Encyclopedia of science and religion pdf

EDITOR IN CHIEF
J. Wentzel Vrede van Huyssteen
James I. McCord Professor
of Theology and Science,
Princeton Theological Seminary
EDITORS
Nancy R. Howell
Associate Professor of Theology
and Philosophy of Religion,
Saint Paul School of Theology
Niels Henrik Gregersen
Research Professor
in Theology & Science,
University of Aarhus
Wesley J. Wildman
Associate Professor of Theology
and Ethics,
Boston University
Ian Barbour
Consulting Editor
Carleton College
Ryan Valentine
Editorial Assistant
Princeton Theological Seminary
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Encyclopedia of Science and Religion
J. Wentzel Vrede van Huyssteen
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Encyclopedia of science and religion / J. Wentzel Vrede van Huyssteen,
editor in chief. — 2nd ed.

p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-02-865704-7 (alk. paper) — ISBN 0-02-865705-5 (v. 1 : alk. paper)
— ISBN 0-02-865706-3 (v. 2 : alk. paper)
1. Religion and science—Encyclopedias. I. Van Huyssteen, Wentzel.
BL240.3 .E43 2003
291.1’75—dc21
2002152471
© 2003 by Macmillan Reference USA.
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Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
List of Articles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
List of Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
Synoptic Outline of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxiii
E NCYCLOPEDIA OF S CIENCE AND RELIGION
Annotated Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943
— v —
CONTENTS
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EDITORIAL AND
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Ray Abruzzi and Michael J. McGandy
Project Editors
Deirdre Graves and Christine Slovey
Contributing Editors
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Indexer
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PREFACE
— vii—
The dialogue between science and religion is one of the most prominent and
visible discourses of our time. The complex but enduring relationship between
the sciences and diverse world religions has now transformed itself into what
some are calling a new scholarly field of science and religion. This multifaceted
conversation has developed into a sustained and dynamic discourse with direct
implications for contemporary culture. This discourse affects all religions, in
both their intellectual and social dimensions. It also analyzes, supports, and
constrains the global impact of the sciences of our times.
The Encyclopedia of Science and Religion reflects the breathtaking scope and
pluralistic character of this ongoing dialogue. It is the most comprehensive work
of its kind, and it is designed to be accessible to a wide readership from high

school students to independent researchers and academics. Anyone fascinated by
the ever-evolving impact of the sciences on religious belief in a global context
will find the Encyclopedia a rich resource, for the historical relationship between
science and religion certainly ranges from harmony and mutual support to stormy
periods of intense conflict.
In the last two decades public awareness of and interest in this complex and
often contentious relationship between science and religion has reached an
unprecedented level. Courses in science and religion are now taught worldwide
at a great number of educational institutions. Centers for the study of science and
religion are actively pursuing the challenges and complexities of this dialogue;
local and international societies for science and religion have been, and are
being, established. There is also an exploding number of publications, journals,
newsletters, and papers. Most recently, the science and religion dialogue has
established an impressive new presence on the Internet.
All of these issues, interests, and constituencies are reflected in the Encyclo-
pedia of Science and Religion. The challenging conversation between the sciences
and religions is highlighted with entries focusing on issues that bear on topics such
as behavioral studies and the human sciences; cognitive science and the neuro-
sciences; computer science and information technology; physical sciences and
cosmology; ecology; ethics and value theory; evolution; genetics; feminist and
womanist issues; mathematics; methodology; medicine; philosophy; biology; pale-
ontology and the anthropological sciences; and technology. World religions as
FrontMatter.qxd 3/20/03 9:37 M Page vii
varied as Baháhí, Buddhism, Chinese religions, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam,
Judaism, and Shinto are represented with individual entries or clusters of entries.
There are more than four hundred entries in the Encyclopedia of Science and
Religion, all arranged in alphabetical order for easy reference. The entries range
in length from several thousand words on broad topics, to a hundred words or
so for key terms in the various sciences and religions. The editors see this work
primarily as a reflection on the most important issues in the contemporary dia-

logue between the sciences and religions. A glance over the list of entries, how-
ever, indicates that the Encyclopedia also covers the critical history of the
relationship between science and religion and offers historical biographies of a
select number of important figures. All entries guide readers to further sources of
information and exhaustive cross-references quickly and easily lead to related
topics. The authority of the Encyclopedia is assured by the experts who have writ-
ten the entries. The authors have written so as to make this Encyclopedia acces-
sible for students in general, for the public at large, and for scholars in a variety
of disciplines. In this way we have created a rich reference resource that is well
suited to diverse library environments.
The frontmatter features a Synoptic Outline, covering the complete scope and
every entry of the Encyclopedia of Science and Religion. The purpose of this Out-
line is to make the Encyclopedia even more accessible by grouping all entries into
broad, topical categories. Teachers and readers are offered an organized map of
the whole field of science and religion. In addition, a comprehensive Index pro-
vides readers with yet another means of access to the wealth of information con-
tained in these two volumes, while an Annotated Bibliography of selected works
introduces readers to those published works currently regarded as indispensable
in the field of science and religion.
The editors would like to thank Ian Barbour, one of the most prominent
scholars in the field, for graciously agreeing to act as a consultant at the initial
planning phase of the Encyclopedia of Science and Religion. His advice was
invaluable to us. We also thank the expert staff at Macmillan Reference USA for
their outstanding support throughout this project. We extend our appreciation to
the following persons at Macmillan: Elly Dickason, former publisher of Macmil-
lan, for her initiative and encouragement at the beginning of this project; Michael
McGandy, who was a pleasure to work with, and who guided us with unfailing
professionalism and expertise; Hélène Potter, who oversaw the project with great
vision, and was responsible in the end for pulling everything together; and Judy
Culligan for all her hard work and a very professional level of copy editing. Here

