Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 2 - Oceania - Y docx

388
Yangoru
Boiken
Yangoru
Boiken
ETHNONYMS:
Nugum,
Wianu,
Yangoru
Orientation
Idenification.
The
Boiken
people
of
the
East
Sepik
Prov-
ince,
Papua
New
Guinea,
occupy
one
of the
most
extensive
and
ecologically
heterogeneous

territories
in
New
Guinea.
Their
boundaries
encompass
the
islands
of
Walis,
Tarawai,
and
Muschu
in
the
Bismarck
Sea
and
cut
a
broad
swathe
in-
land
across
the
coastal
Prince
Alexander

range
before
de-
scending
through
fertile
foothills
into
the
rolling
grassland
north of
the
Sepik
River.
Coupled
with
their
complex
migra-
tional
prehistory,
this
ecological
heterogeneity
has
conferred
an
extreme
linguistic

and
cultural
diversity
on
the
Boiken,
and
consequently
only
one
dialect
group,
the
Yangoru
Boiken,
is
described
here.
The
Yangoru
Boiken
speak
five
dis-
tinct
subdialects,
each
of
which
exhibits

distinct
subcultural
variations;
the
data
to
follow
are
most
representative
of the
north
central
subdialect
speakers
in
the
villagers
of
Sima,
Kambelyi,
and
Kworabri.
Boiken"
is
the
name
of
the
coastal

village
where
the
first
missionaries
lived;
'Yangoru"
is
the
local
name
of
the
area
in
which
Yangoru
Patrol
Post
was
lo-
cated.
Until
European
contact,
the
Yangoru
Boiken
had
no

conception
of
themselves
as
a
single
unit;
local
polities
re-
ferred
to
themselves
only
as
nina,
which
means
'we
all,"
or
tua,
which
means
'People."
Location.
The
Yangoru
Boiken
live

between
3°36'
and
3045'
S
and
143°14'
and
143°22'
E,
around
Yangoru
govern-
ment
station
in
the
southern
foothills
of the
Prince
Alexander
range.
Annual
rainfall
is
about
175
centimeters.
Demography.

In
1980,
the
Boiken
numbered
some
40,000
people.
Of
these,
about
13,300
were
Yangoru
Boiken,
though
only
about
9,600
were
resident
in
Yangoru;
the
rest
were
living
elsewhere
in
Papua

New
Guinea.
This
total
repre-
sents
a
considerable
increase
over
the
4,000
to
5,000
Yangoru
Boiken
estimated
at
the
beginning
of
significant
European
contact
in
the
1920s.
In
1980,
overall

density
in
Yangoru
av-
eraged
about
51
persons
per
square
kilometer
within
the
main
population
belt,
however,
it
averaged
66
persons
per
square
kilometer.
The
population
growth
rate
is
about

2.5
to
3
percent.
inguistic
Affiliation.
The
Yangoru
Boiken
have
been
classified
as
one
of
seven
dialect
groups
of
the
Boiken
lan-
guage,
Ndu
Family,
Middle
Sepik
Stock,
of
the

Sepik-Ramu
Phylum.
The
Boiken
language
is
perhaps
more
accurately
characterized,
however,
as
two
or
more
linguistically
chained
languages,
with
the
Yangoru
Boiken
located
toward
the
mid-
dle
of
the
chain.

History
and
Cultural
Relations
Thousands
of
years
ago,
Boiken
territory
was
occupied
by
speakers
of
Torricelli
Phylum
languages.
Subsequently,
a
large
body
of
Ndu
speakers
from
the
Koiwat
region
north

of
the
Sepik
River
infiltrated
what
is
now
southeast
Boiken
terri
tory
and
spread
northward
to
the
offshore
islands,
linguisti-
cally
assimilating
the
Torricelli
residents
as
they
moved.
In
consequence,

the
Yangoru
Boiken
appear
to
have
a
dual
an-
cestry,
Ndu
and
Torricelli,
which
may
explain
their
close
cul-
tural
affinities
to
the
Torricelli-speaking
Mountain
Arapesh.
First
contact
occurred
around

the
turn
of
the
century,
but
it
was
1930
before
missionaries,
labor
recruiters,
and
patrol
offi-
cers
began
to
have
a
significant
influence
on
Yangoru
Boiken
culture.
By
then,
steel

had
largely
displaced
stone,
and
war-
fare
was
in
decline.
By
1980,
male
initiation,
all
but
the
first
stage
of
female
initiation,
and
most
traditional
arts
were
de-
funct,
currency

had
largely
displaced
shell
wealth,
and
alumi-
num
utensils
had
replaced
clay
pots
and
wooden
plates.
Settlement
The
Yangoru
Boiken
live
in
villages
of
about
fifteen
to
thirty-
five
hamlets,

located
mainly
on
the
leveled
crests
of
densely
forested
ridges.
Most
villages
have
between
150
and
400
peo-
ple.
In
1980,
Sima
village
comprised
twenty-eight
inhabited
hamlets-each
with
an
average

of
three
dwelling
houses
and
two
food
houses-and
275
residents,
with
another
57
being
absent
in
towns.
Each
hamlet
is
home
to
one
or
two
patriline-
agelike
units
called
ring.

Each
village
has
several
mandawia
("big
places"),
hamlets
that
clanlike
congeries
of
related
hring
claim
as
the
homes
of
their
apical
ancestors;
here
they
build
their
spirit
houses,
conduct
their

exchange
ceremonies,
and
hold
major
moots.
There
are
two
basic
house
structures:
the
pile
house,
which
is
raised
a
meter
or
so
off
the
ground
on
stilts
and
is
particularly

common
in
the
higher
foothills;
and
the
ground
house,
which
is
built
directly
on
the
earth
and
is
more
common
in
the
lower
foothills.
Both
are
thatched
with
coconut-palm
fronds

or
tiles
of
sago
leaflets;
they
are
walled
with
sago-bark
shingles
or
sago-frond
stems,
and
floored
with
limbum
palm
planks
or
cane.
Economy
Subsistence
and
Commercial
Activities.
The
staples
of

Yangoru
Boiken
subsistence
are
yams
and
taro,
cultivated
separately
under
slash-and-bum
horticulture,
and
a
feast-or-
famine
dependence
on
the
sago
palm.
Supplements
include
bananas,
coconuts,
breadfruit,
greens,
sugarcane,
bamboo
sprouts,

and
a
wide
variety
of
game,
including
pigs,
cassowar-
ies,
a
range
of
smaller
ground
and
arboreal
mammals,
birds,
grubs,
and
fish.
During
the
Japanese
occupation
in
World
War
II,

game
and
fish
supplies
were
seriously
depleted
and,
following
the
introduction
of
shotguns
and
nylon
netting,
they
remain
depressed.
In
consequence,
dependence
on
game
and
fish
has
decreased,
while
reliance

on
store-bought
meat,
fish,
and
rice
has
increased.
Industrial
Arts.
In
the
past,
villagers
manufactured
stone
adzes,
bamboo
knives,
carved
plates,
ceramic
pots
and
bowls,
wooden
eating
utensils,
spears,
war

clubs,
shields,
slit
gongs,
and
certain
items
of
shell
wealth.
Nowadays,
almost
all
indus-
trial
products
are
bought
in
shops.
Trade.
Traditionally,
the
high
foothill
villages
of
Yangoru
were
linked

in
trade
to
coastal
Boiken
villages
on
the
far
side
of
the
mountains.
They
exported
smoked
pork,
tobacco,
net
bags,
and
clay
pots
and
imported
piglets,
salt,
and
Turbo
clamshells.

Fashions,
songs,
and
dances
seem
to
have
passed
both
ways.
From
the
high
foothills,
salt,
pottery,
and
Turbo-
based
shell
wealth
were
traded
to
the
low
foothills
in
ex-
change

for
net
bags
and
shell
wealth.
By
the
late
1960s,
how.
ever,
these
networks
were
largely
defunct.
Yangoru
Boiken
389
Division
of
Labor.
There
is
a
distinct
division
of
labor

by
sex.
Men
hunt
and
fish,
clear
and
fence
gardens,
plant
and
harvest
yams
and
sago,
process
sago,
cook
ceremonial
foods,
and
build
houses.
In
earlier
days,
they
also
conducted

the
fighting,
made
pots
and
plates,
and
created
most
of
the
art-
work.
Women
rear
pigs;
plant,
weed,
and
harvest
the
taro,
ba-
nanas,
and
greens;
help
with
weeding
and

harvesting
the
yams;
do
the
daily
cooking
and
most
of
the
portering;
fetch
water,
forage
for
firewood
and
bush
foods;
and
do
most
of
the
child
care.
Both
sexes
manufacture

ornaments,
clothing,
bags,
and
baskets.
In
modem
times,
this
division
has
begun
to
crumble,
partly
under
the
influence
of
Western
values
and
partly
because
the
frequent
absence
of
young
men

in
urban
centers
forces
wives
to
do
their
husbands'
worLk
Land
Tenure.
Land
and
domesticated
trees
are
vested
in
the
bring.
The
most
influential
man
in
the
ring,
its
'father"

(yaba),
nominally
controls
the
disposal
of
its
resources,
but
it
would
be
unusual
for
him
to
dispute
the
wishes
of
his
agnates
concerning
the
resources
they
farm.
Kinship
Kin
Groups

and
Descent.
The
principal
kin
groups,
known
as
bring,
are
patrilineagelike
segments
averaging
about
ten
to
fourteen
members.
Hring
are
usually
linked
by
stipulated
patrilineal
descent
into
totemic,
quasisubclan
and

quasiclan
groups
(also
known
as
ringg,
and
they
sustain
alli-
ances
to
yet
other
ring
based
on
affinal
links,
legendary
con-
nections,
friendship,
or
common
political
interests.
Recruit-
ment
to

a
ring
is
by
birth
to
the
wife
of
a
male
member
or
by
use
of
its
resources,
the
latter
way
being
legitimized
by
assist-
ing
the
group
in
its

wealth,
food,
and
pig
exchange
obliga-
tions.
Wives
become
members
of
their
husbands'
hring
at
marriage.
It
is
not
uncommon
for
a
man
to
belong
to
two
or
even
three

different
ring;
accordingly,
kinship
relations
are
often
multiplex.
Kinship
Terminology.
There
are
two
kinship
terminolo-
gies.
The
first
and
more
salient
is
employed
principally
in
public
and
formal
discourse
and

is
essentially
of
the
Omaha
type.
The
second
is
used
in
private,
informal
discourse
and,
with
due
regard
to
age
and
sex,
extends
nuclear
kin
terms
bi-
laterally,
with
the

exception
that
maternal
brothers
are
called
"mother"
and
paternal
sisters
'father."
Marriage
and
Family
Marriage.
Although
formal
betrothal
may
occur
during
a
girl's
initiation
at
first
menses,
nowadays
it
is

often
omitted.
There
always
has
been
considerable
freedom
of
choice
in
marriage
partners,
and
young
people
typically
enter
several
'trial"
marriages
that
dissolve
before
consummation.
Once
a
wife
has
borne

her
husband
a
child,
however,
divorce
is
ex-
tremely
rare
Ideally,
a
man
should
marry
his
father's
mother's
brother's
sister's
daughter
or,
failing
that,
his
mother's
moth-
er's
brother's
sister's

daughter,
but
such
marriages
are
uncom-
mon
in
practice.
Marriage
is
proscribed
with
members
of
one's
own
bring,
most
more-distant
agnates,
and
close
mater-
nal
and
affinal
relatives.
Marriage
involves

bride-wealth
and
initiates
a
flow
of
shell
valuables
from
wife-receiving
to
wife-
giving
ring
that
is
reciprocated
with
food,
labor,
and
protec-
tion.
The
wealth
is
said
to
'buy"
the

"skins"
or
"bodies"
of
the
woman's
children;
the
food,
labor,
and
protection
reflect
the
"maternal"
obligations
of
her
natal
ring
toward
her
children.
These
exchanges
continue
until
the
woman's
death.

Marriage
is
usually
virilocal,
though
uxorilocal
residence
occurs
quite
frequently.
Since
the
early
years
of
this
century,
the
endo-
gamy
rate
within
Sima
village
has
fluctuated
between
38
and
56

percent
of
all
marriages.
Polygyny
is
less
common
now
than
in
the
past:
in
1980
only
13
percent
of
Sima
marriages
were
polygynous.
Domestic
Unit.
The
basic
domestic
unit
is

a
nuclear
fam-
ily,
with
the
common
additions
of
the
father's
parents
and
unmarried
siblings.
It
occupies
anywhere
from
one
to
all
of
the
dwelling
houses
in
a
hamlet.
Usually,

the
nuclear
family
shares
a
house,
but
the
father
and
older
sons
sometimes
live
in
a
small
dwelling
separate
from
the
mother
and
the
other
children.
Inheritance.
As
each
son

comes
of
age,
his
father
usually
confers
on
him
an
exchange
partner
together
with
land
and
domesticated
trees
sufficient
to
support
his
future
family.
Pressure
on
resources
is
sufficiently
high,

however,
that
the
father's
holdings
commonly
are
exhausted
by
the
time
younger
sons
reach
maturity.
Consequently,
these
young
men
must
seek
resources
elsewhere-usually
from
a
classificatory
brother,
a
mother's
brother,

or
a
wife's
brother.
Shell
wealth,
utensils,
sacred
relics,
and
ritual
knowledge
are
inherited
patrilineally
by
men
and
from
mothers-in-law
by
women.
Socialization.
Children
are
raised
primarily
by
their
moth-

ers.
From
an
early
age,
girls
are
taught
the
virtues
of
hard
work,
nurturance,
and
the
care
and
protection
of
the
ring's
children.
Boys
lead
a
rather
carefree
life
until

their
early
teens,
when
their
male
elders
begin
to
recruit
them
to
men's
work
and
start
to
inculcate
the
virtues
of
energy,
strength,
calcula-
tion,
and
controlled
minacity
esteemed
in

an
adult
male.
Sociopolitical
Organization
Social
Organization.
The
basic
social
divisions
in
Yangoru
society
are
by
sex
and
age.
Men
command
the
formal
political
arena,
and
middle-aged
men
are
the

major
political
players.
By
the
time
a
man
reaches
his
sixties,
he
usually
has
retired
from
active
political
life,
but
his
counsel
still
may
be
very
influential.
Political
Organization.
The

basic
political
unit
is
the
hiring.
The
modem
village,
which
comprises
between
ten
and
forty
hring-Sima
had
about
twenty-seven-constitutes
the
basic
political
unit
of
the
nation-state
as
it
impinges
on

