation addressing all three issues. However,
bythe 1990s, various regional and international governmental and non-governmental organizations
have bundled the three ideas into one reform package and have promoted it aroundthe world (Speth
and Haas, 2006).
Perhaps the key lessons learned from the Mexican case, is that theprocessof economic globaliza-
tion can promote modern environmental governance. However, only a highly mobilized movement
can monitor these reforms and force them to function effectively.
3 BIOETHICS, ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND POVERTY
Education for sustainable development should be obligatory for all young people, as this represents
the primary vehicle available for catalyzing the cultural changes required for survival (Ferrer and
The Environment, Sustainable Development and Human Wellbeing:An Overview 5
Alvarez, 2003). Bioethics ought to serve as a platform for education about sustainability. Gabaldón
and Aguilera (2009) reported that it is essential to apply a framework of values and principles to
guide the conduct of decision-makers, scientists, and technologists. Furthermore, the advances of
international environmental jurisprudence also lend a valuable arsenal of bioethical principles to
the guidance of world development.
Gabaldón andAguilera (2009) noted that bioethics is an interdisciplinary development resulting
from philosophy, the health sciences, law and social sciences. Any discipline that deals with the
study of human beings has had something to contribute to the ethics of life. Its scope also includes
the public and sanitary policies, the tasks of all professions, and especially any research on humans
or the flora and fauna that constitute ecosystems. This wider view of bioethics goes hand in hand
with the concepts of sustainable development.
In its development, bioethics, seen as a branch of philosophy concerned with the study of
the morality of human works (Andorno, 1998), incorporated principles that belonged to medical
practice, to jurisprudence and to political tradition, as well as to the precepts of human rights, the

development of professional ethics, and from religion (Gracia, 1989; Abellán Salort, 2006).
In arelated work, Hammond and Somevi (2009) reported on poverty, urban land, and sustainable
development using Africa as a case study. This continent is unique when it comes to poverty and
sustainable growth. Some 41 per cent of inhabitants of African countries are extremely poor and
are surviving on less than one dollar a day (Stern, 2006). At one extreme are the international
requirements on governments to rehabilitate their economies in keeping with the United Nations
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The MDGs set such targets, for example, as halving the
proportion of people living on less than US $1 a day by 2015.
The sources of poverty are due to inefficient allocation of natural resources, capital, labour and
time, underutilizationofresources, and inequitabledistributionofincomes(HammondandSomevi,
2009). Liberal and moderate economists argued that as individuals and economic entities seek to
maximise their own self interest and profits, they unwittingly promote the efficient allocation as
well as optimal use of resources.
Sustainable development has economic, social, environmental and ethical dimensions. From an
economic perspective, a resource is efficiently allocated and optimally utilized if it is put to the
use that generates the highest possible returns (Hammond and Somevi, 2009). In free enterprise
economies, the first two causes of poverty and economic malaise may be overcome by setting in
place a broad legal aswell as effective and quality infrastructural framework within which individu-
als and actors could pursue their self interest.The requiredlegal framework may consist of laws and
security rules that promote sound investment, and access to financial, labour and land transactions.
Tobe reallyeffective, thelawmustremoveallmanner of discriminationwithrespecttoopportunities
regarding education, investments, health services, land resources, capital and employment.
Socially, equitable distribution of the incomes on the other hand may be achieved through
mechanisms and social benefits like income supports, unemployment benefits and housing, free
or discounted education, health and transportation services. From an environmental perspective,
economic and social goals have to be pursued in ways that will cause the least damage to the quality
of the environment and limit the exhaustion of irreplaceable resources (Stern, 2006).
The bioethics of sustainable development has raised the spectre of possible exhaustion of vital
resources at the expense of future generations. The way to resolve this dilemma is to pursue
poverty alleviation methods that adequately reward hard work, initiatives, efforts and productive

use of resources within the broad framework of the rule of law but at the same time penalises
decision makers with the costs of reckless resource utilisation. The later is not so much to ensure
that something is left for the future generation, but more because careless and inattentive use of
resources threatens the very survival of the present generation itself.
4 ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE AND SUSTAINABILITY
Ajlouni (2009) considered the environment as afifth component of aBalanced Scorecard (BSC) for
improving the performance of an organization.The BSC was first proposed by Kaplan and Norton
6 Environmental Management, Sustainable Development and Human Health
(2001) as a means for deriving the performance of a system. It was then developed as a managerial
mechanism for translating and implementing corporate strategy (Kaplan and Norton, 2001). The
BSC was originally a framework of organizational performance measures across four perspectives
or aspects: financial, customer, internal business processes, and learning and growth (FCIL). The
BSC system has been implemented by numerous for-profit and non-profit businesses. Hence,
incorporating and implementing environmental objectives into an organization’s strategy should
leadto economic sustainability.Topmanagement, however, needs to developagroup environmental
strategy, and then communicate it to their employees.
As more businesses around the globe incorporate ecological activities and performance in their
financial statements and reports; and as more stakeholders require new and better ways to com-
municate green issues; top management will become more aware that environmental concerns
need to be addressed and tackled within their organizations (Kaplan and Norton, 2001). How-
ever, environmental reporting should not be the end of the story. The BSC can help by identifying
environmental problems, by targeting key areas for top management attention and reaction, by
providing support for needed improvements in current systems, and by formulating an applicable
and attainable environmental performance.
In a related study to that of Ajlouni (2009), Lyroudi and Angelidis (2009) examined banking
productivity. Financial institutions can be considered as the corner stone of any economic system.
Bankinginstitutionsareofspecialinterest, forexample, to the European Union.Thesecondbanking
co-ordination directive, which was adopted in 1989, created a regime for regulating all functions
of such institutions in the European Union (Siems and Clark, 1997 and Rogers and Sinkey, 1999).
This new framework forced banks to adopt new products such as loan commitments, letters of