at the Princeton Theological Seminary my assistant Ryan Valentine did an out-
standing job. He devoted a great deal of time developing the database that was
critical to the beginning phase of this project and later assisted in the editing proc-
ess. He was also responsible for preparing the Synoptic Outline and checking all
cross-references. Taede Smedes did a first rate job of helping us put together the
Annotated Bibliography.
The editors, finally, would like to express our deep gratitude to family mem-
bers and loved ones who so consistently acknowledged and supported our work
on this project.
J. WENTZEL VREDE VAN HUYSSTEEN
PREFACE
— viii—
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The publication of the Encyclopedia of Science and Religion is a significant mile-
stone marking the maturation of the contemporary dialogue between the sciences
and religions. Not only does this Encyclopedia offer a massive amount of inter-
disciplinary and interreligious information, but it mirrors one of the most fasci-
nating stories of our time: the emergence of an extensive international discussion
among scientists of various specializations, philosophers of nearly all persuasions,
and religious thinkers from all the major world religions. Spectacular advances in
the sciences no longer easily threaten religions around the world because the
risks and devastating consequences of new technologies have problematized the
formerly unquestioned ideal of scientific progress. Scientific advances still chal-
lenge basic religious convictions, however, and the intellectual representatives of
the world’s religious traditions grapple with scientific knowledge more effectively
and pervasively than ever before, thanks to the science-religion dialogue. Today
sciences as varied as the neurosciences, ecology, and biotechnology raise ques-
tions about human beings and the future of our planetary home, perhaps espe-
cially for those who possess a sense of the divine. Similarly, chaos theory,
quantum mechanics, and the ever-deepening understanding of the role of chance

in biological systems conspire to challenge the notions of ultimate reality and
divine action espoused by religious traditions and sacred texts.
At the same time, partly because of the unwanted side effects of science-
driven technologies, there is a growing conviction that science in itself may never
yield an ultimately satisfying explanation of human life and the world we inhabit.
And yet the information about reality produced by the sciences is invaluable. Per-
haps we have two domains of meaning here, with science and religion each ruler
of its own domain. Or perhaps the structures and patterns of nature disclosed by
the sciences connect with the more elusive yet existentially more immediate
meaning typical of religious faith. Even as the religions of the world grow more
accepting of the sciences, at least some intellectuals are noting how scientific
methods and aims can enhance and perhaps support religious faith. Therefore,
contrary to popular misconceptions, the relationship between the sciences and the
various religions at the beginning of the twenty-first century is not about conflict
or confrontation only. Those who participate actively in this dialogue are often
deeply committed, not only to a specific science, but also to specific religious
beliefs. Even scholars who are agnostic or atheistic are taking the interaction
INTRODUCTION
— ix—
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among sciences and the religions seriously because this relationship involves two
of the dominant cultural forces of our time. Complicated and multilayered, the
relationships among the various sciences and diverse world religions are not
merely adversarial, nor simply a matter of neatly separable domains of discourse.
In the West the success and prestige of science has had a fundamental influ-
ence on the way that the voices of popular culture describe our world. As a
result, relationships among the religions and the sciences have often suffered
from what some intellectuals have called the modernist dilemma, where the
objective and universally true claims of science are often unfairly contrasted with
subjective and irrational religious beliefs. This has led to sharp distinctions

between objective descriptions and subjective experiences, between scientific
and symbolic uses of language, and between empirically justified scientific truths
and privately held religious opinions. The appeal of such stark oppositions, how-
ever, has waned. Scientism is the term of approbation used for the attitude that
takes for granted the alleged rational superiority of science and exclusive value
of the scientific method for gaining knowledge. The reductionist views that define
scientism are now being attacked relentlessly by scholars who point out that both
scientific and religious beliefs, in spite of important differences, are historically
and culturally embedded and shaped by comprehensive worldviews. The polar-
ization between inappropriately reified and ahistorical notions of science and reli-
gion is collapsing and in its place is arising an appreciation for the integrity of
diverse discourses and social activities, including those usually called the religions
and the sciences. At least as importantly, scholars are attempting to uncover the
profound rational and historical linkages that connect, as well as individuate, the
religions and the sciences. These historical and philosophical exertions have
shown not only that the great discoveries about the nature and history of the
physical world have affected religious discourses in nearly all their manifestations,
but also that the claims of the various world religions about our capacity to
know, the ultimate meaning of the cosmos, and the place of human beings in an
evolving universe often impact the way scientific inquiry is conducted.
In the contemporary discussion among the religions and the sciences, partic-
ularly as it has transpired in the West, the most influential attempt at representing
the complex relationship between these two cultural forces has been Ian Bar-
bour’s fourfold typology. Barbour describes the different ways that the sciences
have actually related and might possibly relate to the religions as conflict, dia-
logue, independence, and integration. Many subsequent models for relating reli-
gion and science have built on the legacy of this pioneering analysis. Even as
contemporary factors from cultural pluralism to postmodern philosophy suggest
other ways of relating the sciences to religion, Barbour’s typology remains appli-
cable and instructive. The literature today expresses an increasing awareness that

the relations between science and religion can only be properly understood if the
specific cultural, historical, and intellectual contexts have been taken into
account. The vast amount of information collected in this Encyclopedia of Science
and Religion illustrates the richness and complexity of this interpretative task.
The growing conversation between science and religion that emerged with
new vigor in the late twentieth century has a number of striking features. First,
though once considered an esoteric field, the study of the relationship between
science and religion is no longer a highly specialized discourse, open only to the
INTRODUCTION
— x —
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few intellectuals who are privy to the complexity of the issues involved. The sci-
ence and religion debate has become a public affair. The active presence of the
debate on the Internet, as well as an explosion of published newsletters, papers,
books, and conferences, further enhances this high public profile. Second,
whereas there are new debates and ideas within science and religion, in many
ways the dialogue extends familiar and longstanding debates known by different
names: “faith and reason” or “faith and culture” (in the West) and “pramana the-
ory” (in South Asian debates on valid sources of knowledge). Third, not only is
the science and religion conversation alive and well in many cultures all over the
world but, as this Encyclopedia clearly shows, a number of academic centers and
scholarly associations now concentrate their considerable intellectual and finan-
cial resources on issues at the interface of science and religion. The discussion
among the sciences and the religions has also found a permanent place in
schools, colleges, seminaries, and universities. Courses in religion and science are
now taught on all academic levels throughout the world, complemented by a
number of high-profile endowed chairs in the field. Finally, one of the most
important milestones in this ever-growing field was the founding of the Interna-
tional Society of Science and Religion in August 2002 in Granada, Spain.
The Encyclopedia of Science and Religion is directed mainly at students and