Yan-
goru.
Nowadays,
village
boundaries
are
territorial;
in
pre-
contact
days,
however,
they
were
more
socially
and
situationally
defined.
Depending
on
their
location,
precon-
tact
villages
also
belonged
to
one

or
other
of
Yangoru's
two
great
war
confederacies,
"Samawung,"
or
"Dark
Pig"
and
"Le-
buging,"
or
"Light
Pig."
The
members
of
most
villages
are
di-
vided
between
two
moieties,
also

called
Samawung
and
Le-
buging.
Adult
males
inherit
an
exchange
partner
(urli
or
gurli)
from
the
opposite
moiety
with
whom
they
exchange
pigs
and
yams
on
a
competitive
basis
into

their
late
middle
age.
In
north-central
Yangoru,
a
phratry
organization
cross-
cuts
village
and
moiety
lines,
organized
under
the
totems
"Homung,"
or
"Hawk,"
and
"Sengi,"
or
"Parrot."
Groups
of
ring

descended
from
a
common
ancestor
recognize
a
hwa-
pomia,
an
elder
ideally
descended
by
primogeniture
who
is
their
ceremonial
leader
in
pig
exchanges
and,
in
earlier
days,
390
Yangoru
Boiken

was
the
ceremonial
master
of
their
military
actions.
In
other
respects,
however,
the
Yangoru
Boiken
represent
a
typical
Melanesian
big-man
political
system:
men
achieve
renown
principally
by
the
number
and

size
of
the
pigs
they
give
to
their
exchange
partners
and
by
the
promptness
and
generos-
ity
with
which
they
meet
financial
obligations
to
maternal
and
affinal
kin.
These
capabilities,

in
turn,
stem
from
the
skillful
manipulation
of
social
relationships
aided
by
oratori-
cal,
histrionic,
and
affective
ability.
Although
women
are
dis-
enfranchised
from
formal
political
life,
there
exist
big-women

who
build
influence
and
reputation
among
other
women
by
their
eminence
in
small-scale
wealth
exchanges
and
their
en-
ergy
and
ability
in
women's
tasks-in
particular,
food
produc-
tion,
coo"ing,
and

child
rearing.
Through
other
women
and
through
their
male
relatives,
such
women
also
exert
some
in-
fluence
over
the
community's
formal
politics.
Social
Control.
The
formal
means
of
social
control

is
the
moot,
in
which
parties
to
a
dispute
meet
to
talk
out
their
dif-
ferences.
Frequently,
issues
remain
unsettled
through
several
moots,
and
a
significant
number
of
disputes
peter

out
unre-
solved.
Informal
means
of
conflict
resolution
include
gossip,
sorcery
threats,
and
even
flight.
Conflict.
Until
the
mid-1930s,
warfare
was
endemic,
com-
mon
causes
being
land,
the
abduction
of

women,
and
re-
venge.
War
was
waged
primarily
against
villages
in
the
oppo-
site
confederacy,
as
either
ambushes
or
confrontations
across
traditional
battlefields
located
on
confederacy
frontiers.
Nei-
ther
men,

women,
nor
children
were
spared.
Although
fights
often
broke
out
within
a
confederacy,
murder
was
proscribed.
By
clandestine
subterfuge,
nonetheless,
a
rival
within
a
per-
son's
confederacy
frequently
could
be

delivered
into
the
hands
of
enemies
beyond.
In
north-central
Yangoru,
the
Homung/Sengi
phratry
organization
complicated
matters,
and
frequently
hring
from
the
same
village
would
face
one
an-
other
across
the

battleground;
in
these
confrontations,
how-
ever,
weapons
were
used
in
a
manner
that
would
inflict
injury
but
avoid
death.
Religion
and
Expressive
Culture
Religious
Belief.
The
constituents
of
the
Yangoru

Boiken
universe
are
viewed
either
as
"given"
or
as
the
creations
of
the
culture
heroes;
they
are
believed
to
be
influenced
by
ancestral
spirits
and
wala
spirits
but
most
of

all
by
magical
forces.
The
principal
supernaturals
are
human
fiends
that
stalk
lone
vil-
lagers
at
certain
seasons,
the
spirits
of
the
ancestors,
and
the
wala
spirits.
The
last
include

the
great
culture
heroes
of
time
past,
some
of
them
nowadays
incarnated
as
local
mountains;
the
others
are
male
and
female
spirits
of
the
bush
and
stream.
All
wala
are

believed
to
be
formed
by
the
mystical
union
of
ancestral
shades,
and
each
hrng
is
associated
with
a
male
wala of
the
stream,
where
the
ancestral
shades
of
its
male
members

are
believed
to
congregate
and
unite
as
the
wala.
There
is
some
difference
of
opinion
over
whether
a
woman's
spirit
goes
to
her
husband's
or
her
brother's
wala.
Religious
Pactitkoners.

Knowledge
of
many
magical
and
ritual
practices
is
diffused
widely
through
the-community
so
that
a
bring
usually
can
call
on
a
member
or
dose
relative
for
most
services.
Nowadays,
the

main
practitioners
hired
from
beyond
this
circle
are
sorcerers,
including
earth
and
rain
ma-
gicians,
and
those
whose
magic
combats
these
powers.
In
tra-
ditional
times,
the
hring
also
would

have
to
cast
beyond
dose
relatives
for
specialists
in
carving
and
various
ritual
services
associated
with
male
initiation.
Ceremonies.
The
main
ceremonies
are
associated
with
the
life
cycle,
spirit
houses,

the
wala,
and
the
pig
exchange.
Birth,
initiation,
marriage,
and
death
are,
or
were,
observed
for
both
sexes,
with
women
also
observing
a
few
simple
menstrual
ta-
boos
to
avoid

polluting
men.
Traditionally,
initiations
were
the
most
elaborate
ceremonies,
celebrated
around
puberty,
again
in
the
late
twenties,
and
finally
in
the
early
to
mid-
forties;
nowadays,
however,
only
the
first

stage
of
female
initi-
ation
endures.
In
western
Yangoru,
initiations
were
con-
ducted
in
and
around
elaborately
decorated
spirit
houses
(ka
nimbia);
in
north-central
Yangoru,
however,
ka
nimbia
were
divorced

from
initiation
and
constructed
instead
as
a
state-
ment
of
political
strength.
In
bygone
days,
if
the
wife
of
an
important
man
insulted
the
sexuality
of
her
husband,
she
would

be
disciplined
by
'the
wala,"
a
group
of
men
swinging
a
bullroarer
who
would
destroy
her
and
her
husband's
belong-
ings.
Nowadays,
the
most
elaborate
ceremonies
are
the
pig
ex-

change
festivals
in
which
one
moiety
en
masse
confers
pigs
on
exchange
partners
in
the
opposite
moiety.
(In
western
Yan-
goru,
some
villages
recently
have
adopted
the
long-yam
cult
of

the
Abelam
and
the
Kaboibus
or
"Plains"
Arapesh.)
Since
contact,
the
Yangoru
Boiken
have
earned
considerable
noto-
riety
for
their
millenarian
movements.
Arts.
Traditional
graphic
and
plastic
art
included
wooden

initiation
statues;
the
painted
facades,
carved
crosspieces,
and
other
ornaments
of
spirit
houses;
shell-wealth
basketry
masks;
plaited
armlets;
ornamented
spinning
tops;
and
dogs'-
teeth
and
shell
necklaces
and
headpieces.
Items

such
as
bull-
roarers,
weaponry,
and
cooking
and
dining
utensils
were
sometimes
incised
with
abstract
designs,
often
said
to
be
the
"face
of
the
wala."
Some
productions,
such
as
spirit

dance
masks,
were
only
temporary,
constructed
for
a
specific
cere-
mony
and
then
dismantled.
The
main
musical
instruments
were
hand
drums
and
monotone
flutes.
Nowadays,
hardly
any
of
this
art

is
still
produced.
Songs
and
oratory
were
and
still
are
the
major
ephemeral
productions.
Medicine.
Illness
is
attributed
to
ancestral
spirits,
wala
spirits,
human
fiends,
pollution
by
females
or
younger

adults,
infractions
of
ritual
and
taboo,
protective
magic
on
property,
and
in
particular
sorcery.
Some
epidemic
diseases
supposedly
were
decreed
by
the
culture
heroes.
Death
and
Afterlife.
The
deaths
of

all
but
the
very
old
are
attributed
to
sorcery.
There
is
considerable
doubt
about
the
afterlife,
but
normatively
the
spirit
of
the
deceased
spends
the
first
days
of
its
existence

around
its
hamlet
before
departing
to
its
hring's
wala
pool.
Spirits
from
throughout
Yangoru
are
also
said
to
go
to
Mount
Hurun,
the
peak
overlooking
Yan-
goru,
where
they
become

Walarurun,
the
great
culture
hero
associated
with
the
mountain.
Nowadays,
countries
such
as
Australia,
America,
and
England
are
also
variously
identified
as
the
place
of
the
dead.
At
death,
relatives

are
summoned
on
the
slit
gong,
and
the
deceased
is
mourned
with
funeral
dirges
for
a
day
or
two.
In
the
past,
the
corpses
of
eminent
men
were
sliced
and

placed
in
trees
to
decay,
others
were
buried
in
or
under
houses.
The
bones,
especially
the
jawbones,
later
were
retrieved
for
use
in
garden
magic
and
occasionally
sorcery.
Nowadays,
the

deceased
are
buried
in
graveyards
adjacent
to
Yap
3
91
the
main
ceremonial
hamlets,
and
their
bones
are
no
longer
retrieved-though
graves
are
still
opened
after
about
six
months
to

diagnose
the
perpetrators
of
the
death.
See
also
Abelam,
Mountain
Arapesh
Linguistic
Affiiation.
Yapese
is
an
Austronesian
lan-
guage,
but
it
is
distinct
from
the
nearby
Palauan
and
the
Car-

olinian
languages.
Some
linguists
regard
Yapese
as
closer
to
Austronesian
languages
of
Vanuatu
(New
Hebrides).
Bibliography
Gesch,
Patrick
F.
(1985).
Initiative
and
Initiation:
A
Cargo
Cult-Type
Mov~ement
in
the
Sepik

against
Its
Back~ground
in
Traditional
Village
Religion.
St.
Augustin,
Germany:
Anthropos-Institut.
Roscoe,
Paul
B.
(1988).
'The
Far
Side
of
Hurun:
The
Man-
agement
of
Melanesian
Millenarian
Movements."
Anterican
Ethnologist
15:515-529.

Roscoe,
Paul
B.
(1
989).
-The
Pig
and
the
Long
Yam:
The
Ex-
pansion
of
a
Sepik
Symbol
Complex.'
Ethnology
28:219-23
1.
Roscoe,
Paul
B.
(1989).
"The
Flight
from
the

Fen:
The
Pre-
historic
Migrations
of
the
Boiken
of
the
East
Sepik
Province,
Papua
New
Guinea.'
Oceania
60:139-154.
PAUL
B.
ROSCOE
Yap
ETHNONYM:
Uap
Orientation
Identification.
Yap
is
one
of

four
states
in
the
Federated
States
of
Micronesia,
which
were
part
of
the
U.S.
Trust
Terri-
tory
of
the
Pacific
Islands.
The
Yap
State
includes
Yap
proper,
Ulithi,
Woleai,
and

other
atolls
east
of
Yap,
in
what
was
once
the
Yap
District
of
the
Trust
Territory.
The
Yapese
langage,
culture,
and
people
are
distinct
in
Yap
State
from
the
inhabi-

tants
of
the
atolls
(Carolinians).
The
Yapese
people
are
only
those
who
are
born
in
the
Yap
Islands
and
who
speak
the
Yapese
language.
Locationi.
The
islands
of
Yap
are

located
approximately
720
kilometers
southwest
of
Guam
and
approximately
480
Id
lometers
northeast
of
Palau,
in
the
Western
Caroline
islands.
Yap
proper
is
comprised
of
four
contiguous
high
islad
in-

side
a
fringing
reef.
The
land
area
is
approximately
00
square
kilometers,
much
of
which
is
rugged,
infertile
grassy
hills
and
forest.
The
climate
is
tropical,
subject
to
easterly
trade

winds,
typhoons,
and
a
monsoon
rainy
season
from
May
to
October.
Dernography.
Yap
suffered
critical
depopulation,
caused
by
European
diseases
and
aided
by
cultural
practices
of
abor-
tion.
Since
World

War
the
use
of
antibiotics
has
controlled
venereal
diseases
and
the
islands
are
currently
experiencing
a
population
explosion.
The
population
has
recovered
from
a
low
point
of
2,582
in
1946

to
more
than
7,000
people
in
the
1980s.
History
and
Cultural
Relations
In
the
period
prior
to
European
contact,
the
Yapese
had
ex-
tensive
relationships
with
the
other
island
groups

in
the
re-
gion.
Yapese
sailors
traveled
from
Yap
to
Palau
where
coura-
geous
men
quarried
stones
in
the
Rock
Islands
to
be
carted
back
to
Yap
and
utilized
for

ceremonial
exchanges.
People
in
the
eastern
villages
in
Gagil
had
extensive
relationships
with
Carolinean
sailors
from
Ulithi,
Fais
and
other
atolls
to
the
east.
These
sailors
came
to
Yap
particularly

during
times
of
food
shortage
and
typhoon
crises
in
the
atolls
and
Yapese
often
sailed
with
them
back
to
their
home
islands.
With
the
entrance
of
European
traders
into
the

area
as
early
as
1526,
Yapese
continued
their
exploration
of
the
surrounding
is-
lands
in
the
company
of
European
sailors.
It
was
in
this
early
period
that
European
diseases
spread

from
Guam,
resulting
in
devastating
epidemics.
In
1872,
David
O'Keefe
arrived
in
a
Chinese
junk
and
immediately
set
up
a
copra
and
trepang
trade.
He
transported
large
Yapese
stones
from

Palau
in
ex-
change
for
payment
in
copra
and
trepang.
Yap
was
officially
colonized
by
both
Spain
and
Germany
in
1885.
Carrying
their
dispute
to
the
pope,
Germany
achieved
sovereignty

over
the
island,
and
the
Spanish
were
allowed
to
continue
their
re-
ligious
work
to
convert
the
Yapese
to
Christianity.
The
Ger-
man
era
ended
in
1914
when
the
Japanese

navy
seized
control
of
Yap.
Japanese
development
projects
on
Yap
proved
to
be
of
little
economic
value,
but
as
World
War
II
neared,
they
con-
structed
military
bases,
including
troop

garrisons
and
two
air-
fields.
During
this
period,
the
Yapese
attended
a
five-year
school
in
Japanese
language
and
culture;
the
most
promising
students
were
sent
to
craft
schools
on
Palau

where
they
stud-
ied
agriculture,
carpentry,
nursing,
mechanics
and
other
prac-
tical
occupations.
In
1944,
the
United
States
bombed
Yap,
and
at
the
end
of
World
War
II
the
U.S.

