The grammar of the english verb phrase part 117 pdf

Glossary 805
stole Maud’s wallet it is presupposed that there is someone who stole Maud’s
wallet, hence that Maud’s wallet was stolen.
Presupposition: proposition which is assumed to be true by the speaker when
he makes his utterance, in other words, a pragmatic condition which is as-
sumed to be fulfilled. Thus, both I closed the door and I didn’t close the door
presuppose that the door was not closed at the relevant time. This illustrates
a criterial property of presuppositions, viz. that they remain unaffected if the
clause is made negative (except if the negation is of the metalinguistic kind).
Preterite: tense locating a situation time in a domain in the past time-sphere.
See also past tense (a)–(b).
Principle of Unmarked Temporal Interpretation: strategy for the interpretation
of temporal W-relations when two or more clauses with an absolute tense form
follow each other and there is no linguistic or contextual indication of the
temporal W-relation(s) holding between the situations referred to. In that case,
the (non)boundedness of any two consecutive clauses is crucial, in that two
bounded clauses are normally interpreted in terms of iconic sequencing, two
nonbounded clauses are normally interpreted in terms of W-simultaneity, and
a combination of a bounded and an unbounded clause is normally interpreted
in terms of inclusion (i. e. the nonbounded situation includes the bounded one).
Prior (to): anterior (to)
Process: type of dynamic situation (i. e. a dynamic situation type), namely a
situation which is not controlled by an agent and which is (conceived of as)
durative and evolving, i. e. as involving incremental change that implies a scale
of some sort (e. g. changing, getting dark, diminishing). In other words, a pro-
cess is a situation type that is dynamic but not agentive and whose main charac-
teristic is change, i. e. a development, a change of state or a transition into a
state (e. g. The car slowed down; The man was dying).
Process verb: verb denoting a process, e. g. change, grow, mature, die, widen,
slow down, improve, thicken, deteriorate, strengthen, diminish, darken,
deepen, develop, increase.

Progressive aspect: the only type of grammatical aspect that is to be found in
English, i. e. the only aspect that is expressed by a special verb form. Pro-
gressive aspect means that the speaker uses a special verb form to express
progressive meaning, i. e. to represent the actualization of a situation as ‘ongo-
ing’ (i. e. as in progress at or throughout a given vantage time). Also called
‘continuous’ or ‘durative’ aspect.
Progressive form: verb form which consists of a form of be followed by the
present participle (as in John was walking home) and which is used to express
progressive meaning. Also called ‘continuous form’.
806 Glossary
Progressive meaning: the idea that the situation referred to is viewed as ongoing
at or throughout a given vantage time. Dynamic verbs use the progressive verb
form to express this meaning.
Progressive present: progressive form of the present tense.
Proposition: the semantic contents of a clause when one disregards the seman-
tic contributions of tense, aspect and modality. Thus, the proposition ‘John
come at five’ underlies both John will come at five and John came at five.
Similarly, both John is running and John has run are possible expressions of
the proposition ‘John run’. A sentence like John came early can be referred to
as a ‘tensed proposition’, because its meaning is the combination of the propo-
sition ‘John come early’ and the meaning of the absolute past tense.
Pseudo-absolute past zone (or pseudo-absolute past time-sphere): time-zone
which is past relative to a pseudo-zero-point. For example, in Next time I will
say that I was ill the day before, the form was locates its situation time in a
pseudo-absolute past zone (which is defined relative to the situation time of
will say, which is the central orientation time of a post-present domain and is
therefore treated as a pseudo-zero-point).
Pseudo-absolute-relative tense form: a tense form whose basic use is as an
absolute-relative tense form, but which now expresses a two-part relation with
a basic orientation time which is not the temporal zero-point (t