their teachers. They will find all of the most important issues in this field
addressed in an accessible and inclusive manner. Outstanding experts from
around the world have contributed to the Encyclopedia. The comprehensive list
of entries focuses on the principal sciences and the major scientific discoveries of
our time and on all the challenging and controversial topics that have emerged
from this context and have affected the world religions in different ways. Both
historical and contemporary issues in science and religion are treated under the
headings of the major world religions. The religions represented here include
Buddhism, Baháhí, Chinese religions (Confucianism and Daoism), Christianity
(Anglican, Evangelical, Lutheran, Orthodox, Pentecostalism, Radical Reformed,
Reformed, Roman Catholic), Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, and Shinto. The various
sciences represented in the entries of this Encyclopedia cover a wide spectrum of
disciplines, such as behavioral studies and the human sciences; cognitive science
and neuroscience; computer science and information technology; cosmology;
ecology; evolutionary sciences; genetics; primatology; mathematics; medicine;
the physical sciences (including chemistry and physics); and the life sciences
(including biology, paleontology, and the anthropological sciences). There is also
a series of entries on relevant disciplines within the humanities, including ethics
and value theory; feminism; philosophy (including methodology, epistemology,
philosophy of science, philosophy of religion); theology and religious thought;
and technology.
There are interesting, if controversial, reasons why Christian theologians have
often taken the lead in discussing the relationship of the sciences to the religions.
An unfortunate side effect of this leadership is that, at certain times and places in
recent decades, the dialogue has seemed limited by the caricature that only Chris-
tianity fostered modern science. But this version of events is historically inaccurate
and deeply misleading. The evidence is that all religious traditions and all forms
of scientific work have something to gain as well as lose in the process of mutual
interaction, and the historical record demonstrates profound and longstanding
engagement between science and religion in all literate cultures. Selecting entries

INTRODUCTION
— xi—
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and authors to express this guiding conviction and to represent the truly global
character of the dialogue has been one of the main goals of this Encyclopedia.
The Encyclopedia of Science and Religion highlights for our readers the
dynamic and ongoing discussion among the religions and the sciences, and
demonstrates that it is both possible and fruitful to bring together the spectacular
success of science and the wisdom of religion in a constructive interchange. In
doing this, the difficult but exciting interdisciplinary conversation between sci-
ence and religion moves forward to a more challenging phase of interreligious
dialogue where religions could be in conversation with each other through their
relationship to the sciences. This may go beyond regular interfaith dialogue. If
this can be achieved successfully, the multileveled and comprehensive scope of
this work will serve well the future of the science and religion interchange.
J. WENTZEL VREDE VAN HUYSSTEEN
NIELS HENRIK GREGERSEN
NANCY R. HOWELL
WESLEY J. WILDMAN
INTRODUCTION
— xii—
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LIST OF ARTICLES
— xiii—
Abortion
Ann Pederson
William J. Watson
Adaptation
Volker Loeschke
Aesthetics

George Allan
Age of the Universe
William R. Stoeger
Aggression
Boje Katzenelson
Algorithm
William A. Dembski
Algorithmic Complexity
William A. Dembski
Altruism
Colin Grant
Animal Rights
Andrew Linzey
Anthropic Principle
Michael A. Corey
Anthropocentrism
Roald E. Kristiansen
Anthropology
Paul K. Wason
Anthropology of Religion
Paul K. Wason
Apologetics
Paul Allen
Aristotle
Edward Grant
Art, Origins of
Paul K. Wason
Artificial Intelligence
Noreen L. Herzfeld
Artificial Life

Claus Emmeche
Astronomy
George F. R. Ellis
Astrophysics
George F. R. Ellis
Atheism
John Haught
Atomism
Dirk Evers
Attractor
Wolfgang Achtner
Augustine
Mathijs Lamberigts
Automata, Cellular
Thiemo Krink
Autopoiesis
Günter Thomas
Averröes
Muzaffar Iqbal
Avicenna
Muzaffar Iqbal
Axiology
George Allan
Baháhí
Stephen R. Friberg
Beauty
George Allan
Behavioral Genetics
V. Elving Anderson
Audrey R. Chapman

Behaviorism
Hans Schwarz
Biblical Cosmology
Norriss Hetherington
Big Bang Theory
Mark Worthing
Big Crunch Theory
Mark Worthing
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LIST OF ARTICLES
— xiv—
Biological Diversity
Holmes Rolston, III
Biology
Celia Deane-Drummond
Biosemiotics
Claus Emmeche
Biotechnology
Ronald Cole-Turner
Black Hole
Mark Worthing
Bohr, Niels
Henry J. Folse, Jr.
Boundary Conditions
William A. Dembski
Buddhism
Jensine Andresen
Buddhism, Contemporary Issues in Science and
Religion
Ronald Y. Nakasone

Buddhism, History of Science and Religion
Naoki Nabeshima
Butterfly Effect
Wolfgang Achtner
Calvinism
E. David Willis
Cartesianism
Anne A. Davenport
Catastrophism
Arn O. Gyldenholm
Causality, Primary and Secondary
Mariano Artigas
Causation
Theo C. Meyering
Chance
Keith Ward
Chaos, Quantum
Wolfgang Achtner
Jens Noeckel
Chaos, Religious and Philosophical Aspects
Denis Edwards
Chaos Theory
Wolfgang Achtner
Taede A. Smedes
Chemistry
David M. Knight
Chinese Religions and Science
Hing Kau Yeung
Chinese Religions, Confucianism and Science in
China