Navy
set
up
an
occu-
pation
government
that
lasted
until
June
195
1.
The
United
States
Trust
Territory
of
the
Pacific
Islands
was
formally
es-
tablished
in
195
1,
and

Yap
was
one
of
six
districts
in
the
trust
territory.
During
this
era,
the
U.S.
government
emphasized
education
and
political
development
among
the
islanders.
The
Yap
Islands
Congress
first
convened

in
May
1959
and
es-
tablished
the
foundation
for
Yap
State,
which
was
formally
organized
in
1978.
In
1964,
the
Yap
High
School
was
opened
and
American
contract
teachers
were

hired
to
staff
it.
By
1980,
Yapese
fully
controlled
the
state
and
local
governments
and
administered
their
schools
and
churches.
Many
Yapese
men
and
women
today
are
graduates
of
colleges

and
universi-
ties
in
the
United
States
and
hold
positions
of
leadership
in
the
economic,
educational,
and
political
life
of
the
islands.
Yap
State
is
now
part
of
the
Federated

States
of
Micronesia,
which
also
includes
the
states
of
Truk,
Pohnpei,
and
Kosrae.
Settlements
During
the
periods
of
heaviest
population,
the
Yapese
recog-
nized
over
180
separate
villages.
In
recent

years
91
of
those
villages
contain
at
least
one
resident
household,
and
the
larg-
est
villages
have
forty
to
fifty
households
with
up
to
300
peo-
ple
in
residence.
Most

of
the
inhabited
villages
lie
in
close
392
Yap
proximity
to
the
sea,
and
households
are
dispersed
over
a
fairly
large
area
along
the
shoreline.
Since
the
construction
of
roads

in
the
late
1960s
and
the
extension
of
electricity
along
these
roads
in
the
late
1970s,
many
people
are
now
building
houses
on
the
roads
for
accessibility
to
the
town

and
to
elec-
tricity.
The
largest
villages
are
located
in
the
administrative
town
of
Colonia.
These
villages
include
inhabitants
from
all
areas
of
the
island.
Rural
villages
are
inhabited
predomi-

nandy
by
people
who
are
born
or
marry
into
them.
Tradi-
tional
Yapese
villages
are
a
marvel
of
stonework.
Yapese
houses
are
surrounded
by
stone
platforms
and
are
con-
structed

on
a
coral
stone
foundation.
Stone
pathways
con-
nect
houses
in
one
section
of
the
village
to
another.
In
the
center
of
each
village,
a
public
meeting
area
and
community

house
are
marked
by
extensive,
wide
stone
platforms
for
seat-
ing
guests
at
public
ceremonies
and
the
large
stone
founda-
tions
for
the
traditional
community
house.
Each
village
also
has

constructed
taro
patches,
usually
bounded
by
stone
paths
and
stone
retaining
walls
to
contain
the
water
for
irrigating
these
swamp
gardens.
On
the
shoreline
of
many
villages,
men
have
built

stone
piers
out
into
the
water
and
the
very
large
stone
platforms
on
which
men's
houses
have
been
tradition-
ally
constructed.
The
contemporary
Yapese
house
is
generally
made
of
plywood

and
corrugated
metal
with
a
planked
or
ce-
ment
floor.
Some
of
the
more
prosperous
Yapese
are
building
concrete-block
or
poured-concrete
houses
today
because
of
the
extensive
termite
damage
to

wooden
structures.
In
sandy
beach
areas
and
in
the
urban
center,
many
people
build
houses
on
posts,
raised
off
the
ground,
closed
in
with
bamboo
or
plywood,
and
covered
with

corrugated
iron.
Economy
Subsistence
and
Commercial
Acthities.
Most
Yapese
today
combine
some
wage
work
activities
with
subsistence
farming.
Many
Yapese
are
employed
by
the
government,
and
private
trading
companies
and

service
industries
provide
ad-
ditional
jobs,
so
that
more
than
half
of
the
adult
male
popula-
tion-and
up
to
20
percent
of
the
adult
female
population-
earn
wages.
In
addition

to
wage
employment,
nearly
all
Yapese
engage
in
some
subsistence
food
production.
Swamp
taro
is
the
primary
staple
crop
of
the
Yapese,
and
most
villages
have
large
taro
swamps
that

have
been
constructed
as
village
projects
in
the
past.
Individual
families
own
parcels
of
the
vil-
lage
taro
patches
and
also
have
garden
plots
in
the
surround-
ing
hills
on

which
they
produce
yams,
bananas,
breadfruit,
and
other
supplementary
fruits
and
crops.
A
few
farmers
pro-
duce
copra
as
a
cash
crop,
and
a
handful
of
entrepreneurs
raise
chickens,
pigs,

and
other
cash
items
for
the
domestic
market.
Industrial
Arts.
The
primary
tools
for
traditional
Yapese
production
included
the
shell
adz,
bamboo
knives,
and
dig-
ging
sticks
made
of
mangrove.

Steel
adzes
and
knives
have
re-
placed
their
traditional
counterparts,
and
contemporary
Ya-
pese
continue
to
use
these
tools
in
their
daily
subsistence
activities.
Sennit
made
from
the
coconut
husk

is
used
for
nearly
every
type
of
construction
task.
The
blades
of
the
adzes,
the
beams
of
the
houses,
the
outriggers
on
the
canoes,
the
bamboo
of
the
fish
traps,

and
the
thatch
of
the
roofs
are
all
tied
together
with
this
coconut
sennit.
Skilled
artisans
in-
clude
canoe
builders
and
house
builders.
Canoe
building
has
nearly
disappeared
in
contemporary

Yapese
culture,
but
the
experts
in
house
construction
continue
to
play
an
important
role
in
Yapese
villages.
Trade.
Two
eastern
villages
in
Yap,
Gachpar
and
Wonyan,
hold
traditional
trading
rights

to
the
atoll
groups
in
the
cen-
tral
Carolines,
including
Ulithi
and
Woleai.
For
the
atoll
dwellers,
trade
with
Yap
provided
a
source
of
lumber
and
food
not
available
to

them
in
their
restricted
environments.
The
Yapese
in
these
two
villages
gained
supplies
of
sennit,
valu-
able
woven
mats,
fiber
loincloths,
and
shell
valuables
that
were
important
for
ceremonial
exchanges

and
political
pres-
tige
and
power
in
Yap.
Yapese
sailors
often
made
extended
trips
to
Palau
and
to
Guam
where
they
quarried
stone
disks,
which
also
were
of
value
in

the
ceremonial
exchanges
of
Yap.
These
stones
were
not
technically
items
of
trade
since
they
had
no
value
in
Palau
or
in
Guam
where
they
were
quarried.
Yet,
as
a

special-purpose
money,
they
were
very
important
in
the
internal
relationships
and
political
struggles
in
Yap.
Division
of
Labor.
In
the
subsistence
economy,
Yapese
women
care
for
the
swamp
taro
patches

and
the
yam
gardens.
Men
aid
their
wives
and
sisters
in
the
clearing
of
fields
and
in
heavy
agricultural
work,
but
the
primary
subsistence
role
of
men
is
in
fishing.

Reef
fish,
caught
with
spear
guns,
nets,
and
fish
traps,
are
the
predominant
source
of
protein
for
Yapese
families.
Men
who
engage
in
regular
wage
labor
buy
canned
fish
and

canned
meats
to
provide
their
portion
of
their
sub-
sistence
diet
for
the
family.
Land
Tenure.
Rights
to
land,
lagoon,
other
fishing
and
agricultural
resources,
and
village
authority
are
held

corpor-
ately
by
the
patrilineal
estate
group.
The
heads
of
estates
in
consultation
with
their
junior
members
exercise
authority
over
these
rights
on
behalf
of
the
members.
Male
members
have

use
rights
to
estate
resources
with
which
they
may
sup-
port
a
wife
and
children.
Succession
to
headship
is
based
upon
generation
and
seniority.
Kinship
Kin
Groups
and
Descent.
The

concept
of
tabinaw
gov-
erns
Yapese
thinking
about
family,
kinship,
and
social
organi-
zation.
In
its
primary
reference,
tabinaw
refers
to
the
house-
hold
or
nuclear
family.
However,
each
nuclear

family
is
part
of
an
estate
group,
composed
of
adult
men
and
women
who
hold
common
rights
to
land
and
who
share
resources
and
labor
in
reference
to
exploitation
of

this
land.
An
estate
group
may
include
three
or
four
generations
of
men
with
their
wives
and
children.
Each
married
couple
will
have
a
separate
household
located
on
estate
land.

Yapese
practice
a
variation
of
double
descent.
Every
individual
has
a
matrilineal
kinship
affiliation,
termed
genung,
which
plays
a
predominant
role
in
the
definition
of
sibling
relationships
and
the
identification

of
kin
ties
for
mutual
support
and
assistance.
In
Yapese
thought,
one
obtains
one's
blood
relationship
through
one's
mother.
In
addition
to
this
matrilineal
principle,
Yapese
trace
their
spiritual
and

subsistence
relationships
to
the
land
through
their
fathers.
Each
Yapese
receives
a
name
from
one
of
his
or
her
patrilineally
related
ancestors
who
have
occupied
the
land
estate
upon
which

he
or
she
is
born
and
nurtured.
The
ancestral
line
of
land
and
nurture
comes
through
the
pa-
trilineally
inherited
estate.
The
matrilineal
principle
does
not
define
significant
descent
groups

on
Yap,
but
only
an
affilia-
tion
of
kin
to
whom
one
relates
to
serve
significant
individual
Yap
393
interests.
The
estate
group
is
formed
more
appropriately
in
terms
of

relationship
to
land
than
in
terms
of
patrilineal
de-
scent.
With
these
qualifications
we
may
speak
of
double
de-
scent
on
Yap.
Kinship
Terminology.
Traditionally
Yapese
have
a
Crow-
type

pattern
of
cousin
terminology.
In
the
present
younger
generation,
a
Hawaiian-type
pattern
is
emerging
as
the
domi
nant
pattern
of
kinship
classification,
complicated
further
by
the
introduction
of
English
cousin

terminology
in
schools.
Marriage
and
Family
Marriage.
Yapese
consider
it
improper
to
marry
anyone
who
may
be
kin.
Yapese
young
people
generally
select
their
own
mates,
and
most
have
one

or
two
trial
marriages
before
they
establish
a
permanent
relationship
that
results
in
chil-
dren.
Yapese
parents
prefer
that
their
children
marry
in
the
same
village
or
among
similar
ranking

villages.
However,
today
with
the
central
high
school
on
the
island
and
young
people
commuting
by
bus,
many
Yapese
are
marrying
people
from
other
villages
and
other
districts
of
the

island.
Gener-
ally,
a
Yapese
couple
resides
initially
with
the
husband's
fam-
ily
and
establishes
permanent
residence
on
the
husband's
land
in
the
husband's
village.
Divorce
among
the
Yapese
is

common
and
is
effected
by
mutual
agreement.
The
young
woman
returns
to
her
household
of
birth,
leaving
the
children
and
property
with
her
husband.
Domestic
Unit.
People
who
eat
together

constitute
the
ta-
binaw.
This
household
is
usually
a
nuclear
family
in
which
a
husband
and
wife
work
according
to
a
complementary
divi-
sion
of
labor
and
responsibility
for
their

subsistence
and
chil-
dren.
A
newly
married
couple
may
join
the
husband's
father's
household
for
a
temporary
period
until
they
establish
their
own
gardens
and
build
a
sleeping
and
cooking

house.
Inheritance.
Fathers
distribute
land
to
their
sons
accord-
ing
to
need
and
age.
The
oldest
son
receives
the
rights
to
ti-
tied
parts
of
the
estate
and
will
assume

the
father's
leadership
role
among
his
siblings
upon
his
father's
death
and
in
his
younger
brothers'
families
upon
and
their
deaths.
Younger
sons
receive
an
appropriate
portion
of
the
estate

to
support
their
families.
Daughters
do
not
inherit
land,
but
they
may
be
given
a
gift
of
a
small
parcel
to
provide
support
in
case
of
di
vorce.
Parents
provide

support
for
their
adult
unmarried
or
di-
vorced
daughters.
Socialization.
Yapese
parents
and
siblings
share
responsi-
bilities
for
care
and
upbringing
of
children.
Yapese
emphasize
generosity
and
sharing,
and
they

give
elder
siblings
the
pri-
mary
responsibility
for
the
protection
and
care
of
the
younger.
This
pattern
is
carried
into
adult
life
and
characterizes
the
re-
lationship
between
siblings
until

death.
Sociopolitical
Organization
Yapese
say
the
land
is
chief.
It
is
their
primary
focus
on
land
that
organizes
the
social
and
political
aspects
of
Yapese
life.
Social
Organization.
The
estate

group
and
the
village
are
the
primary
units
organizing
the
social
life
of
Yap.
Within
each
village,
family
estates
place
individuals
in
a
hierarchy
of
relationships
within
the
community.
Particular

estates
own
ti-
des
that
confer
authority
and
prestige
upon
the
members
of
that
estate
group.
Villages
in
Yap
are
also
ranked
to
include
two
major
divisions:
"Pilung,"
or
"autonomous

villages";
and
"Pimnilngay,"
or
'serf
villages."
The
autonomous
villages
are
further
ranked
in
three
divisions:
chief
villages,
noble
villages,
and
commoner
villages.
The
serf
villages
are
ranked
in
two
di

visions:
chief's
servants
and
serfs.
All
the
inhabitants
born
in
a
particular
village
automatically
carry
the
rank
of
that
village.
One
may
marry
people
from
other
ranks,
but
one
can

never
change
the
rank
of
birth.
Within
each
village
people
are
also
ranked
according
to
relative
age,
sex,
and
tide
from
one's
estate.
Political
Organization.
Each
village
in
Yap
is

led
by
at
least
three
tided
estates:
village
chief,
chief
of
young
men;
and
chief
of
ritual.
The
men
who
speak
for
these
tided
estates
oversee
a
council
made
up

of
men
who
represent
lesser
titles
in
the
village.
To
hold
political
authority
one
must
be
the
eld-
est
living
member
of
the
family
estate
and
be
capable
of
speaking

articulately
for
its
interest
in
public.
Decision
mak-
ing
on
Yap
is
characterized
by
indirect
communication
and
consensus.
The
village
chief
articulates
for
the
public
the
de-
cision
that
has

been
made
by
consensus
of
the
group.
Prior
to
American
administration,
the
government
of
the
Yap
Islands
was
organized
by
the
chiefs
of
the
paramount
villages
scat-
tered
around
Yap.