0
) but a post-
present pseudo-zero-point. For example, the basic use of the future perfect is
to express a two-part relation between a situation time and t
0
,asinI will have
left on time, but the future perfect is used as a ‘pseudo-absolute-relative’ tense
in [He will say that] he will have finished before 5 o’clock. In this sentence,
the origin of the T-posteriority relation expressed by will (i. e. the basic orienta-
tion time) is not the (real) zero-point but a post-present pseudo-t
0
(viz. the
situation time of will say)
Pseudo-absolute tense form: a past, present perfect, present or future tense
form that relates its situation time to a pseudo-zero-point rather than to the
real temporal zero-point. For example: was in [Next time you see him John
will again say that] he was thirsty the night before. In this example, was repre-
sents the being thirsty not as past relative to the (real) zero-point but rather as
past relative to the post-present time referred to by will say, which is treated
as if it were a zero-point (i. e. as a pseudo-zero-point).
Pseudo-absolute zone: cover term for any of the four portions of time that are
defined in direct relation to a pseudo-zero-point (i. e. a post-present time which
is treated as if it were the zero-point): the pseudo-past zone, the pseudo-pre-
present zone, the pseudo-present zone and the pseudo-post-present zone. See
also Pseudo-t
0
-System.
Glossary 807
Pseudo-cleft (or pseudo-cleft sentence, pseudo-cleft construction): specifica-
tional copular sentence in which the variable is expressed by a wh-clause pro-

cessed as subject and the value constituent is processed as subject complement,
e. g. What I gave him was a
book
. (This is interpreted as ‘the x which I gave
him was: a book’.) We speak of an inverted pseudo-cleft when the nominal
relative clause (representing the variable) follows the constituent expressing the
value, as in A
book
was what I gave him.
Pseudo-past subdomain: temporal subdomain forming part of a post-present
domain and created by a pseudo-absolute past tense form, which locates a
situation time in a pseudo-past zone, i. e. in a time-zone viewed as past with
respect to, and as disconnected from, the central orientation time (treated as
a pseudo-zero-point) of that post-present domain. For example, were staying
establishes such a pseudo-past subdomain in Sooner or later the police will
find out that you were staying here today, and not in London.
Pseudo-past zone: (1) time-zone viewed as past with respect to, and as discon-
nected from, the central orientation time (treated as a pseudo-zero-point) of a
post-present domain. For example, in Sooner or later the police will find out
that you were here today, the tense form were locates the time of the situation
referred to in a pseudo-past zone. (The situation in question may be interpreted
as W-posterior to the real zero-point, but that relation is not expressed by the
past tense form.); (2) A pseudo-past zone can also be defined relative to a
pseudo-zero-point which is the central orientation time of a pseudo-post-pres-
ent subdomain.
Pseudo-post-present subdomain: (1) temporal subdomain forming part of a
post-present domain and created by a pseudo-absolute future tense form, which
locates a situation time in a pseudo-post-present zone, i. e. in a time-zone
viewed as future relative to the central orientation time (treated as a pseudo-
zero-point) of that post-present domain. For example, in I will announce to-

morrow that, if I lose, I will leave the country for good, the future tense form
will leave establishes a pseudo-post-present subdomain within the post-present
domain established by will announce; (2) subdomain whose central orientation
time is treated as a pseudo-zero-point because it is either T-simultaneous or
T-posterior to the central orientation time of a post-present domain or of an-
other pseudo-post-present subdomain.
Pseudo-post-present zone: time-zone viewed as future with respect to the
central orientation time (treated as a pseudo-zero-point) of a post-present do-
main. For example, in I will announce tomorrow that I will leave the country
for good, the future tense form will leave locates its situation time in a time-
zone which is treated as post-present relative to a pseudo-zero-point, which is
the post-present time of the announcement. Any situation time located in a
808 Glossary
pseudo-post-present zone (e. g. the situation time of will leave in the above
example) is also treated as a pseudo-t
0
and is therefore the central orientation
time of a pseudo-post-present subdomain of its own.
Pseudo-pre-present subdomain: (1) temporal subdomain forming part of a
post-present domain created by a situation time that is located in a period
leading up to (and not felt to be divorced from) the central orientation time
(i. e. the pseudo-zero-point) of that post-present domain. For example, the pres-
ent perfect tense form have left in Who will look after you when Brad and
Sybil have left? is used to locate the time of the situation of leaving in a pseudo-
pre-present subdomain; (2) A pseudo-pre-present subdomain may also be a
subdomain within a pseudo-post-present subdomain (e. g. the subdomain es-
tablished by have left in Mother will ask you who will look after you when
Brad and Sybil have left).
Pseudo-pre-present zone: (1) time-zone viewed as leading up to the central
orientation time (treated as a pseudo-zero-point) of a post-present domain. In