Hing Kau Yeung
Chinese Religions, Daoism and Science in China
Jiang Sheng
Chinese Religions, History of Science and Religion
in China
Hing Kau Yeung
Christianity
Keith Ward
Christianity, Anglican, Issues in Science and Religion
Stephen Sykes
Christianity, Evangelical, Issues in Science and
Religion
Alan G. Padgett
Christianity, History of Science and Religion
Edward B. Davis
Christianity, Lutheran, Issues in Science and Religion
Niels Henrik Gregersen
Christianity, Orthodox, Issues in Science and
Religion
Alexei Nesteruk
Christianity, Pentacostalism, Issues in Science and
Religion
Amos Yong
Paul Elbert
Christianity, Radical Reformed, Issues in Science and
Religion
Christian Early
Nancey Murphy
Christianity, Reformed, Issues in Science and
Religion

E. David Willis
Christianity, Roman Catholic, Issues in Science and
Religion
George Coyne
Christology
Hans Schwarz
Clockwork Universe
Howard J. Van Till
Cloning
Ronald Cole-Turner
Closed Universe
Mark Worthing
Cognitive Fluidity
Steven Mithen
Coherentism
F. LeRon Shults
Competition
Arn O. Gyldenholm
Complementarity
K. Helmut Reich
Complexity
Niels Henrik Gregersen
Consciousness Studies
Joseph A. Goguen
Constructivism
Günter Thomas
Contextualism
Mikael Stenmark
Contingency
Keith Ward

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LIST OF ARTICLES
— xv—
Convergence
Simon Conway Morris
Copenhagen Interpretation
John D. Barrow
Cosmological Argument
David Manley
Cosmology
Norriss Hetherington
Cosmology, Physical Aspects
Robert John Russell
Cosmology, Religious and Philosophical Aspects
Norriss Hetherington
Created Co-Creator
Hubert Meisinger
Creatio Continua
Keith Ward
Creatio Ex Nihilo
Keith Ward
Creation
Keith Ward
Creationism
Howard J. Van Till
Creation Science
Howard J. Van Till
Critical Realism
Kees van Kooten Niekerk
Culture, Origins of

Paul K. Wason
Cybernetics
Marion Grau
Cyborg
Anne Foerst
Cyclical Universe
Mark Worthing
Dao
James Miller
Darwin, Charles
John Hedley Brooke
Death
Duane H. Larson
Deep Ecology
Roald E. Kristiansen
Deism
Philip Clayton
Descartes, René
Anne A. Davenport
Design
Anna Case-Winters
Design Argument
Anna Case-Winters
Determinism
Taede A. Smedes
Dharma
Harold Coward
Disorder
Dirk Evers
Dissipative Structure

William A. Dembski
Divine Action
Thomas F. Tracy
DNA
R. David Cole
Double Agency
Thomas F. Tracy
Downward Causation
Theo C. Meyering
Dualism
Charles Taliaferro
Ecofeminism
Anne Primavesi
Ecology
Holmes Rolston, III
Ecology, Ethics of
James A. Nash
Ecology, Religious and Philosophical Aspects
Jay McDaniel
Ecology, Science of
Stephanie Kaza
Economics
Max L. Stackhouse
Ecotheology
H. Paul Santmire
Einstein, Albert
Max Jammer
Embodiment
Catherine Keller
Emergence

Philip Clayton
Empiricism
Jerome A. Stone
End of the World, Religious & Philosophical Aspects
of
Richard Landes
Entropy
Lawrence W. Fagg
Epistemology
Paul D. Murray
EPR Paradox
John D. Barrow
Eschatology
William R. Stoeger
Eternity
Luco J. van den Brom
Ethnicity
Barbara A. Holmes
Eugenics
Abigail Rian Evans
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LIST OF ARTICLES
— xvi—
Evil and Suffering
Keith Ward
Evolution
Michael Ruse
Evolutionary Algorithms
Gregory R. Peterson
Evolutionary Epistemology

Tomas Hancil
Evolutionary Ethics
Jeffrey P. Schloss
Evolutionary Psychology
John A. Teske
Evolution, Biocultural
Michael Ruse
Evolution, Biological
Francisco J. Ayala
Evolution, Human
Kenneth Mowbray
Ian Tattersall
Evolution, Theology of
John Haught
Exobiology
Steven J. Dick
Experience, Religious: Cognitive and
Neurophysiological Aspects
Andrew B. Newberg
Experience, Religious: Philosophical Aspects
Matthew C. Bagger
Explanation
Eberhard Herrmann
Extraterrestrial Life
Steven J. Dick
Faith
Eric O. Springsted
Fall
Raymund Schwager
Fallibilism

Mikael Stenmark
Falsifiability
Mikael Stenmark
Feminisms and Science
Lisa L. Stenmark
Feminist Cosmology
Ann Pederson
Feminist Theology
Ann Pederson
Field
William R. Stoeger
Field Theories
William R. Stoeger
Fitness
Volker Loeschke
Forces of Nature
Howard J. Van Till
Foundationalism
F. LeRon Shults
Freedom
Ted Peters
Free Process Defense
Thomas Jay Oord
Free Will Defense
Thomas Jay Oord
Matthew Henry
Freud, Sigmund
William W. Meissner, S.J.
Functionalism
Hubert Meisinger

Fundamentalism
Martin E. Marty
Gaia Hypothesis
John Cobb
Galileo Galilei
William R. Shea
Gene Patenting
Karen Lebacqz
Genesis
Christopher B. Kaiser
Gene Therapy
Brent Waters
Genetically Modified Organisms
Donna M. McKenzie
Genetic Defect
Brent Waters
Genetic Determinism
Ted Peters
Genetic Engineering
Ronald Cole-Turner
Genetics
Ted Peters
Genetic Testing
Brent Waters
Geocentrism
Denis Edwards
Geometry, Modern: Theological Aspects
Michael Heller
Geometry: Philosophical Aspects
John C. Puddefoot