credit, securities underwriting, insurance and derivatives. These are also known as off-balance
sheet (OBS) activities. Stable economics systems will help to produce stable societies.
In contrast to the work of Lyroudi and Angelidis (2009), Maila (2009) considered environmen-
tally sustainable economies. Some scholars perceive sustainable development as a North-South;
South-South and North-North environmental discourse (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2006). Often, insti-
tutions find themselves in the wrong corner or part of the globe, especially when they defend
sustainable development positions that compromise the lives of poor and marginalized communi-
ties, and unsustainable economic policies in developing countries regarding the utilization and care
of natural resources.
Maila (2006) noted that development and sustainability must be anchored in action processes
that allow participants to have choices in the how and why of doing things. Good quality progress
can only occur when ordinary people benefit from it. While big business is dedicated to reap huge
profits within a short period of time in their ventures, poor people, on the other hand, are concerned
with putting food on the table for their families. It is not only financial expansion and ecological
protection that are important for environmental sustainability; human development is also critical.
Sen (1999) argued that development has gone from the growth of output per capita to the expansion
of human values. He sawdevelopment as a process that expands the realfreedoms that peopleenjoy.
Sound ecological sustainability and growth can never be continual if threats to the environ-
ment and human well being persist unabated worldwide. Organizational decisions should be made
collectively, through discussions.This will allow for the advancement of both economic and human
growth as pillars of environmentally sustainable economies.
5 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND HUMAN PROGRESS
El-Khafafi (2009) assessed the sustainable management tool known as Triple Bottom Line
Reporting. (TBL). This instrument has become more important and widespread in recent years.
Organisations have been evaluated not only for their performances on the bottom line, but also for
their behaviourasworldwide corporate citizens. Global corporate scandals ofhighprofile organisa-
tions like Enron Corp., WorldCom Inc. and Arthur Anderson LLP rocked stakeholder confidence,
shamed business leaders and led to a higher scrutiny of organisations’ integrity. Accordingly, a
The Environment, Sustainable Development and Human Wellbeing:An Overview 7
movement towards corporate responsibility reporting arose to drive transparency in the environ-

ment and social arena. In 2004, 1700 corporations filed responsibility reports, up from virtually
none in the early 1990s. Some of those corporations are using these reports as a way to push their
sustainability commitments further (Assadourian, 2006). However, the success of these techniques
depends on the commitment, skill and character of the people implementing them.
How do we make sustainability a commitment rather than just a compliance cost? Building sus-
tainablefirms andorganisationsrequires a commitmenttopeople’sdevelopment. Staffdevelopment
programs can only be successful if organisations have a clear sense of their place in (Assadourian,
2006). Furthermore, this requires a strong self-identity and an understanding of stakeholder expec-
tations. The development of such understanding with the organisation and community facilitates
the building of trust and integrity which are fundamental to sustainability. In pursuing this agenda,
there is a strong case for organisations to be proactive in developing their people by helping them
analyse problem cases, analyse forces impacting on the organisation and society, become familiar
with core ethical literature, develop solutions to ethical problems and revitalise the organisation.
Emotions are an essential part of human life. They influence how we think, adapt, learn, behave,
and communicate with each other. As El-Nasr et al. (1998, 2000) noted that the question is not
whether intelligent machines can have any emotions, but whether machines can be intelligent
without emotions. InEl-Nasr’s et al. work (2000) neurological evidence was providedwhichproved
that emotions do in fact play an important and active role in the human decision-making process.
The interaction between the emotional process and the cognitive process may explain why humans
excel at making decisions based on incomplete information; acting on our gut-feelings.
Maria and Zitar (2009) performed a study on modelling of artificial emotions. Two models were
built for agent-based systems; one was supported with artificial emotionsand the other onewithout.
Both were used in solving a benchmark problem: to have a clean and healthy environment for an
orphanage house. The study showed that systems with a proper model of emotions could perform
better than systems without emotions. The authors went on to explain that artificial agents can be
used as a testing ground for theories about natural emotions in animals and humans. This provides
a synthetic approach that is complementary to the analytic study of natural systems.
6 ECOSYSTEMS AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
Mankind is living in ecosystems that can be recognized at many different levels, ranging from, for
example, a small forest to the entire globe (Abdulla et al., 2009; Townsend et al., 2003). Natural