[If you leave tonight, the police will only discover tomorrow that] you have
left, the present perfect tense form have left locates the time of the situation
referred to in a pseudo-pre-present zone, i. e. in a period leading up to the time
of the future discovering. (The situation in question may be interpreted as W-
posterior to the real zero-point, but that relation is not expressed by the present
perfect tense form.); (2) A pseudo-pre-present zone may also be a zone forming
part of a pseudo-post-present subdomain. Thus, in Mother will ask you who
will look after you when Brad and Sybil have left, the form have left locates
its situation time in the pseudo-pre-present zone that is defined relative to the
situation time of will look [after you], which functions as a pseudo-t
0
and
establishes a pseudo-post-present subdomain within the post-present domain
established by will ask.
Pseudo-present time: a post-present time that is treated as if it were the tempo-
ral zero-point. A time is a pseudo-present time if (a) it is the central orientation
time of a post-present domain or (b) it is a time that is T-simultaneous or T-
posterior to that central time, or (c) it is a time that is T-simultaneous or T-
posterior to a time of the kind mentioned in (b), etc.
Pseudo-present subdomain: (1) temporal subdomain forming part of a post-
present domain and created by a pseudo-absolute present tense form, which
represents a situation time as T-simultaneous (ϭ coinciding) with the central
orientation time of a post-present domain. (That central orientation time is
treated as if it were the zero-point, i. e. as a pseudo-zero-point.) For example,
in [If we hide the money there] the police will never find out where it is, the
present tense form is creates a pseudo-present subdomain within the post-pres-
ent domain established by will find out; (2) A pseudo-present subdomain may
Glossary 809
also be a subdomain within a pseudo-post-present subdomain. Thus, in [Next
time Tim runs away] John will tell his parents that he will tell them in due

time where Tim is, the form is expresses a pseudo-present subdomain within
the pseudo-post-present subdomain established by will tell.
Pseudo-present zone: time-zone viewed as coinciding with a pseudo-zero-point
(i. e. with a post-present time which is treated as if it were the zero-point).
Pseudo-t
0
-System: system of tense forms that can be used to express a T-rela-
tion in a post-present domain. This system, which is based on a shift of tempo-
ral perspective (since the central orientation time of the domain is treated as if
it were the temporal zero-point), comprises the pseudo-absolute tenses, which
locate a situation time in one of the pseudo-absolute time-zones, which are
defined relative to the post-present central time of orientation (which is treated
as a pseudo-zero-point). As pseudo-absolute tenses we use the preterite or pres-
ent perfect to express T-anteriority, the present tense to express T-simultaneity
and the future tense (or a futurish form) to express T-posteriority. Each use of
a pseudo-absolute tense establishes a pseudo-absolute subdomain, which can
be expanded like a ‘normal’ domain established by an absolute tense form. For
example, in [If we kill him tonight and put his body in the freezer for two
days] the police will think that he was killed when he came home on Tuesday,
the form will think establishes a post-present domain, whose central orienta-
tion time (ϭ the time of the thinking) is treated as a pseudo-t
0
,i.e.asifit
were the temporal zero-point. The situation time referred to by was killed
(which is W-posterior to the real t
0
) is located in the pseudo-absolute past time-
sphere (i. e. in a time-zone that is past relative to the pseudo-t
0
), where it

establishes a pseudo-absolute past subdomain. The relative past tense form
came expresses T-simultaneity in that subdomain. (In a true past domain, it is
also the relative past tense that is used to express T-simultaneity, e. g. He was
killed when he came home.)
Pseudo-zero-point (or pseudo-t
0
): orientation time which is not the temporal
zero-point but is treated as if it were t
0
. A pseudo-t
0
is the central orientation
time of a post-present domain or a situation time that is T-simultaneous with
that or which is the central orientation time of a pseudo-post-present subdo-
main. For example, in Next time he will say that he is ill, the central time of
orientation (ϭ the time of saying) of the post-present domain is treated as a
pseudo-t
0
. This explains why the present tense (is) is used to represent the
situation time of the that-clause as T-simultaneous with it.
Punctual (or nondurative, momentary): (a) ontological feature of a situation-
template (as expressed by, e. g. the verb phrase knocked at the door) which is
conceived of as needing no more than a moment to actualize. By extension,
the term can also be applied to a verb phrase denoting such a situation-template
810 Glossary
(e. g. knock at the door) or to the actualization of a situation that is conceived
of as having no (or hardly any) duration. (b) The term punctual is also applied
to time-specifying adverbials that indicate a specific moment in time, i. e. a
time that has no duration to speak of (e. g. at five), as well as to duration
adverbials that indicate an interval that has no duration to speak of (e. g. for