Global Warming
Richard O. Randolph
God
Philip Clayton
Gödel’s Incompleteness Theorem
W. M. Priestley
God, Existence of
Philip L. Quinn
God of the Gaps
Ernest Simmons
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LIST OF ARTICLES
— xvii—
Gould, Stephen Jay
Michael Ruse
Gradualism
Volker Loeschke
Grand Unified Theory
William R. Stoeger
Gravitation
George F. R. Ellis
Greenhouse Effect
Richard O. Randolph
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
John D. Barrow
Hermeneutics in Science and Religion
William J. Grassie
Hierarchy
Gregory R. Peterson
Hinduism

Harold Coward
Hinduism, Contemporary Issues in Science and
Religion
Harold Coward
Hinduism, History of Science and Religion
Klaus K. Klostermaier
Historical Criticism
Claude Welch
Holism
Christopher Southgate
Holy Spirit
Hans Schwarz
Hope
George Newlands
Human Ecology
Susan Powers Bratton
Human Genome Project
Ted Peters
Humanism
Brad Allenby
Human Nature, Physical Aspects
Michael L. Spezio
Human Nature, Religious and Philosophical Aspects
Jan-Olav Henriksen
Hume, David
David Raynor
Hypothetical Realism
Tomas Hancil
Idealism
Arne Grøn

Imagination
Robert Cummings Neville
Imago Dei
Gregory R. Peterson
Immanence
Gregory R. Peterson
Incarnation
John Haught
Indeterminism
John D. Barrow
Infinity
Anne A. Davenport
Inflationary Universe Theory
George F. R. Ellis
Information
John C. Puddefoot
Information Technology
John C. Puddefoot
Information Theory
John C. Puddefoot
Intelligent Design
Howard J. Van Till
Islam
Osman Bakar
Islam, Contemporary Issues in Science and Religion
Bruno Guiderdoni
Islam, History of Science and Religion
Alnoor R. Dhanani
Judaism
Hava Tirosh-Samuelson

Judaism, Contemporary Issues in Science and
Religion
Laurie Zoloth
Judaism, History of Science and Religion, Medieval
Period
Gad Freudenthal
Judaism, History of Science and Religion, Modern
Period
Norbert M. Samuelson
Kant, Immanuel
Frederick Gregory
Karma
Harold Coward
Kenosis
John Haught
Lamarckism
Peter M. J. Hess
Language
Terrence W. Deacon
Laws of Nature
Yuri V. Balashov
Level Theory
Gregory R. Peterson
Liberation
John J. Thatamanil
Liberation Theology
John W. de Gruchy
Life after Death
Jan Bremmer
Life, Biological Aspects

Holmes Rolston, III
FrontMatter.qxd 3/20/03 9:37 M Page xvii
LIST OF ARTICLES
— xviii—
Life, Origins of
Kai Finster
Life, Religious and Philosophical Aspects
Holmes Rolston, III
Life Sciences
Celia Deane-Drummond
Locality
John D. Barrow
Maimonides
David B. Burrell
Many-worlds Hypothesis
W. Michael Dickson
Materialism
Max Jammer
Mathematics
W. M. Priestley
Medical Ethics
Alfred I. Tauber
Medicine
Harold G. Koenig
Meditation
Ernest Simmons
Memes
Mary Midgley
Mendel, Gregor
Richard C. Weikart

Metaphor
Mary Gerhart
Allan M. Russell
Metaphysics
Jitse M. van der Meer
Millenialism
Richard Landes
Mind-body Theories
Stephen Priest
Mind-brain Interaction
Stephen Priest
Miracle
William Lane Craig
Missing Link
Ian Tattersall
Mitochondrial Eve
Michael Ruse
Models
Lou Ann G. Trost
Modernity
Michael Welker
Monism
Dennis Bielfeldt
Monotheism
Philip Clayton
Morality
Rodney L. Petersen
Mutation
R. David Cole
Mystical Experience

Jensine Andresen
Mysticism
Jensine Andresen
Mystics
Jensine Andresen
Myth
Marcelo Gleiser
Naturalism
Willem B. Drees
Naturalistic Fallacy
Ulrik B. Nissen
Naturalized Epistemology
Andy F. Sanders
Natural Law Theory
Ulrik B. Nissen
Natural Theology
Keith Ward
Nature
Ulrik B. Nissen
Nature versus Nurture
Holmes Rolston, III
Neo-Darwinism
Volker Loeschke
Neural Darwinism
John A. Teske
Neurophysiology
Warren S. Brown
Neuropsychology
Warren S. Brown
Neurosciences

Warren S. Brown
Neurotheology
Palmyre M. F. Oomen
New Physics
William R. Stoeger
Newton, Isaac
Stephen D. Snobelen
Nonfoundationalism
F. LeRon Shults
Nuclear Energy
Richard O. Randolph
Omega Point Theory
Mark Worthing
Omnipotence
Luco J. van den Brom
Omnipresence
Luco J. van den Brom
Omniscience
Luco J. van den Brom
Ontological Argument
David Manley
FrontMatter.qxd 3/20/03 9:37 M Page xviii
LIST OF ARTICLES
— xix—
Ontology
Dennis Bielfeldt
Open Universe
Mark Worthing
Order
Jitse M. van der Meer

Paleoanthropology
Ian Tattersall
Paleontology
Ian Tattersall
Kenneth Mowbray
Panentheism
David H. Nikkel
Pantheism
Nancy Frankenberry
Paradigms
Antje Jackelén
Paradox
James E. Loder
Phase Space
W. Michael Dickson
Philosophy of Religion
Anders Jeffner
Philosophy of Science
Alisa Bokulich
Philosophy of Science, History of
Alisa Bokulich
Physicalism, Reductive and Nonreductive
Dennis Bielfeldt
Physics
Howard J. Van Till
Physics, Classical
Howard J. Van Till
Physics, Particle
John Polkinghorne
Physics, Quantum