ecological systems are dynamically stabilized based on balanced inputs and outputs. All ecological
structures are controlled bythesameprocessesincludingnaturalandanthropogenic (human caused)
turbulence. Yet, with an increasing population, human activities create more disturbances and add
additional unbalanced situations to ecosystems.
Humans are among the most successful living things on earth. The present rate of growth of
the global population is unsustainably high. This stresses our future by further energy demands; a
greater drain on non-renewable resources and extra strain on renewable resources. The response of
disturbed ecosystems, in consequence, includes local, regional and/or global problems to human
health and the environment. The work of Abdulla et al. (2009) assessed atmospheric pollution,
its consequences on humans and the environment, and perspectives toward its control. They also
assessed pesticides, their persistence in the environment, the direct effects on human health, and
the toxicological aspects of water pollution; and food borne diseases. Understanding of these
issues may help scientists, decision makers and the public to make positive modifications in their
behaviour that may add to the development of a sustainable environment.
In related studies, Laboy-Nieves (2009) and Cruz-Báez and Boswell (1997) reported that for
centuries, peripheral urban developments have affected the evolution of estuaries (i.e. intertidal
terrestrial zones)to apoint that today someecosystems exhibit a mosaic of areas that remain almost
pristine while othersare degraded.The aquatic and terrestrial zones and thepopulations thatinhabit
them are tightly linked, showing complexinteractions. Laboy-Nieves (2008) emphasizedmanmade
8 Environmental Management, Sustainable Development and Human Health
factors such as high demographic density, urban sprawling, poor waste management and social
indolence with respect to the environment. In his case study area of Jobos Bay, Puerto Rico, Laboy-
Nieves (2009)reported that the Bay is avery dynamicecosystem, where itsnatural history hadbeen
sculpted by physical, biological and anthropological factors. Jobos Bay is a natural laboratory for
examining mangroves and upland forests, submerged communities and anthropogenic influences.
A related aquatic environmental health study was presented by Emmanuel et al. (2009). The
continual discharge of chemical substances in aquatic ecosystems can bring about changes in the
structure and functioning of the biotic community, (i.e. on biotic integrity) (Karr, 1991). As a
function of their bioavailability, the pollutants present in effluents cause a large number of harmful
effects on the biodiversity of aquatic environments (Forbes and Forbes, 1994).

The main substances involved in chemical pollution phenomena are heavy metals, organic com-
pounds, especially organohalogenated substances, detergents-surfacatnts, pesticides, Polycyclic
Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and Polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs), nitrates and phosphates and
drug residues (Emmanuel et al. 2009).Among the main effects of pollutants on aquatic organisms,
are severe pathologies, behavioural problems, and species migration and disappearance.
Given that the toxicity of a substance depends on its available concentration, Emmanuel et al.
(2002) not only confirmed the existence of dangerous substances in urban effluents, but also
explained the contribution of these pollutant matrices to the loss of genetic, specific and ecosystem
biodiversity of aquatic organisms.
7 MATERIALS RECYCLING AND WATER TREATMENT
The field of waste disposal is relatively new (Amirkhanian et al., 2009). It was only in 1965 in
the USA, for example, that the first federal legislation was enacted to directly approach the waste
problem (Ruiz, 1993). As such, the country is only now starting to come to terms with the amount
of waste it produces.
In their feasibility study on the use of waste materials in highway production, Amirkhanian and
Manugian(1994)identifiedthefollowingwastematerials with specificapplicationsforthehighway
construction industry: bottomash, compost, construction debris, flyash, plastics, reclaimed asphalt
pavement, shingle scarps, slag, sludge and tires. Recycled products have thus emerged as a viable
alternative to virgin materials in the highway construction sector.
As natural resources start to dwindle and landfill space gets filled up, the importance of proper
wastereduction and management systems increases. The use of waste by-products as a replacement
for virgin materials could provide relief for some of the burden associated with disposal and may
provide a cost effective construction product exhibiting all the properties of virgin products. The
concept of utilizing reclaimed materials as a source for construction is particularly relevant in
developing countries. Economical and ecological solutions are particularly important in situations
where growing populations are coupled with finite economic and natural resources.
Sustainablefresh waterresources are alsoacritical area. Goosen et al. (2004 and2009) explained
that fiscal development and population growth has put increasing pressure on the world’s limited
fresh water resources. In order to lessen this problem, desalination processes have been developed
to obtain fresh water from the earth’s vast supply of seawater. A major concern, however, is the

locationof a significant fraction of the world’sdesalinationcapacityincoastalareasofoilproducing
countries, such as in theArabian Gulf (Al-Sajwani, 1998). Oil spills could have catastrophic effects
on seawater desalination capacity in these regions.
The two most successful commercial water desalination techniques involve thermal and mem-
brane separation methods (Al Obeidani et al., 2008). Gaining a better understanding, for example,
of membrane desalination of oil contaminated seawater is a major challenge facing both scientists
as well as plant operators in many parts of the world.
Improvementofliving conditions, development of agriculture, tourismand manyotherimportant
economic activities, are strongly dependent on the sustainability of water resources (Perez Duran,
2009). The importance of water is being increasingly highlighted as we gradually approach the