Three
paramount
villages
located
in
Gagil,
Tamil,
and
Rull
provided
the
locus
of
power
from
which
were
formed
two
major
alliances
of
villages
and
chiefs.
These
lead-
ers
maintained
power

primarily
by
controlling
commnunica-
tion
through
legitimate
channels
connecting
villages
and
es-
tates
and
by
planning
punitive
wars
against
those
individuals
who
violated
the
decisions
and
expectations
of
the
majority

in
an
alliance.
Today
the
Yap
state
government
has
sup-
planted
the
traditional
system
of
alliances
and
governs
through
the
legislative,
administrative,
and
judicial
branches.
While
contemporary
Yapese
officials
are

elected
to
their
posi-
tions,
many
hold
traditional
tides
and
traditional
bases
of
support.
However,
in
the
situation
of
contemporary
politics,
education
and
expertise
in
the
functions
of
modern
govern-

ment
are
essential
to
political
success.
Social
Control.
In
the
traditional
village
setting,
the
coun-
cil
of
elders
maintains
social
control
through
a
system
of
pu-
nitive
fines
and
mediation

by
the
chiefs
between
families
in
conflict.
In
the
contemporary
setting
the
state
court
plays
a
major
role
in
the
adjudication
of
disputes
among
Yapese.
The
court
has
effectively
replaced

village
elders
as
the
arena
and
process
for
the
resolution
of
contemporary
disputes.
Conflict.
Excessive
consumption
of
alcohol
and
limited
opportunities
for
employment
following
graduation
from
high
school
create
an

atmosphere
in
which
young
men
on
Yap
have
little
to
challenge
their
ambitions
and
interests.
Vil-
lage
divisions
and
hostilities
that
characterized
the
precon-
tact
period
have
reemerged
in
the

1980s
as
a
basis
for
gangs
and
for
intervillage
and
interregional
conflicts.
Gangs
of
youths
in
each
of
the
major
regions
of
Yap
stake
out
their
ter-
ritory
and
threaten

violence
to
those
who
dare
enter.
Inci-
dents
of
violence
usually
end
in
a
court
case
in
which
the
in-
jured
parties
seek
punitive
action
against
those
responsible.
Religion
and

Expressive
Culture
Catholic
Christianity
is
the
central
and
unifying
belief
system
in
Yapese
society
today.
People
attend
Catholic
churches
in
every
major
district
on
the
islands,
and
the
first
Yapese

Cath-
394
Yap
olic
priest
was
ordained
in
the
mid-1980s.
Deacons
in
each
area
organize
local
church
activities
and
support.
Protestant
and
other
Christian
sects
have
small
congregations
scattered
through

the
islands.
Raligiou
Belief.
Animistic
beliefs
in
spirits
and
magic
persist
in
Yapese
culture
in
spite
of
nearly
a
century
of
Chris-
tianity.
Most
Yapese
fear
ghosts
and
many
use

magic
for
health
or
protection
from
spirits
who
may
threaten
their
en-
terprises.
The
Yapese
divided
their
traditional
world
into
do-
mains
of
spirits
and
humans.
Female
spirits
inhabited
the

sea
and
threatened
the
lives
and
work
of
fishermen.
Male
spirits
inhabited
the
land,
threatening
the
livelihood
and
produce
of
the
women
gardening.
Some
Yapese
still
follow
customs
of
abstention

and
rituals
of
protection
in
fishing
and
gardening
activities.
Religous
Practitioners.
In
traditional
Yapese
villages,
specialist
magicians
addressed
the
uncertainties
of
house
building,
fishing,
gardening,
and
warfare.
Today
most
of

these
specialties
have
been
forgotten
and
people
turn
to
the
local
deacons
or
the
priest
of
the
Catholic
church
for
assist-
ance
in
these
uncertainties
of
life.
Whereas
once
priests

and
magicians
mediated
between
humans
and
the
spirit
world,
now
these
tensions
are
addressed
by
the
leaders
of
the
church
and
by
psychiatric
doctors
in
the
local
hospital.
Folk
medi-

cine
has
a
limited
following,
and
Yapese
rely
almost
exclu-
sively
on
the
hospital
for
health
care.
Ceremonies.
Prior
to
their
conversion
to
Christianity,
Ya-
pese
prayed
to
ancestors,
breaking

segments
of
mother-of-
pearl
shells
as
offerings.
The
welfare
of
all
Yapese
was
thought
to
reside
in
several
sacred
places
for
which
particular
families
had
responsibility
and
from
which
they

derived
power.
The
traditional
priest
cared
for
the
sacred
place
and
organized
the
sacred
calendar,
which
included
rebuilding
the
sacred
house,
making
annual
offerings
to
the
spirits
of
these
places,

and
di-
vining
the
future
of
warfare
and
politics
in
Yap.
The
eating-
class
initiation,
still
observed
by
a
few
contemporary
Yapese,
involved
periods
of
isolation,
preparation
of
new
loincloths

and
personal
items,
fasting,
and
ceremonial
feasting
at
the
end
of
the
isolation
period.
Individuals
who
observed
this
rit-
ual
moved
into
a
higher-ranking
eating
class
and
gained
polit-
ical

and
social
influence-
in
their
villages.
Traditional
Yapese
ceremonies
have
been
all
but
forgotten
by
Yapese
people.
The
only
persisting
forms
of
traditional
ceremonies
are
the
sitting
dances,
which
provide

a
public
drama
of
storytelling
and
re-
counting
of
myth.
People
have
also
borrowed
standing
and
stick
dances
from
other
Micronesians.
The
religious
calendar
today
includes
Christmas,
Easter,
strict
observance

of
Sunday
as
a
day
of
rest
and
worship,
and
large
public
funerals.
Arts.
Items
of
great
value
to
the
Yapese
included
the
white
coral
disks
known
as
Yap
stone

money,
mother-of-pearl
shells
that
were
collected
and
exchanged
in
village
ceremonies,
and
long
necklaces
of
red
shells
and
bracelets
of
white
shells
made
famous
by
Bronislaw
Malinowski
in
his
description

of
the
kula
in
the
Trobriand
Islands.
Yapese
also
make
ceremonial
betel
pounders
and
decorate
their
houses
with
unique
pat-
terns
of
rope
tying.
Medicine.
In
traditional
times,
the
Yapese

people
did
not
have
specialized
medical
practitioners.
In
every
family
the
members
who
had
knowledge
of
magic
associated
with
con-
trolling
weather,
warfare,
or
fishing
also
had
knowledge
with
regard

to
health
and
disease.
These
magicians
gained
prestige
based
upon
the
effectiveness
of
their
knowledge
in
curing
those
who
were
ill
or
in
aborting
or
controlling
potential
dis-
asters
in

nature.
Today,
few
Yapese
use
herbal
medicines;
most
rely
on
the
local
hospital.
Death
and
Afterlife.
The
funeral
is
the
most
important
life-cycle
event
in
Yap.
Even
for
an
ordinary

family
member,
it
is
a
time
to
gather
the
most
distant
relations
from
various
parts
of
the
islands.
Everyone
who
comes
brings
gifts
of
ciga-
rettes,
food,
money,
or
liquor

in
support
of
the
mourning
fam-
ily.
Members
of
the
family
prepare
the
body
and
wait
for
the
guests
for
three
days.
The
funeral
concludes
with
a
Christian
service
and

the
deceased
is
buried
in
either
a
church
burial
around
or
an
ancestral
plot.
About
one
month
after
the
bur-
ial,
the
members
of
the
family
repay
their
guests
by

sponsor-
ing
a
large
party.
The
funeral
and
the
following
party
reestab-
lish
kinship
connections
among
dispersed
relations.
See
also
Kosrae,
Pohnpei,
Truk,
Ulithi,
Woleai
Bibliography
Labby,
David
(1976).
The

Demystification
of
Yap:
Dialectics
of
Culture
on
a
Micronesian
Island.
Chicago:
University
of
Chi-
cago
Press.
Lingenfelter,
Sherwood
Galen
(1975).
Yap:
Political
Leader-
ship
and
Cultural
Change
in
an
Island

Society.
Honolulu:
Uni-
versity
Press
of
Hawaii.
Lingenfelter,
Sherwood
Galen
(1977).
'Emnic
Structure
and
Decision-Making
in
Yap."
Ethnology
16:331-352.
Lingenfelter,
Sherwood
Galen
(1979).
'Yap
Eating
Classes:
A
Study
of
Structure

and
Communities."
The
Journal
of
the
Polynesian
Society
88:415-432.
Miler,
Wilhelm
(1917).
'Yap.'
In
Ergenbnisse
der
Sildsee
Ex-
pedition,
1908-1910,
edited
by
Georg
Thilenius.
II.
Ethno-
graphie;
B.
Mikronesien.
Hamburg:

Friedenchsen.
SHERWOOD
GALEN
LINGENFELTER
Yir
Yoront
ETHNONYMS:
Jirioront,
Koko
Manjoen,
Kokomindjan,
Koka-mungin
The
Yir
Yoront
(Yir-Yoront)
are
an
Australian
Aborigi-
nal
people
whose
traditional
territory
and
current
reserve
are
centered

at
141*45'
E
and
15'20'
S
along
the
Gulf
of
Car-
pentaria
coast
of
the
Cape
York
Peninsula
in
Queensland.
The
territory
encompasses
about
1,300
square
kilometers
and
runs
along

the
coast
from
the
mouth
of
the
Coleman
River
south
through
the
three
mouths
of
the
Mitchell
River.
First
contact
with
Europeans
was
evidently
with
Dutch
explorers
Yungar
395
in

1623.
The
second
and
more
significant
contact
was
with
a
party
of
cattle
herders
in
1864,
an
encounter
now
known
as
the
"Battle
of
Mitchell
River."
Acculturation
into
European-
Australian

society
began
after
1900
with
settlement
of
the
lower
Cape
York
Peninsula
and
the
establishment
of
an
An-
glican
mission
station
just
south
of
Yir
Yoront
territory
in
1915.
The

Yir
Yoront
were,
however,
shielded
from
encroach-
ment
on
their
land
when
the
Australian
government
estab-
lished
the
reserve
along
the
coast.
Although
some
Yir
Yoront
moved
south
and
settled

at
the
mission,
and
various
products
of
European
manufacture
were
used
by
all
Yir
Yoront,
much
of
the
traditional
culture
survived
into
the
1940s.
The
Yir
Yoront
speak
a
"Yir-"

language
related
to
the
"Wik-"
and
"Koko-"
Aboriginal
languages
of
Australia.
The
Yir
Yoront
subsisted
by
hunting,
fishing,
and
gathering
shell-
fish
and
plant
foods.
Men
hunted
and
fished,
often

in
groups,
while
women
gathered
and
maintained
the
camp.
The
Yir
Yoront
also
maintained
trade
relations
with
groups
to
the
north
and
south.
Spears
made
from
stingray
spines
were
the

major
export,
while
stone
from
tribes
to
the
south
for
stone
ax
heads
was
the
major
import.
Trading
often
took
place
at
the
annual
intertribal
ceremonies,
with
male
trading
partners

often
having
the
status
of
fictive
brothers.
Yir
Yoront
trade,
however,
was
less
elaborated
and
of
less
economic
impor-
tance
than
that
of
many
other
Queensland
Ab~riginal
groups.
The
introduction

of
European
goods
such
as
tools,
cloth,
and
tobacco
and
the
establishment
of
the
reserve
have
altered
the
traditional
hunting
and
gathering
economy.
Traditional
Yir
Yoront
society
was
divided
into

patrilin-
eal,
totemic
clans
and
two
exogamous
moieties.
A
distinction
was
also
made,
apart
from
kinship
organization,
between
.coastal
people"
and
'inland
people."
The
nuclear
family
was
the
basic
residential

and
economic
unit.
Traditionally,
social
relations
were
based
on
superordinate
and
subordinate
sta-
tus,
with
men
dominant
over
women
and
older
people
domi-
nant
over
younger
people.
Leadership
rested
with

the
clan
leaders.
While
individuals
displaying
superior
knowledge
or
skill
might
enjoy
personal
prestige,
there
was
no
formal
status
system.
The
day-to-day
world
of
the
Yir
Yoront
was
seen
by

them
as
a
reflection
of
the
world
of
their
ancestors,
with
all
new
developments
accounted
for
by
myths
and
totems.
With
the
recent
acceleration
of
acculturation
into
White
Austra-
lian

society,
many
traditional
beliefs
and
practices
have
disap-
peared
and
have
been
replaced
by
involvement
in
the
cash
economy
and
more
permanent
settlement
near
cattle
ranches
and
small
towns.
Yungar

The
name
given
to
a
number
of
closely
related
and
affiliated
Aboriginal
groups
who
lived
in
the
deserts
of
western
Aus-
tralia.
Known
groups
included
the
Koreng,
Minang,
Pibel-
man,

Pindjarup,
Wardardi,
and
Wheelman.
All
of
the
Yungar
groups
are
either
totally
or
nearly
extinct.
Bibliography
Hassell,
Ethel,
and
D.
S.
Davidson
(1936).
"Notes
on
the
Ethnology
of
the
Wheelman

Tribe
of
South-westem
Aus-
tralia."
Anthropos
31:679-711.
Bibliography
Sharp,
Lauriston
(1934).
'Ritual
Life
and
Economics
of
the
Yir-Yoront
of
Cape
York
Peninsula."
Oceania
5:19-42.
Sharp,
Lauriston
(1968).
"Steel
Axes
for

Stone
Age
Austral-
ians."
In
Man
in
Adaptation:
The
Cultural
Present,
edited
by
Yehudi
A.
Cohen,
82-93.
Chicago:
Aldine.