W. Michael Dickson
Placebo Effect
Howard Brody
Planck Time
John D. Barrow
Plato
George H. Rudebusch
Playing God
Ted Peters
Pluralism
Dennis Bielfeldt
Pneumatology
Sigurd Bergmann
Positivism, Logical
Roger Trigg
Postfoundationalism
F. LeRon Shults
Postmodernism
Graham Ward
Postmodern Science
F. LeRon Shults
Pragmatism
Eberhard Herrmann
Prayer and Meditation
Fraser Watts
Primatology
Gregory R. Peterson
Process Thought
Thomas Jay Oord
Progress

Michael Ruse
Providence
Thomas F. Tracy
Psychology
Fraser Watts
Psychology of Religion
K. Helmut Reich
Punctuated Equilibrium
Arn O. Gyldenholm
Quantum Cosmologies
John D. Barrow
Quantum Field Theory
John D. Barrow
Quantum Vacuum State
Niu Shi-wei
Realism
Roger Trigg
Reductionism
Dennis Bielfeldt
Reincarnation
Harold Coward
Relativity, General Theory of
George F. R. Ellis
Relativity, Special Theory of
Howard J. Van Till
Religion and Values, Origins of
Holmes Rolston, III
Religion, Theories of
Matthew C. Bagger
Reproductive Technology

Suzanne Holland
Revelation
Christopher C. Knight
Ritual
Hans J. L. Jensen
Robotics
Anne Foerst
Sacramental Universe
Matthew Fox
Sacraments
Duane H. Larson
FrontMatter.qxd 3/20/03 9:37 M Page xix
LIST OF ARTICLES
— xx—
Schrödinger’s Cat
John D. Barrow
Science and Religion
Robert John Russell
Kirk Wegter-McNelly
Science and Religion, History of Field
John Hedley Brooke
Science and Religion in Public Communication
Stacey A. Ake
Adrian M. Wyard
Science and Religion, Methodologies
Gregory R. Peterson
Science and Religion, Models and Relations
Ian Barbour
Science and Religion, Periodical Literature
Karl Giberson

Science and Religion, Research in
Christopher Southgate
Science Fiction
Noreen L. Herzfeld
Science, Origins of
Peter Harrison
Science Wars
Niels Viggo Hansen
Scientism
Mikael Stenmark
Scopes Trial
George E. Webb
Scriptural Interpretation
Kurt Anders Richardson
Selection, Levels of
Michael Ruse
Self
Léon Turner
Fraser Watts
Selfish Gene
Mary Midgley
Self-organization
Palmyre M. F. Oomen
Self-reference
James E. Loder
Self-transcendence
Brian L. Lancaster
Semiotics
Michael L. Raposa
Shinto

Masakazu Hara
Sin
Ted Peters
Singularity
George F. R. Ellis
Skyhooks
Holmes Rolston, III
Sociobiology
Michael Ruse
Sociology
William H. Swatos, Jr.
Soul
Charles Taliaferro
Space and Time
Jennifer L. Trusted
Special Divine Action
Thomas F. Tracy
Special Providence
Charles Taliaferro
Spirit
John A. Teske
Spirituality
Claire E. Wolfteich
Spirituality and Faith Healing
Jensine Andresen
Spirituality and Health
Jensine Andresen
Spirituality and the Practice of Science
Peter Van Ness
Steady State Theory

Mark Worthing
Stem Cell Research
Suzanne Holland
String Theory
William R. Stoeger
Supernaturalism
Graham Ward
Superstrings
William R. Stoeger
Supervenience
Theo C. Meyering
Symbiosis
Jeffrey P. Schloss
Symmetry
Yuri V. Balashov
Systems Theory
Kathia Castro Laszlo
T = 0
Mark Worthing
Tacit Knowledge
Andy F. Sanders
Technology
Frederick Ferré
Technology and Ethics
Frederick Ferré
Technology and Religion
Frederick Ferré
Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre
Ludovico Galleni
Teleological Argument

William A. Dembski
FrontMatter.qxd 3/20/03 9:37 M Page xx
LIST OF ARTICLES
— xxi—
Teleology
Keith Ward
Theism
Philip Clayton
Theodicy
Ulf Görman
Theological Anthropology
Jan-Olav Henriksen
Theology
Robert Cummings Neville
Theology, Theories of
Robert Cummings Neville
Thermodynamics, Second Law of
William R. Stoeger
Thinking Machines
Thiemo Krink
Thomas Aquinas
Edward Grant
Time: Physical and Biological Aspects
Dirk Evers
Time: Religious and Philosophical Aspects
Peter Øhrstrøm
Transcendence
Ernest Simmons
Transmigration
Ernest Simmons

Truth, Theories of
Arne Grøn
Turing Test
Thiemo Krink
Two Books
Peter M. J. Hess
UFO
Ted Peters
Unpredictability
Dirk Evers
Upward Causation
Theo C. Meyering
Value
George Allan
Value, Religious
Robert Cummings Neville
Value, Scientific
Frederick Ferré
Value, Value Theory
George Allan
Virtual Reality
Anne Foerst
Wave-particle Duality
John D. Barrow
Whitehead, Alfred North
Thomas Jay Oord
Womanist Theology
Barbara A. Holmes
Worldview
Mikael Stenmark

Xenotransplantation
Donna M. McKenzie
FrontMatter.qxd 3/20/03 9:37 M Page xxi
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
— xxiii—
WOLFGANG ACHTNER
Universität Giessen
Attractor
Butterfly Effect
Chaos, Quantum
Chaos Theory
STACEY A. AKE
Metanexus Institute on Religion and Science,
Philadelphia
Science and Religion in Public
Communication
GEORGE ALLAN
Dickinson College
Aesthetics
Axiology
Beauty
Value
Value, Value Theory
PAUL ALLEN
Concordia University, Montréal
Apologetics
BRAD ALLENBY
AT&T
Humanism
V. E LVING ANDERSON