a split second).
Punctual situation verb (phrase): verb or verb phrase which denotes a punctual
situation-template.
Punctual time-specifying adverbial: time-specifying adverbial which specifies an
Adv-time that has (virtually) no duration (e. g. at five o’clock).
Pure duration adverbial: temporal adverbial which (unlike a time-specifying
adverbial or a bifunctional temporal adverbial) does not identify an Adv-time
but only specifies duration, more specifically the duration of the full situation
(e. g. [John was here] for a couple of hours).
Pure future: what is expressed by the future tense if the speaker merely makes
a prediction, i. e. if he just expresses that he thinks that a particular situation
will actualize in the post-present.
Quantificational constitution reading (or interpretation): cover term for dura-
tion-quantifying constitution readings (e. g. Nearly a year has gone by since
then) and number-quantifying constitution readings (e. g. How many times
have you met him in the past week?).
Recency reading (or interpretation): a particular reading of the indefinite per-
fect, viz. that in which the pre-present situation time is lying close to the tempo-
ral zero-point. There is a recency reading if a sentence in the present perfect is
used to convey ‘hot news’ (see hot news interpretation) or in cases in which
the present perfect combines with an adverb like just, recently or this minute,
which establishes a recent indefinite bygone Adv-time (e. g. I have recently
heard that vitamin A may be linked to osteoporosis).
Recent indefinite bygone time: Adv-time indicated by one of the adverbials
recently, just, this minute, lately.
Reduced cleft (or reduced
it
-cleft): cleft sentence whose wh-clause is deleted
because it would only repeat the contents of the preceding subclause. Thus, it’s
you in If anyone can do it, it’s you (which is interpreted as ‘If there is one x

who can do it, that x is you’) is short for it’s you who can do it.
Referent: the entity (thing, person, actualization of a situation, etc.) that a
linguistic expression (viz. a word, phrase or clause) refers to. This entity usually
belongs to an extralinguistic possible world (such as the actual world). Its
Glossary 811
existence in that world is affirmed, denied, questioned, hypothesized or presup-
posed. In John left, the referent of the noun phrase John is a particular person
known as having the name John. The referent of a finite clause is the actualiza-
tion of a situation.
Referential noun phrase: when used in Donnellan’s (1966) sense, said of a noun
phrase which has definite reference in the sense that the speaker assumes the
hearer to know the identity of the referent of the phrase. For example, in [I’d
like to hear more about] the trip you’ve made, the hearer is assumed to be able
to know which particular trip is being referred to. The speaker could therefore
also use other NPs to refer to the trip in question, such as your trip to Italy.
Regular verb (or weak verb): verb that forms its past tense and its past partici-
ple by adding the suffix -ed to the verb stem (which then sometimes has to
undergo a minor spelling adjustment), e. g. play – played; love – loved; cry –
cried, etc.
Relative-absolute deictic time-specifying adverbial: time-specifying adverbial
which indicates an Adv-time that is anchored to a time which is itself anchored
to the temporal zero-point, e. g. the day before yesterday.
Relative deictic time-specifying adverbial: time-specifying adverbial which indi-
cates an Adv-time that is anchored to a time other than the temporal zero-
point, e. g. the same day, that morning, the next day, the day before, two days
earlier, etc.
Relative past tense: past tense which expresses T-simultaneity in a past domain.
The semantics of the relative past tense is: ‘The situation time is represented
as T-simultaneous with an orientation time in a past domain (or in a past
subdomain or in a pseudo-past subdomain)’.

Relative tense: tense which does not T-relate the time of a situation directly to
the temporal zero-point but T-relates it to some other time of orientation. A
relative tense always indicates a temporal relation within a temporal domain.
For example, the past perfect form had left in I knew he had left early expresses
anteriority within the past domain established by the absolute past tense
form knew.
Repetitive (or iterative) aspect: (1) kind of grammatical aspect, characterized
by the fact that the speaker uses a special verb form to represent a situation as
a hypersituation consisting of a number of subsituations of the same kind. (2)
In this work we also speak of repetitive or iterative ‘aspectual meaning’ when
a situation repeats itself on different occasions, as in I’ve only been in this town
three times.
Repetitive habit: habit which involves multiple instantiations of the situation
referred to. None of these instantiations need actually be going on at the time