.Glossary
397
Glossary
aborigine.
See
autochthones
affine
A
relative
by

marriage.
agamy
Absence
of
a
marriage
rule;
neither
endogamy
nor
exogamy.
age
grade
A
social
category
composed
of
persons
who
fall
within
a
culturally
defined
age
range.
sonatic
descent.
See

patrilineal
descent
ambilineal
descent
The
practice
of
tracing
kinship
affilia-
tion
through
either
the
male
or
the
female
line.
ancestor
spirits
Ghosts
of
deceased
relatives
who
are
be-
lieved
to

have
supernatural
powers
that
can
influence
the
lives
of
the
living.
animism
A
belief
in
spiritual
beings.
arild
(ali'i,
aliki,
ari'i)
A
hereditary
chief
in
Polynesia.
atoll
An
island
consisting

of
a
coral
reef
surrounding
a
lagoon.
Anstronesian
languages
A
large
group
of
languages
(for-
merly
called
'Malayo-Polynesian")
including
about
450
in
Oceania.
They
are
found
mostly
on
the
coasts

in
Melanesia
and
New
Guinea,
but
otherwise
throughout
Polynesia
and
Micronesia.
autochthones
The
indigenous
inhabitants
of
a
region.
Often
used
to
refer
to
the
native
inhabitants
encountered
by
European
explorers

or
settlers.
avunculocal
residence
The
practice
of
a
newly
married
couple
residing
in
the
community
or
household
of
the
hus-
band's
mother's
brother.
bark
cloth.
See
tapa
bkhe-de-mer
A
sea

slug
found
in
shallow
tropical
waters.
It
was
gathered
in
large
quantities
in
the
nineteenth
century
by
Europeans
(and
earlier
by
Chinese
and
Japanese
traders)
for
export
to
Asia
for

usein
soups.
betel
nut
A
nicotinelilke
stimulant
used
in
western
Mela-
nesia
and
Micronesia
as
well
as
in
Asia.
A
"betel
quid"
is
formed
of
the
nut
of
the
Areca

catechu
palm
and
the
leaf,
bean,
or
stem
of
the
Piper
betle
vine,
then
chewed
with
slaked
lime
from
shells
or
coral
and
expectorated.
big
man
A
political
leader
whose

influence
is
based
on
per-
sonal
prestige
or
qualities
rather
than
formal
authority.
Such
influence
often
is
achieved
through
factional
politics
or
the
manipulation
of
exchange
relationships.
bilateral
descent
The

practice
of
tracing
kinship
affiliation
more
or
less
equally
through
both
the
male
and
the
female
line.
blackbirding
A
form
of
labor
recruiting,
often
involving
coercion
or
deception.
From
the

1
840s
to
the
end
of
the
nine-
teenth
century
thousands
of
male
Pacific
islanders
were
taken
to
Australia
or
South
America
as
laborers
to
be
returned
home
(though
many

were
not)
after
a
period
of
years
in
service.
breadfruit
A
fruiting
tree
(Artocarpus
altilis)
that
is
usu-
ally
seasonal
and
cultivated
mainly
in
Micronesia
and
Polyne-
sia,
but
also

in
some
parts
of
Melanesia.
The
fruit's
starchy
pulp
is
either
cooked
or
fermented
in
pits
as
a
staple
or
impor-
tant
standby
food.
bride-price,
bride-wealth
The
practice
of
a

groom
or
his
kin
giving
substantial
property
or
wealth
to
the
bride's
kin
be-
fore,
at
the
time
of,
or
after
marriage.
bride-service
The
practice
of
a
groom
performing
work

for
his
wife's
kin
for
a
set
period
of
time
either
before
or
after
marriage.
buliroarer
A
sacred
oval-shaped
object,
usually
wooden,
that
is
swung
on
a
cord
to
make

a
buzzing
sound
representing
the
voices
of
ancestors
or
other
spirits.
tn
Australia,
New
Guinea,
and
Melanesia
revelation
of
the
bullroarer
was
often
an
important
part
of
male
initiation
ceremonies.

cargo
cult
A
millenarian
or
nativistic
movement,
found
mostly
in
Melanesia
and
New
Guinea
during
the
first
half
of
the
twentieth
century
in
the
context
of
colonialism
and
World
War

II.
The
cults
usually
focused
on
the
prophesied
ar-
rival
of
trade
goods
("cargo')
heralding
a
new
era
of
material
plenty
and
native
control.
cassava
A
starchy
root
crop
(Manihot

esculenta),
also
called
manioc
or
tapioca,
that
was
introduced
to
Oceania
fol-
lowing
the
arrival
of
Europeans.
cassowary
A
large,
flightless
bird
with
three
species
en-
demic
to
New
Guinea

and
New
Britain.
The
bird
is
locally
prized
for
its
flesh,
plumes,
and
bones.
caste
An
endogamous
hereditary
group,
usually
with
a
dis-
tinct
hereditary
occupation,
who
has
a
virtually

immutable
position
in
a
hierarchy.
Although
the
caste
system
is
most
elaborated
throughout
South
Asia,
castes
have
also
been
re-
ported
in
Tibet,
Japan,
Burundi,
and
the
American
South.
churinga

(t#uringa,
tiurunga)
A
term
from
the
Aranda
language
applied
generally
by
various
Australian
Aboriginal
desert
groups
to
stone
or
wooden
sacred
objects
(including
bullroarers)
symbolizing
culture
heroes
or
ancestral
figures.

clan,
sib
A
group
of
unilineally
affiliated
kin
who
usually
reside
in
the
same
community
and
share
common
property.
classificatory
kin
terms
Kinship
terms,
such
as
aunt,
that
designate
several

categories
of
distinct
relatives,
such
as
mother's
sister
and
father's
sister.
cognates
Words
that
belong
to
different
languages
but
have
similar
sounds
and
meanings.
collaterals
A
person's
relatives
not
related

to
him
or
her
as
ascendants
or
descendants;
one's
uncle,
aunt,
cousin,
brother,
sister,
nephew,
niece.
consaguine
A
relative
by
blood
(birth).
continental
islands
Islands
formed
from
the
portions
of

the
Continental
Australasiatic
Platform
that
are
currently
above
sea
level.
copra
The
dried
flesh
of
the
coconut
used
as
the
basis
of
oils,
soaps,
cosmetics,
and
dried
coconut.
Beginning
in

the
1
860s
copra
became
the
chief
commercial
export
in
most
Pa-
cific
islands.
398
Glossary
coral
islands
Islands,
including
atolls,
formed
of
the
exo-
skeleton
created
by
th~e
excretion

of
lime
from
sea
water
by
tiny
marine
animals.
Cordyline
An
ornamental
or
ritually
important
shrub
(Cordyline
terminals)
planted
widely
in
Oceania;
in
some
places
the
tuber
is
sometimes
eaten.

cousin,
cross
Children
of
one's
parent's
siblings
of
the
opposite
sex-one's
father's
sisters'
and
mother's
brothers'
children.
cousin,
parallel
Children
of
one's
parent's
siblings
of
the
same
sex-one's
father's
brothers'

and
mother's
sisters'
children.
creole
A
general,
inconsistently
used
term
usually
applied
to
a
spoken
language
or
dialect
that
is
based
on
grammatical
and
lexical
features
combined
from
two
or

more
natural
lan-
guages.
It
is
a
first
language,
distinct
from
a
pidgin.
cross
cousin.
See
cousin,
cross
cult
The
beliefs,
ideas,
and
activities
associated
with
the
worship
of
a

supernatural
force
or
its
representations,
such
as
an
ancestor
cult
or
a
bear
cult.
culture
hero
A
mythical
bird,
animal,
or
person
who
is
be-
lieved
to
be
the
group's

protector.
cuscus
A
type
of
marsupial
found
in
New
Guinea
and
highly
prized
for
its
meat
and
fur.
demo
A
group
based
on
the
merging
of
locality,
descent,
and
in-marriage.

descriptive
kIn
terms
Kinship
terms
that
are
used
to
dis-
tinguish
different
categories
of
relatives
such
as
mother
or
father.
Dreaming,
The
(Dreamtrne,
The)
A
sacred
time
in
the
Australian

Aboriginal
mythological
past
when
culture
heroes
and
totemic
ancestors
created
many
of
the
physical
features
of
the
land
and
established
traditional
customs.
Ego
In
kinship
studies
ego
is
a
male

or
female
whom
the
anthropologist
arbitrarily
designates
as
the
reference
point
for
a
particular
kinship
diagram
or
discussion
of
kinship
terminology.
endogamy
Marriage
within
a
specific
group
or
social
cate-

gory
of
which
the
person
is
a
member,
such
as
one's
caste
or
community.
exogamy
Marriage
outside
a
specific
group
or
social
cate-
gory
of
which
the
person
is
a

member,
such
as
one's
clan
or
community.
extensive
cultivation
A
form
of
horticulture
in
which
plots
of
land
are
cleared
and
planted
for
a
few
years
and
then
left
to

fallow
for
a
number
of
years
while
other
plots
are
used.
Also
called
swidden,
shifting,
or
slash-and-bumn
cultivation.
fictive
kin
Individuals
referred
to
or
addressed
with
kin
terms
and
treated

as
kin,
although
they
are
neither
affines
nor
consanguines.
horticulture
Plant
cultivation
carried
out
by
relatively
sim-
ple
means,
usually
without
permanent
fields,
artificial
fertiliz-
ers,
or
plowing.
initiation,
or

puberty,
rites
Ceremonies
and
related
activ-
ities
that
mark
the
transition
from
childhood
to
adulthood
or
from
secular
status
to
being
a
cut-member.
kava
A
fermented
beverage
traditionally
consumed
ritually

or
ceremonially
(though
sometimes
merely
for
its
euphoric
and
soporific
effects)
in
Melanesia,
New
Guinea,
and
Polyne-
sia.
The
drink
is
made
from.
the
dried
and
ground
root
of
the

kava
plant
(Piper
methysticum)
mixed
in
water.
kIn
terms,
bifurcate-collateral
A
system
of
kinship
termi-
nology
in
which
all
collaterals
in
the
parental
generation
are
referred
to
by
different
kin

terms.
kin
terms,
bifurcate-merging
A
system
of
kinship
termi-
nology
in
which
members
of
the
two
descent
groups
in
the
pa-
rental
generation
are
referred
to
by
different
kin
terms.

kin
terms,
Crow
A
system
of
kinship
terminology
in
which
matrilateral
cross
cousins
are
distinguished
from each
other
and
from
parallel
cousins
and
siblings,
but
patrilateral
cross
cousins
are
referred
to

by
the
same
terms
used
for
father
or
father's
sister.
kin
terms,
Dravidian.
See
kin
terms,
Iroquois
kin
terms,
Eskimo
A
system
of
kinship
terminology
in
which
cousins
are
distinguished

from
brothers
and
sisters,
but
no
distinction
is
made
between
cross
and
parallel
cousins.
kin
terms,
generational
A
system
of
kinship
terminology
in
which
all
kin
of
the
same
sex

in
the
parental
generation
are
referred
to
by
the
same
term.
krin
terms,
Hawaiian
A
system
of
kinship
terminology
in
which
all
male
cousins
are
referred
to
by
the
same

term
used
for
brother,
and
all
female
cousins
are
referred
to
by
the
same
term
used
for
sister.
krin
terms,
Iroquois
A
system
of
kinship
terminology
in
which
parallel
cousins

are
referred
to
by
the
same
terms
used
for
brothers
and
sisters
but
cross
cousins
are
identified
by
dif-
ferent
terms.
ktin
terms,
lineal
A
system
of
kinship
terminology
in

which
direct
descendants
or
ascendants
are
distinguished
from
col-
lateral
kin.
kin
terms,
Omaha
A
system
of
kinship
terminology
in
which
female
matrilateral
cross
cousins
are
referred
to
by
the

same
term
used
for
one's
mother,
and
female
patrilateral
cross
cousins
are
referred
to
by
the
same
term
used
for
one's
sister's
daughter.
kin
terms,
Sudanese
A
system
of
kinship

terminology
in
which
there
are
distinct
terms
for
each
category
of
cousin
and
sibling,
and
for
aunts,
uncles,
nieces,
and
nephews.
kindred
The
bilateral
kin
group
of
near
kinsmen
who

may
be
expected
to
be
present
and
participant
on
important
cere-
monial
occasions,
usually
in
the
absence
of
unilineal
descent.
kinship
Family
relationship,
whether
traced
through
mari-
tal
ties
or

through
blood
and
descent.
kula.
ring
A
system
of
ceremonial
exchange
in
the
Massim
area
and
southeastern
tip
of
New
Guinea
characterized
by
the
circulation
of
shell
necklaces
and
shell

armbands
in
opposite
directions,
hence
the
"ring"
of
islands
linked
by
the
system.
Glossary
399
kunai
The
Tok
Pisin
term
for
the
tall
swordgrass
(Imperata
cylindrica)
that
typically
covers
drier

regions
in
New
Guinea
and
Melanesia
that
have
been
cleared
of
forest
by
burning.
The
grass
is
commonly
used
for
housing
and
thatching
material.
umndu
The
Tok
Pisin
term
for

the
hourglass-shaped
drum
used
in
many
New
Guinea
and
Melanesian
societies.
lagoon
A
sheltered
body
of
sea
water
encircled
by
a
coral
reef.
Lapita
Culture
A
hypothesized
culture
that
flourished

from
about
4,000
to
2,500
B.P.,
characterized
by
a
distinctive
type
of
pottery
with
dentate
impressed
designs
and
associated
with
a
widely
distributed
seafaring
people
and
Austronesian
languages.
levirate
The

practice
of
requiring
a
man
to
marry
his
brother's
widow.
lineage
A
unilineal
(whether
patrilineal
or
matrilineal)
kin
group
that
traces
kinship
affiliation
from
a
common,
known
ancestor
and
extends

through
a
number
of
generations.
longhouse
A
large,
rectangular-shaped
dwelling
with
a
wood
frame
covered
by
planks,
bark,
mats,
or
other
siding
and
usually
housing
a
number
of
related
families.