University of Minnesota
Behavioral Genetics
JENSINE ANDRESEN
Boston University
Buddhism
Mystical Experience
Mysticism
Mystics
Spirituality and Faith Healing
Spirituality and Health
MARIANO ARTIGAS
University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
Causality, Primary and Secondary
FRANCISCO J. AYALA
University of California, Irivine
Evolution, Biological
MATTHEW C. BAGGER
Columbia University
Experience, Religious: Philosophical Aspects
Religion, Theories of
OSMAN BAKAR
Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding, Georgetown
University
Islam
YURI V. B ALASHOV
University of Georgia, Athens
Laws of Nature
Symmetry
IAN BARBOUR
Carleton College

Science and Religion, Models and Relations
JOHN D. BARROW
Cambridge University
Copenhagen Interpretation
EPR Paradox
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
Indeterminism
Locality
Planck Time
Quantum Cosmologies
Quantum Field Theory
Schrödinger’s Cat
Wave-particle Duality
SIGURD BERGMANN
Norwegian Institute of Science and Technology
Pneumatology
FrontMatter.qxd 3/20/03 9:37 M Page xxiii
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
— xxiv—
DENNIS BIELFELDT
South Dakota State University
Monism
Ontology
Physicalism, Reductive and Nonreductive
Pluralism
Reductionism
ALISA BOKULICH
Boston University
Philosophy of Science
Philosophy of Science, History of

SUSAN POWERS BRATTON
Baylor University
Human Ecology
JAN BREMMER
University of Groningen
Life after Death
HOWARD BRODY
Michigan State University
Placebo Effect
JOHN HEDLEY BROOKE
Harris Manchester College, Oxford University
Science and Religion, History of Field
WARREN S. BROWN
Graduate School of Psychology, Fuller Theological Seminary
Neurophysiology
Neuropsychology
Neurosciences
DAVID B. BURRELL
University of Notre Dame
Maimonides
ANNA CASE-WINTERS
McCormick Theological Seminary
Design
Design Argument
AUDREY R. CHAPMAN
American Association for the Advancement of Sciences
Behavioral Genetics
PHILIP CLAYTON
Claremont School of Theology and Claremont Graduate
University

Deism
Emergence
God
Monotheism
Theism
JOHN COBB
Claremont, California
Gaia Hypothesis
R. DAVID COLE
University of California, Berkeley
DNA
Mutation
RONALD COLE-TURNER
Pittsburgh Theological Seminary
Biotechnology
Cloning
Genetic Engineering
MICHAEL A. COREY
Charleston, West Virginia
Anthropic Principle
HAROLD COWARD
University of Victoria, British Columbia
Dharma
Hinduism
Hinduism, Contemporary Issues in Science and Religion
Karma
Reincarnation
GEORGE COYNE
Vatican Observatory
Christianity, Roman Catholic, Issues in Science and

Religion
WILLIAM LANE CRAIG
Talbot School of Theology
Miracle
ANNE A. DAVENPORT
Boston College
Cartesianism
Descartes, René
Infinity
EDWARD B. DAVIS
Messiah College
Christianity, History of Science and Religion
TERRENCE W. DEACON
University of California, Berkeley
Language
CELIA DEANE-DRUMMOND
Chester College of Higher Education, UK
Biology
Life Sciences
JOHN W. DE GRUCHY
University of Cape Town
Liberation Theology
W
ILLIAM A. DEMBSKI
Baylor University
Algorithm
Algorithmic Complexity
Boundary Conditions
Dissipative Structure
Teleological Argument

ALNOOR R. DHANANI
Harvard University
Islam, History of Science and Religion
FrontMatter.qxd 3/20/03 9:37 M Page xxiv
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
— xxv—
STEVEN J. DICK
United States Naval Observatory
Exobiology
Extraterrestrial Life
W. MICHAEL DICKSON
Indiana University
Many-worlds Hypothesis
Phase Space
Physics, Quantum
WILLEM B. DREES
Leiden University
Naturalism
CHRISTIAN EARLY
Eastern Mennonite University
Christianity, Radical Reformed, Issues in Science and
Religion
PAUL ELBERT
Church of God Theological Seminary
Christianity, Pentacostalism, Issues in Science and
Religion
DENIS EDWARDS
School of Theology, Flinders University
Chaos, Religious and Philosophical Aspects
Geocentrism

GEORGE F. R. E LLIS
University of Cape Town
Astronomy
Astrophysics
Gravitation
Inflationary Universe Theory
Relativity, General Theory of
Singularity
CLAUS EMMECHE
University of Copenhagen
Artificial Life
Biosemiotics
A
BIGAIL RIAN EVANS
Princeton Theological Seminary
Eugenics
D
IRK EVERS
Institute of Hermeneutics, University of Tübigen, Germany
Atomism
Disorder
Time: Physical and Biological Aspects
Unpredictability
L
AWRENCE W. FAGG
Catholic University of America
Entropy
FREDERICK FERRÉ
University of Georgia
Technology

Technology and Ethics
Technology and Religion
Value, Scientific
KAI FINSTER
University of Aarhus, Institute of Biological Sciences
Life, Origins of
ANNE FOERST
St. Bonaventure University
Cyborg
Robotics
Virtual Reality
HENRY J. FOLSE,JR.
Loyola University, New Orleans
Bohr, Niels
MATTHEW FOX
University of Creation Spirituality
Sacramental Universe
NANCY FRANKENBERRY
Dartmouth College
Pantheism
GAD FREUDENTHAL
CNRS, France
Judaism, History of Science and Religion, Medieval Period
STEPHEN R. FRIBERG
Lambda Control, Inc.
Baháhí
LUDOVICO GALLENI
University of Pisa
Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre
MARY GERHART

Hobart and William Smith Colleges
Metaphor
KARL GIBERSON
Eastern Nazarene College
Science and Religion, Periodical Literature
MARCELO GLEISER
Dartmouth College
Myth
JOSEPH A. GOGUEN
University of California at San Diego
Consciousness Studies
ULF GÖRMAN
Lund University, Sweden
Theodicy
COLIN GRANT
Mount Allison University
Altruism
EDWARD GRANT
Indiana University, Bloomington
Aristotle
Thomas Aquinas
FrontMatter.qxd 3/20/03 9:37 M Page xxv
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
— xxvi—
WILLIAM J. GRASSIE
Metanexus Institute, PA
Hermeneutics in Science and Religion
MARION GRAU
Graduate Theological Union
Cybernetics

NIELS HENRIK GREGERSEN
University of Aarhus, Denmark
Christianity, Lutheran, Issues in Science and Religion
Complexity
FREDERICK GREGORY
University of Florida
Kant, Immanuel
ARNE GRØN
University of Copenhagen
Idealism
Truth, Theories of
BRUNO GUIDERDONI
Centres Nationals de Recherche Scientifique
Islam, Contemporary Issues in Science and Religion
ARN O. GYLDENHOLM
University of Aarhus, Denmark
Catastrophism
Competition
Punctuated Equilibrium
TOMAS HANCIL
Protestant Theological Faculty, Charles University, Prague
Evolutionary Epistemology
Hypothetical Realism
NIELS VIGGO HANSEN
Agri, Denmark
Science Wars
MASAKAZU HARA
Seiwa College, Japan
Shinto
PETER HARRISON

Bond University, Australia
Science, Origins of
JOHN HAUGHT
Georgetown University
Atheism
Evolution, Theology of
Incarnation
Kenosis
MICHAEL HELLER
Vatican Observatory
Geometry, Modern: Theological Aspects
JAN-OLAV HENRIKSEN
Norweigan Lutheran School of Theology, Oslo
Human Nature, Religious and Philosophical Aspects
Theological Anthropology
MATTHEW HENRY
Eastern Nazarene College
Free Will Defense
EBERHARD HERRMANN
Uppsala University, Sweden
Explanation
Pragmatism
NOREEN L. HERZFELD
St. John’s University, Minnesota
Artificial Intelligence
Science Fiction
PETER M. J. HESS
Center for Theology and the Natural Sciences, Berkeley
Lamarckism
Two Books

NORRISS HETHERINGTON
University of California, Berkeley
Biblical Cosmology
Cosmology
Cosmology, Religious and Philosophical Aspects
SUZANNE HOLLAND
University of Puget Sound
Reproductive Technology
Stem Cell Research
BARBARA A. HOLMES
Memphis Theological Seminary
Ethnicity
Womanist Theology
MUZAFFAR IQBAL
Center for Islam and Science
Averröes
Avicenna
ANTJE JACKELÉN
Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago
Paradigms
MAX JAMMER
Bar-Ilan University
Einstein, Albert
Materialism
ANDERS JEFFNER
Uppsala University, Sweden
Philosophy of Religion
HANS J. L. JENSEN
University of Aarhus, Denmark
Ritual

CHRISTOPHER B. KAISER
Western Theological Seminary
Genesis
BOJE KATZENELSON
Risskov, Denmark
Aggression
FrontMatter.qxd 3/20/03 9:37 M Page xxvi
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
— xxvii—
STEPHANIE KAZA
University of Vermont, Burlington
Ecology, Science of
CATHERINE KELLER
Drew University
Embodiment
KLAUS K. KLOSTERMAIER
University of Manitoba
Hinduism, History of Science and Religion
CHRISTOPHER C. KNIGHT
Von Hügel Institute, St. Edmunds College, Cambridge
Revelation
DAVID M. KNIGHT
University of Durham, England
Chemistry
HAROLD G. KOENIG
Duke University Medical Center
Medicine
THIEMO KRINK
EVALife Group, University of Aarhus, Denmark
Automata, Cellular

Thinking Machines
Turing Test
ROALD E. KRISTIANSEN
University of Tromsø, Norway
Anthropocentrism
Deep Ecology
MATHIJS LAMBERIGTS
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
Augustine
BRIAN L. LANCASTER
Liverpool John Moores University
Self-transcendence
RICHARD LANDES
Center for Millennial Studies, Boston University
End of the World, Religious & Philosophical Aspects of
Millenialism
D
UANE H. LARSON
Wartburg Theological Seminary
Death
Sacraments
KATHIA CASTRO LASZLO
Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterey,
Mexico
Systems Theory
KAREN LEBACQZ
Graduate Theological Union
Gene Patenting
ANDREW LINZEY
University of Oxford; University of Birmingham

Animal Rights
JAMES E. LODER
Princeton Theological Seminary
Paradox
Self-reference
VOLKER LOESCHKE
University of Aarhus, Denmark
Adaptation
Fitness
Gradualism
Neo-Darwinism
DAVID MANLEY
Rutgers University
Cosmological Argument
Ontological Argument
MARTIN E. MARTY
University of Chicago
Fundamentalism
JAY MCDANIEL
Hendrix College
Ecology, Religious and Philosophical Aspects
DONNA M. MCKENZIE
Fordham University
Genetically Modified Organisms
Xenotransplantation
HUBERT MEISINGER
Protestant Church of Hessen and Nassau, Darmstadt,
Germany
Created Co-Creator
Functionalism

WILLIAM W. MEISSNER, S.J.
Boston Psychoanalytic Institute and Boston College
Freud, Sigmund
THEO C. MEYERING
Leiden University, The Netherlands
Causation
Downward Causation
Supervenience
Upward Causation
MARY MIDGLEY
Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
Memes
Selfish Gene
JAMES MILLER
Queen’s University
Dao
S
TEVEN MITHEN
University of Reading
Cognitive Fluidity
SIMON CONWAY MORRIS
University of Cambridge
Convergence
FrontMatter.qxd 3/20/03 9:37 M Page xxvii