hluai
The
Tok
Pisn
term
for
village
leaders
appointed
by
the
government
in
New
Guinea
and
Melanesia
during
the
co-
lonial
period.
magic
Beliefs
and
ritual
practices
designed
to
harness

su-
pernatural
forces
to
achieve
the
goals
of
the
magician.
mana
A
term
with
cognates
in
numerous
Melanesian
and
Polynesian
languages
for
a
type
of
spiritual
power,
energy,
or
energizing

capability
believed
to
be
physically
resident
in
ob-
jects,
persons,
or
places.
Marae
A
stone
plaza,
platform,
or
walls
regarded
through-
out
Polynesia
as
a
sacred
enclosure.
Traditionally
a
marae

was
a
center
of
ceremonial
rituals
and
the
focal
point
of
commu-
nity
life.
Massim
A
region
consisting
of
islands
and
island
groups
off
the
southeastern
tip
of
New
Guinea

characterized
by
dis-
tinctive
art
styles
and
interisland
exchange
links,
especially
the
kula
system.
manrineal
descent,
uterine
descent
The
practice
of
trac-
ing
kinship
affiliation
only
through
the
female
line.

matrilocal
residence,
uxorilocal
residence
The
practice
of
a
newly
married
couple
residing
in
the
community
of
the
wife's
kin.
Uxorilocal
is
sometimes
used
in
a
more
restrictive
sense
to
indicate

residence
in
the
household
of
the
wife's
family.
Melanesia
A
general
term
(derived
from
the
Greek
for
"black
islands")
for
New
Guinea,
the
Bismarck
Archipelago,
the
Solomon
Islands,
Vanuatu
(New

Hebrides),
and
New
Caledonia.
men's
house
A
structure,
common
in
New
Guinea
and
Melanesia,
usually
housing
the
young
adult
males
and
adult
men
of
a
community.
A
men's
house
typically

serves
as
both
a
residence
and
ceremonial
center.
Micronesia
A
general
term
(from
the
Greek
for
'tiny
is-
lands")
for
the
Mariana,
Caroline,
Marshall,
and
Gilbert
is.
land
groups
in

the
north
Pacific.
moiety
A
form
of
social
organization
in
which
an
entire
cultural
group
is
made
up
of
two
social
groups.
Each
moiety
is
often
composed
of
a
number

of
interrelated
clans,
sibs,
or
phratries.
monogamy
Marriage
between
one
man
and
one
woman
at
a
time.
nativism
A
movement
often
with
social,
religious,
or
polit-
ical
components
that
centers

on
the
rebirth
of
the
native
cul-
ture
and
the
demise
of
the
colonizers.
Near
Oceania
A
general
term
for
the
islands
of
the
west-
em
and
southwestern
Pacific
nearest

to
Asia,
including
Aus-
tralia,
New
Guinea,
and
Melanesia
east
to
the
Solomon
Islands.
neolocal
residence
The
practice
of
a
newly-married
couple
living
apart
from
the
immediate
kin
of
either

party.
Neo-Melanesian.
See
Tok
Pisin
net
bag
An
expandable
string
bag
hand-made
from
local
materials
throughout
New
Guinea
and
Melanesia.
Net
bags
are
used
to
carry
garden
produce,
infants,
and

piglets.
Non-Austronesian
languages.
See
Papuan
languages
pandanus
A
general
term
for
numerous
species
of
the
Pandanus
palm
that
grow
wild
or
are
cultivated
throughout
the
Pacific.
The
oily
kernels
or

nuts
of
some
species
are
eaten,
and
the
long
leaves
are
commonly
used
for
thatching
and
for
wrapping
material.
Papuan
languages
Also
called
Non-Austronesian
lan-
guages,
these
number
over
700

and
are
found
mostly
in
New
Guinea,
the
Bismarck
Archipelago,
and
Bougainville.
parallel
cousin.
See
cousin,
parallel
patois
A
dialect
of
a
language
spoken
by
a
specific
social
or
occupational

group
in
a
multi-cultural
environment.
patrilineal
descent,
agnatic
descent
The
practice
of
trac-
ing
kinship
affiliation
only
through
the
male
line.
patrilocal
resdUnce,
viriocal
residence
The
practice
of
a
newly

married
couple
residing
in
the
community
of
the
hus-
band's
kin.
Vinilocal
is
sometimes
used
in
a
more
restrictive
sense
to
indicate
residence
in
the
household
of
the
husband's
family.

pearlsheil
Also
called
'mother-of-pearl,"
the
shells
of
Pincada
spp.
are
found
on
many
of
the
coral
reefs
of
the
southern
Pacific
and
traditionally
were
widely
traded,
espe-
cially
in
New

Guinea
and
Melanesia,
for
use
in
body
decora-
tion
and
ceremonial
exchange
systems.
phratry
A
social
group
consisting
of
two
or
more
clans
joined
by
some
common
bond
and
standing

in
opposition
to
other
phratries
in
the
society.
pidgin
A
second
language
very
often
made
up
of
words
and
grammatical
features
from
several
languages
and
used
as
the
medium
of

communication
between
speakers
of
different
languages.
400
Glossary
pitpit
A
Tok
Pisin
term
generally
applied
to
a
type
of
wild
sugar
cane
(Saccharsm
spontaneasm)
and
other
cane
grasses.
In
New

Guinea
and
Melanesia,
pitpit
is
commonly
used
for
house
walls
and
fencing
material.
The
term
also
refers
to
the
plant
Setaria
palmifolia,
a
common
garden
plant
in
New
Guinea.
The

edible
heart
of
the
stem
is
cooked
in
earth
ovens
or
steam-cooked
in
bamboo
tubes.
polyandry
The
marriage
of
one
woman
to
more
than
one
man
at
a
time.
polygyny

The
marriage
of
one
man
to
more
than
one
woman
at
a
time.
Polynesia
A
general
term
(from
Greek
for
"many
islands')
for
the
islands
located
within
the
huge
triangle

formed
by
the
Hawaiian
Islands,
New
Zealand,
and
Easter
Island.
Polynesian
Oudlier
An
island
located
in
Melanesia
or
Mi-
cronesia
but
whose
inhabitants
speak
Polynesian
languages
and
whose
cultures
resemble

those
found
on
Polynesian
islands.
prestation.
A
form
of
reciprocal
gift-giving,
often
associ-
ated
with
marriage
negotiations
and
ceremonial
exchange.
puberty
rites.
See
initiation
rites
raamag
An
ancestor-focused
bilateral
descent

group
con-
sisting
of
an
entire
community
whose
descent
is
traced
from
a
common
ancestor,
with
graded
ranks
based
on
closeness
to
the
senior
line
of
descent.
Remote
Oceania
A

general
term
for
all
of
the
islands
of
the
Pacific
located
east
and
north
of
the
Solomon
Islands.
sago
A
large
palm
(Metrxlon
spp.)
found
widely
in
the
western
Pacific

in
natural
stands
or
cultivated
in
swampy
ar-
eas.
Sago
is
an
important
source
of
starch
in
lowland
areas
and
a
staple
food
in
much
of
New
Guinea;
its
fronds

are
typi-
cally
used
as
thatching
material.
Sahul
A
prehistoric
land
mass,
connecting
Australia
with
New
Guinea,
that
emerged
during
worldwide
lowerings
of
sea
levels.
sennit
Fibers
from
the
husk

of
the
coconut
made
into
string
and
widely
used
for
cordage
in
Micronesia,
Polynesia,
and
parts
of
Melanesia.
shaman
A
religious
practitioner
who
receives
his
or
her
power
directly
from

supernatural
forces.
shifting
cultivation.
See
extensive
cultivation
sib.
See
clan
sister
exchange
A
form
of
arranged
marriage
in
which
two
brothers
exchange
their
sisters
as
wives.
slash-and-burn
horticulture
A
system

of
food
production
that
involves
burning
trees
and
brush
to
clear
and
fertilize
a
garden
plot,
and
then
planting
crops.
The
plot
is
used
for
a
few
years
and
then

left
to
fallow
while
other
plots
are
similarly
used.
slit
gong
(slit
drum)
A
large
drum
made
of
a
hollowed-out
tree
trunk,
used
as
a
signaling
device
or
for
ceremonial

purposes.
sorcery
The
use
of
supernatural
forces
to
further
the
inter-
ests
of
the
sorcerer,
primarily
through
formulae
and
the
ritual
manipulation
of
material
objects.
inororal
polygyny
The
marriage
of

one
man
to
two
or
more
sisters
at
the
same
time.
sororate
The
practice
of
a
woman
being
required
to
marry
her
deceased
sister's
husband.
sucking
cure
A
curing
technique

often
used
by
shamans
which
involved
sucking
out
a
foreign
object
from
the
patient's
body
through
an
implement
such
as
a
bone
tube.
The
foreign
object,
a
piece
of
bone

or
stone,
was
viewed
as
the
cause
of
the
malady
and
the
sucking
out
the
cure.
sugr
cane
The
grass
Saccharum
officinarum,
indigenous
to
Melanesia
but
now
cultivated
widely
in

the
Pacific.
The
juicy
pith
is
sucked
or
chewed
for
its
sweet
moisture.
Sunda
A
prehistoric
land
mass,
connecting
mainland
Asia
with
much
of
Malaysia
and
Indonesia,
that
emerged
during

worldwide
lowerings
of
sea
levels.
sweet
potato
The
New
World
plant
lpomoea
batatas,
es-
tablished
in
parts
of
Polynesia
prior
to
the
arrival
of
Europe-
ans
and
subsequently
introduced
to

the
western
Pacific.
It
is
a
major
source
of
carbohydrates
and
often
used
as
pig
fodder
in
much
of
the
Pacific.
swidden
The
field
or
garden
plot
resulting
from
slash-and-

burn
field
preparation.
Tambaran
cult
A
general
term
applied
to
male
cults
wide-
spread
in
the
Sepik
and
northern
regions
of
New
Guinea,
fo-
cused
on
ancestral
spirits
(or
tambaran

in
Tok
Pisin)
and
usu-
ally
associated
with
large
ceremonial
structures,
or
haus
tambaran.
tapa
A
fabric
(or
bark
cloth)
made
by
soaking
and
beating
the
inner
bark
of
trees,

especially
the
paper
mulberry
(Broussonetia
papyrifera),
Ficus
spp.,
or
Hibiscus
spp.
Tapa
was
traditionally
used
in
much
of
Oceania
for
protective
cloaks
or
clothing.
tapu
A
Polynesian
term
(from
which

the
word
'taboo"
is
derived)
for
a
sacred
quality
combining
ritual
power
and
rit-
ual
danger,
the
term
may
apply
to
objects,
places,
or
people.
taro
A
starchy
root
crop

cultivated
throughout
Oceania.
When
'true
taro"
is
intended,
the
term
applies
to
Colocasia
escuslenta,
but
recent
usages
extend
it
to
other
aroids
such
as
Alocasia
macroryhiza,
Cyrtospermna
chamissonis,
and
Xanthosoma

spp.
teknonymy
The
practice
of
addressing
a
person
after
the
name
of
his
wife
or
his
or
her
child
rather
than
by
the
individ-
ual
name.
For
example,
"Bill"
is

called
"Father
of
John."
Tok
Pisin
A
lingua
franca
(sometimes
called
Neo-
Melanesian
Pidgin)
that
is
now
one
of
the
official
languages
of
Papua
New
Guinea.
totem
A
plant
or

animal
emblematic
of
a
clan
that
usually
has
special
meaning
to
the
group.
trepang.
See
biche-de-mer
tribe
Although
there
is
some
variation
in
use,
the
term
usually
applies
to
a

distinct
people
who
view
themselves
and
are
recognized
by
outsiders
as
being
a
distinct
culture.
The
tribal
society
has
its
own
name,
territory,
customs,
subsist-
ence
activities,
and
often
its

own
language.
Glossary
401
unilineal
descent
The
practice
of
tracing
kinship
affil-
iation
through
only
one
line,
either
the
matriline
or
the
patriline.
unflocal
residence
The
general
term
for
matrilocal,

patrilocal,
or
avunculocal
postmarital
residence.
usufruct
The
right
to
use
land
or
property
without
actually
owning
it.
uterine
descent.
See
matrilineal
descent
uxorilocal
residence.
See
matrilocal
residence
virilocal
residence.
See

patrilocal
residence
volcanic
islands
Islands
(often
called
"high
islands")
formed
through
volcanic
intrusion
from
the
Australasiatic
Continental
Platform
or
directly
from
the
ocean
floor.
weir
A
wall
of
sticks
or

rocks
placed
in
a
body
of
water,
river,
or
stream
to
prevent
fish
from
passing.
witchcraft
The
use
of
supernatural
forces
to
control
or
harm
another
person.
Unlike
sorcery,
witchcraft

does
not
re-
quire
the
use
of
special
rituals,
formulae,
or
ritual
objects.
yam
A
term
applied
to
various
species
of
Dioscorea,
a
culti-
vated
plant
whose
vines
are
usually

trained
to
climb
up
sticks
or
poles.
The
starchy
root
is
eaten
and
often
is
the
basis
of
competitive
exchanges
in
Oceania.

Filmog-raphy
403
Filmography
Following
is
a
list

of
films
and
videos
on
cultures
in
Oceania.
Except
for
those
that
cover
Oceania
in
general,
the
subject
of
each
is
indicated
following
the
title.
This
list
is
not
meant

to
be
complete;
rather
it
is
a
sampling
of
videos
and
films
avail-
able
from
many
distributors.
Listing
a
film
or
video
here
does,
not
constitute
an
endorsement
by
the

volume
editor
or
the
summary
authors,
nor
does
the
absence
of
a
film
represent
a
nonendorsement.
Abbreviations
for
names
of
distributors
are
provided
at
the
end
of
each
citation.
The

full
name
and
ad-
dress
may
be
found
in
the
directory
of
distributors
that
fol-
lows
the
filmography.
Many
of
these
films
are
also
available
through
the
Extension
Media
Center

of
the
University
of
California
at
Berkeley
and/or
the
Audio-Visual
Services
of
the
Pennsylvania
State
University,
indicated
by
(EMC)
or
(PS)
at
the
end
of
the
citation.
Aborigines
of
the

Seacoast.
(Australian
Aborigines)
1973.
Color,
20
minutes,
16mm.
(PS).
American
Samoa:
Paradise
Lost?
(Samoa)
1969.
Color,
55
minutes,
16mm.
(EMC).
Ancestors:
The
Last
Tasmanian.
(Tasmanians)
1980.
Color,
12
minutes,
16mm.

McG-H
(EMC).
Angels
of
War:
World
War
in
Papua
New
Guinea.
(Papua
New
Guinea)
1983.
Andrew
Pike,
Hank
Nelson,
and
Gavan
Daws.
Color,
54
minutes
or
30
minutes,
16mm,
VHS.

FL.
Asmat:
Cannibal
Craftsmen
of
New
Guinea.
(Asmat)
1977.
William
Leimnbach,
Jean-Pierre
Dutilleux,
and
Peter
Van
Arsdale.
Color,
60
minutes,
16mm.
MAC.
Atoll
Life
on
Kiribati.
(Kiribati)
1987.
Human
Face

of
the
Pa-
cific
Series.
Color,
28
minutes,
VHS.
FIV.
Axes
and
Ark:
Stone
Tools
of
the
Duna.
(Papua
New
Guinea)
1977.
J.
Peter
White.
Color,
41
minutes,
16mm,
VHS,

U-mat.
(EMC).
Bathing
Babies
in
Three
Cultures.
(latmul)
1954.
Gregory
Bateson
and
Margaret
Mead.
B&W,
11
minutes,
16mm.
NYU
(EMC).
Becoming
Aboriginal.
(Australian
Aborigines)
1978.
Color,
10
minutes,
16mm.
(PS).

Bougainville
Copper
Project.
(Nasioi)
1972.
Color,
28
min-
utes,
16mm.
(EMC).
Cannibal
Tours.
(Papua
New
Guinea,
Sepik)
1987.
Dennis
O'Rourke.
Color,
70
minutes,
16mm,
VHS.
DCL.
Childhood
Rivalry
in
Bali

and
New
Guinea.
(latmul)
1952.
Gregory
Bateson
and
Margaret
Mead.
B&W,
17
minutes,
16mm.
NYU
(EMC).
Collum
Calling
Canberra.
(Australian
Aborigines)
1984.
David
MacDougall
and
Judith
MacDougall.
Color,
58
min-

utes,
16mm.
(EMC).
Coniston
Muster.
(Australian
Aborigines)
1976.
Roger
Sandall.
Australian
Institute
of
Aboriginal
Studies
Series.
Color,
29
minutes,
16mm,
VHS,
U-mat.
(EMC).
Dani
Houses.
(Dani)
1974.
Karl
G.
Heider.

Color,
16
min-
utes,
16mm,
VHS,
U-mat.
(EMC)
(PS).
Dani
Sweet
Potatoes.
(Dani)
1974.
Karl
G.
Heider.
Color,
19
minutes,
16mm,
VHS,
U-mat.
(EMC)
(PS).
Dead
Birds.
(Dani)
1963.
Robert

Gardner.
Color,
82
min-
utes,
16mmn,
VHS,
U-mat.
PHENIX
(EMC).
Desert
People,
The.
(Mardudjara)
1968.
lan
Dunlop
and
Robert
Tonkinson.
B&W,
51
minutes,
16mm.
CRM,
McG-H
(EMC)
(PS).
Dingari
Ceremonies

at
Papunya-)une
1972.
(Pintupi)
1977.
Color,
15
minutes,
16mm.
(EMC).
Easter
Island:
Puzzle
of
the
Pacific.
(Easter
Island)
1970.
William
Mulloy
and
Peter
Jennings.
Color,
28
minutes,
16mm.
MAC
(EMC).

Echoes
of
War.
1987.
The
New
Pacific
Series.
Color,
50
min-
utes,
VHS.
FIV.
Emu
Ritual
at
Ruguri.
(Warlbiri)
1969.
Australian
Institute
of
Aboriginal
Studies
Series.
Color,
33
minutes,
16mm.

(PS).
Extinction:
The
Last
Tasmanian.
(Tasmanians)
1980.
Color,
60
minutes,
16mm.
McG-H
(EMC).
Familiar
Places.
(Australian
Aborigines)
198
1.
David
MacDougall.
Color,
53
minutes,
16mm,
VHS,
U-mat.
(EMC).
Fifty
Ways

to
Get
Enlightened.
1987.
The
New
Pacific
Series.
Color,
50
minutes,
VHS.
FlV.
Fiji:
Legacies
of
Empire.
(Fiji)
1987.
Human
Face
of
the
Pa-
cific
Series.
Color,
28
minutes,
VHS.

FIV.
First
Contact.
(Papua
New
Guinea)
1982.
Bob
Connolly
and
Robin
Anderson.
Color,
54
minutes,
16mm.
FL
(EMC)
(PS).
First
Days
in
the
Life
of
a
New
Guinea
Baby.
(Iatmul)

195
1.
Gregory
Bateson
and
Margaret
Mead.
B&W,
19
minutes,
16mm.
NYU
(EMC).
For
Richer,
for
Poorer.
1987.
The
New
Pacific
Series.
Color,
50
minutes,
VHS.
FIV.
Gogodala:
A
Cultural

Revival!
(Gogodala)
1982.
Chris
Owen.
Color,
58
minutes,
16mm.
DER.
Goodbye,
Old
Man.
(Tiwi)
1979.
David
MacDougall.
Color,
70
minutes,
16mm,
VHS,
U-mat.
(EMC).
House-Opening,
The.
(Australian
Aborigines)
1980.
Judith

MacDougall.
Color,
45
minutes,
16mm,
VHS,
U-mat.
(EMC).
Island
of
the
Red
Prawns.
(Fiji)
1978.
William
R.
Geddes.
Color,
52
minutes,
16mm,
VHS,
U-mat.
(EMC).
lugs
to
Be
Filled
or

Candles
to
Be
Lit.
1987.
The
New
Pacific
Series.
Color,
50
minutes,
VHS.
FIV.
Kawelka:
Ongka's
Big
Moka.
(Melpa)
1989.
Disappearing
World
Series.
Color,
52
minutes,
VHS.
FIV.
Kerepe's
House:

A
House
Building
in
New
Guinea.
(Maring)
404
Filmography
1966.
Allison
jablonko
and
Marek
Jablonko.
Color,
50
min-
utes,
16mm,
U-mat.
PSUPCR
(PS).
Kula:
Argonauts
of
the
Western
Pacific.
(Trobriand

Islands)
1971.
Color,
60
minutes,
16mm.
(EMC).
Land
Divers
of
Melanesia.
(Pentecost)
1973.
Kal
Muller.
Color,
31
minutes,
16mm.
PHENIX
(PS).
Lau
of
Malaita,
The.
(Malaita)
1989.
Disappearing
World
Se-

ries.
Color,
53
minutes,
VHS.
FIV.
Malbangka
Country.
(Australian
Aborigines)
1979.
Austra-
lian
Institute
of
Aboriginal
Studies
Series.
Color,
30
minutes,
16mm,
VHS,
U-mat.
(EMC).
Man
Blong
Custom.
(Guadalcanal,
Vanuatu)

1975.
Tribal
Eye
Series.
Color,
52
minutes,
16mm.
T-L
(EMC).
Margaret
Mead's
New
Guinea
Journal.
(Manus)
1969.
Color,
90
minutes,
16mm.
(EMC)
(PS).
Maring
in
Motion.
(Maring)
1968.
Allison
Jablonko

and
Marek
Jablonko.
Color,
16
minutes,
16mm,
U-mat.
PSUPCR
(PS).
Marshall
Islands:
Living
with
the
Bomb.
(Bikini)
1987.
Human
Face
of
the
Pacific
Series.
Color,
28
minutes,
VHS.
FIV.
Maqemosh.

(Asmat)
1964.
Color,
27
minutes,
16mm.
(EMC).
Mendi,
The.
(Mendi)
n.d.
Color,
57
minutes,
16mm.
CBC.
Moana
Roa.
(Cook
Islands)
n.d.
Color,
32
minutes,
16mm.
NZNFU,
IU.
Mokil.
(Marshall
Islands)

1950.
Conrad
Bentzen.
B&W,
58
minutes,
16mm.
(EMC).
Mourning
for
Mangatopi.
(Tiwi)
1977.
Curtis
Levy.
Austra-
lian
Institute
of
Aboriginal
Studies
Series.
Color,
25
minutes,
16mm,
VHS,
U-mat.
(EMC).
Mulga

Seed
Ceremony,
The.
(Australian
Aborigines)
1968.
Australian
Institute
of
Aboriginal
Studies
Series.
Color,
25
minutes,
16mm.
(EMC)
(PS).
Navigators,
The.
(Polynesia)
1983.
Color,
60
minutes,
16mm.
T-L
(EMC).
New
Caledonia:

A
Land
in
Search
of
Itself.
(Ajii)
1987.
Human
Face
of
the
Pacific
Series.
Color,
28
minutes,
VHS.
FIV.
New
Lives
for
Old.
(Manus)
1959.
Horizons
of
Science
Series.
Color,

20
minutes,
16mm.
(PS).
New
Rangers,
The.
(Australian
Aborigines)
1980.
Color,
31
minutes,
16mm.
(PS).
Not
to
Lose
You,
My
Language:
Bilingual
Education
in
the
Northern
Territory.
(Australian
Aborigines)
1974.

Color,
27
minutes,
16mm.
(PS).
Over
Rich,
Over
Sexed,
and
Over
Here.
1987.
The
New
Pacific
Series.
Color,
50
minutes,
VHS.
FIV.
Pacific
Age,
The.
1987.
The
New
Pacific
Series.

Color,
50
minutes,
VHS.
FIV.
Pacific
Island.
(Marshall
Islands)
1949.
B&W,
18
minutes,
16mm.
IFF
(PS).
Papua
New
Guinea:
Anthropology
on
Trial.
(Melpa,
Maisin
Manus)
1983.
Nova
Series.
Color,
57

minutes,
16mm.
T-L
(EMC)
(PS).
People
of
the
Free
Train.
(Fiji)
n.d.
Color,
14
minutes,
16mm.
'U.
Place
of
Power
in
French
Polynesia.
(Tahiti)
1987.
Human
Face
of
the
Pacific

Series.
Color,
28
minutes,
VHS.
FIV.
Quest
for
the
Killers:
The
Kuru
Mystery.
(Fore)
1984.
Color,
60
minutes,
VHS.
(PS).
Red
Bowmen,
The.
(Papua
New
Guinea)
1982.
Chris
Owen.
Color,

58
minutes,
16mm.
DER.
Return
to
Paradise.
1987.
The
New
Pacific
Series.
Color,
50
minutes,
VHS.
FIV.
Rock
Engravings.
(Australian
Aborigines)
1969.
Australian
Museum
Series.
Color,
7
minutes,
16mm.
(EMC)

(PS).
Secrets
of
Easter
Island.
(Easter
Island)
1988.
Nova
Series.
Color,
58
minutes,
VHS.
(PS).
Shadow
of
the
Rising
Sun.
1987.
The
New
Pacific
Series.
Color,
50
minutes,
VHS.
FIV.

Shark
Callers
of
Kontu,
The.
(New
Ireland)
1986.
Dennis
O'Rourke.
Color,
54
minutes,
16mm,
VHS.
DCL.
Sons
of
Namatjira.
(Australian
Aborigines)
1982.
Color,
50
minutes,
16mm.
(EMC).
Spear
in
the

Stone.
(Australian
Aborigines)
1983.
Color,
35
minutes,
16mm.
(EMC).
Stockman's
Strategy.
(Australian
Aborigines)
1984.
David
MacDougall
and
Judith
MacDougall.
Color,
54
minutes,
16mm.
(EMC).
Takeover.
(Australian
Aborigines)
1981.
David
MacDougall

and
Judith
MacDougall.
Color,
90
minutes,
16mm.
(EMC).
Three
Horsemen.
(Australian
Aborigines)
1983.
David
MacDougall
and
Judith
MacDougall.
Color,
55
minutes,
16mm,
VHS,
U-mat.
(EMC).
Tidikawa
and
Friends.
(Gebusi)
1973.

Jef
Doring
and
Su
Doing.
Color,
82
minutes,
16mm.
DER
(EMC)
(PS).
Tighten
the
Drums:
Self-Decoration
among
the
Enga.
(Mae
Enga)
1982.
Chris
Owen.
Color,
58
minutes,
16mm.
DER.
Trobriand

Cricket:
An
Ingenious
Response
to
Colonialism.
(Trobriand
Islands)
1976.
Jerry
W.
Leach.
Color,
54
minutes,
16mm.
(EMC)
(PS).
Waiting
for
Harry.
(Australian
Aborigines)
1981.
Kim
McKenzie.
Color,
57
minutes,
16mm.

(EMC).
Walbiri
Fire
Ceremony:
Ngatjakula.
(Warlbiri)
1979.
Roger
Sandall.
Australian
Institute
of
Aboriginal
Studies
Series.
Color,
21
minutes,
16mm.
(EMC).
Walkabout
(Revised
Version).
(Australian
Aborigines)
1974.
C.
P.
Mountford.
(Original

version
1946.)
Color,
25
min-
utes,
16mm.
(PS).
FilmograPhy
405
Western
Samoa:
I
Can
Get
Another
Wife
but
I
Can't
Get
Par-
ents.
(Samoa)
1987.
Human
Face
of
the
Pacific

Series.
Color,
28
minutes,
VHS.
FIV.
White
Clay
and
Ochre.
(Australian
Aborigines)
1969.
Aus-
tralian
Museum
Series.
Color,
15
minutes,
16mm.
(EMC)
(PS).
Yap:
How
Did
You
Know
We'd
Like

TV?
(Yap)
1987.
Dennis
O'Rourke.
Color,
54
minutes,
16mm,
VHS.
DCL.
Yumi
Yet.
(Papua
New
Guinea)
1987.
Dennis
O'Rourke.
Color,
54
minutes,
16mm,
VHS.
DCL
CBC
CRM
DCL
DER
EMC

FIV
FL
1FF
IU
MAC
McG-H
NYU
NZNFU
PHENIX
PS
PSUPCR
T-L
Directory
of
Distributors
Canadian
Broadcasting
Corporation,
CBC
Educational
Films,
English
Services
Division,
P.O.
Box
500,
Terminal
A,
Toronto,

ON
M5W
I1E6
(245
Park
Avenue,
New
York,
NY
10017)
CRM/McGraw-Hilt
Films,
674
Via
de
la
Valle,
P.O.
Box
641,
Del
Mar,
CA
92014
Direct
Cinema
Limited
Library,
P.O.
Box

315,
Franklin
Lakes,
NJ
07417
Documentary
Educational
Resources,
101
Morse
Street,
Watertown,
MA
02172
University
of
California
Extension
Media
Center,
2176
Shattuck
Avenue,
Berkeley,
CA
94704
Films
Incorporated
Video,
5547

North
Ravenswood
Avenue,
Chicago,
IL
60640-1199
Filmakers
Library,
Inc.,
124
East
Fortieth
Street,
New
York,
NY
10016
International
Film
Foundation,
155
West
Seventy-Second
Street,
Room
306,
New
York,
NY
10023

Indiana
University,
Audio-Visual
Center,
Bloomington,
IN
47405
Macmillan
Films,
34
MacQuesten
Parkway
South,
Mount
Vernon,
NY
10550
McGraw-Hill
Films,
1
1
West
Nineteenth
Street,
New
York,
NY
1
0011
New

York
University,
Films
Division,
Division
of
Center
for
Media
Services,
26
Washington
Place,
New
York,
NY
10003
New
Zealand
National
Film
Unit,
Fairway
Drive,
Avalon,
Lower
Hutt,
New
Zealand
PhoenixlBFA

Films
and
Video,
Inc.,
468
Park
Avenue
South,
New
York,
NY
10016
Pennsylvania
State
University,
Audio-
Visual
Services,
Special
Services
Building,
University
Park,
PA
16802
Pennsylvania
State
University,
Psych
Cinema

Register,
6
Willard
Building,
University
Park,
PA
16802
Time-Life
Multimedia,
100
Eisenhower
Drive,
P.O.
Box
644,
Paramus,
NJ
07653

Ethnonym
Index
This
index
provides
some
of
the
alternative
names

and
the
names
of
major
subgroups
for
cultures
covered
in
this
v~ol-
ume.
The
culture
names
that
are
entry
titles
are
in
boldface.
a
Bal-Amb3ee
Ablalm
Abulas-Abelain
MAi-Orokaiva
Aiome
Pygmles,-Gaisj

Aji
Akhuni-Dani
Ambse
Ambelam-Abelam
Ambelas-Abelam
Amibulas-Abelam
Anarigai-Woleai
Angal
Tagar-Amaee
Angal-Mendi
Anganen-Mendi
Anuts
Aoba-Ambae
Aramasen
Chuuk-Truk
Aranda
Arapesh-Mountain
Arapesh
Arawe-9e~uveng
'Are'are-Mialaita
Arrernte-Aranda
Arunta-Aranda
Asaro Gba
Asengseng Senweng
Annat
Asmat-ow-Asmat
Australian
Aborigines,-Aranda,
Mecrl,
Kiangaeoi

Karadjemi
Knima
Mardu~Jara
Murngin,
Npuam~aa
PintUMPi
Tasananlans,
Thwi,
Warlpfri.
Wik
Mungkaa,
Wongsilxon,
Yir
Yoroam,
Yungar
Austral
Islands-Rapst
Awara-Wauntat
Banar-Banaro
Banara-Banaro
Banwo
Barrie
Bay-Wamira
Bathurst
Islanders-Tiwi
Beg
Belau
Berik-Tor
Bibo Gebust
Blkini-Masshall

Islands
Bileki-Lak
Binandele-Orakaiva
Biwat-Mundugusnor
Blimo-M(4anmnin
Boadii-Boazi
Boazd
Bonerif-Tor
Bosavi-Kal"
Brat-Mcibrat
Buka-KurbtatM
Bukiyip-Mountain
Arapesh
Bunlap-Pentecost
Bush
Mekeo-Mekeo,
Butam-Lak
Butona-Ambae
Bwaidloka-Gooenugh
Island
Camilero,-Kamilaroi
Canaque-AJUi
Chamnbuli-Chamubr
Cherry
Island-Anuta
Chiomb
Cook
Islaniders Cook
Islands
Cook

Isands
Cook
Islands
Maoras Cook
Islands
Dadibi-Daribi
Dangerous
Islands Raroia
Dani
Dayerrie-Dieri
Deerie-Dieri
Dehu-Loyaky
Isuands
Diarn-Dieri
Dieri
Dieyerie-Dieri
Dieyrie-Dieri
Diveri-Dieri
Dobu
Dthee-eri-Diwi.
Duba-Romi
Island
Es~
Island
East
Futuna-Futuna.
East
Uvean-U'vea
Edugaura-Dobu
Efate-Nguna

Eipo
Eipodumanang-Eipo
Ekagi-Kapauku
Ekaui-Kapanka
Elema Orokolo
Ellice
Islands-Tuvalu
'Enata-Marueas
Islands
Enewetak-Marshail
Islands
Eschaltz
Islands-Bildni
Euahlayi-Karnilaroi
Fataleka-Malaita.
Fiji-Ban,
Lau,
Rounna.
Fiwaga-Foi
Foe-Pol
Foi
Foi'i-Foi
Fore
Fuyuge-IMafiul
Fuyughi-Mafiuu
Gahuku Galukn Gama
Gahuku-Gawa
Gambler
Islands-Mangareva
Gants Gai

Ganz Gaini
Garadjui-Karadjcr
Gariuku-Gahulut-Gama
Gebuni
Gilbertese-liribati
Girara-Gogodala
Gnau
Gogodals
Gogodara-Gogodala
Goilala-Mafiuu,
Tauade
Goliath-Eipo
Goodenough
Wsand
Gorokans Gahuku-Gamna
407
408
Ethnonym
Index
Grass
Koian-Kodari
Green
Island-Nissan
Guadalcanal
Guadalcanar Guadakanal
Guaradjara-Karadjeri
Gunliroy-Kamiarod
Guramalum-Lak
Gururumba
Hageners-Melpa

'Haruai-Wovan
Hawaiian
Islanders-Hawavians
Hawailans
Hoorn
Islands-Futuna
Hom
Islands-Futuna
Houallou-AjI
Hunjara-Orokaiva
laai-Loyaky
Islands
Iannul
Iduna-Goodenough
Island
l-Kiribati-Kiril"
Ilpirra-Warlpiri
Ipare-Tanna
Ipi-irokol
Isla
de
Psacua-Easter
Island
Jigalong-Mardudjara
Jirjoront-Yir
Yoront
Kabid-Gogodala
Kai-Nlngerum
Kalleuna-Trobriand
Islands

Kainantu-Tairora
Kaja-kaja-Marind-Anium
Kalauna-Goodenough
Island
Kablli
K"
Kanilarol
Kamoro-Mimika
Kanak-AJi
Kanaka-AjiW
Kaoka-Guadaicanal
Kaowerawedj-Tor
Kapauku
Kapinga-Kap-ngaqmrangi
.p
ra~nm
i
Karadjari-Karadjeri
Kadjer
Karau-Murik
Kariera
Kauimui-Daribi
Kaup-Murik
Kelefomin-Telefolmin
Kelefoten-Telefolmln
Keraki
Km
Kewapi-Kewa
Kietas-Nadoi
Kiltnge

Kilivila-Trobriand
Islands
Kimyal-Eipo
Khm
Kiriniti-Kapingatnarangi
Kidwina-Trobriand
Islands
Kitava-Trobriand
Islands
K
-wai
Koiani
Koka-mungin-Yir
Yoont
Koko
Manjoen-Yir
Yoront
Kokomindjan-Yir
Yoront
Konda-Dani
Koonarie-Dieri
Koriki-Namau
Kosirau-Maisdn
Kosirava-Maiuin
Koe
Kuaghe-New
Georgia
Kubuna-Bau
Kuman-Chimbu
Kunad-Diei

Kusaie-Kowrae
Kutubuans-Fod
Kwaio-Malaita
Kwajalein-Marshall
Islands
Kwara'ae-Malaita
Kwerba-Tor
Kwoma
Laget-Lak
Lagoon
Islands-Tuvalu
Lak
Lambel-Lak
Langalanga-Malaim
Lau
Lau-Malaita-Malakta
Lauru-uCoied
Island
Laus-Malekula
Leper's
Island-Ambae
Lombaha-Ambae
Longana-Ambae
Lord
Howe-Ontong
Java
Lord
Howe's
Group-Ontong
Java

Lo
y
land
Luangiua-Ontong
Java
Madak-Mandak
Mae
Enga
Mahidu
Magi-Mailu
Mail
Maisin
Maisina-Maisin
Majuro-Mahall
Islands
Makira-San
Cristobal
Malaia
Mambare-Orokalva
Mambule-Mafulu
Manam
Mandak
Mander-Tor
mans-
Man~idi
Manus
Manusian-Manus
Maon
Mardudpr
Mardujarra-Mardudjara

Maind-anim
Maring
Marovo-New
Georgia
Marquesans-Marquesm
Islands
Marques"
Islands
Marshall
Islands
Mayet-Murik
Mbau-Bau
Mbowamb-Melpa
Me-Kapauku
Medlpa-Melpa
Me~,rat
Meiprat-Meibrat
Mek-Eipo
Mekeo
Melpa
Melville
Idlanders-Tiwi
Mendi.
Mereyon-Woleai
Mewun-Malela
Meybrat-Mmoxrat
Mianmin-Miyanmin
Mikaru-Daribi
Mimilca
Miruma-Grun

Miwuyt-Murngln
Miymunin
Mobi-Fod
Morata-Goodenough
Island
Morehead-Kerakd
Mortlock
Islands-Nomol
Mountain
Arapesh
Mubi-Foi
Mugaba-Rennell
Island
Muku-Lakaial
Mundokuma-Mundugumor
Mundugamor-Mundugumor
Mundugamror
Munggan-Wik
Mungkan
Munggava-Rennell
Island
Muirik
Muengin
MUT
Muyu
Nakanai-Lbkalai
Namau
Nambu-Kerakl
NasiW
Nauru

Navodo-Nauru
Nawodo-Nauru
Ndani-Dani
Nduindui-Amnbae
Ndumba-Takora
Nembi-Mendi
Nendo-Sant
Cnr
Nengone-Loyaky
Islands
New
Georgia
Ngayatjara-Ngrab*
Ngadadjaa-NgAzjara
Ngaddjara
Nga
Tikopia-Tdkpla
Nguna
Ngunese-Nguna
Nidula-Goodenough
Island
Ningum
Ninggiroem-Ningerum
Ninggirum-Ningerum
Nissan
Niue
Niuean-Niue
Niuefekai-Niue
Ethnonym
Index

409
Nomad
River
Peoples-Gebusl
NOsno
Notui-Lemu
Nugum-Yangoru
Boien
Nukuma-Kwosa
Nukumairaro-Anum
Oba-Ambae
Oleai-Woleai
Olnea-Wedeai
Olo-Wape
Omba-Ambwe
Ommura-Tadrora
Ontorg
Java
Opa-Ambae
Oparo-Rapa
0OwgD-Kaluli
Orokp-iva
Orok~oio
Palau-Belau
Paumotu-Raroia
Pelew-Bedaw
Penrhyn-Tongreva
Pentecost
Pesegem-Dani
Pintubi-Pintupi

Pintupi
Pitjantjatjara-N
gb*-
Pito-O-Te
Henua-Easter
Island
Pleasant
Island-Nauru
Pohnpei
Pole-Kewa
Ponape-Pohnped
Pornowol-Pentecost
Poumotu-Raroda
Pugusch-Lak
Pukapuka.
Purari-Na-au
Ri-Marshalc
Islands
Raps
Rapa-ld-Rapa
Rapa
Nui-Easter
Island
Rarola
Rataki-Marshall
Islands
Rauru-uChoiaeal
Island
Rennellese-Rennel
Island

Rennel
Iand
Re
Ulithi-Ulhhi
Roissy-Woeo
Rossel
IWand
Rotuma
Rova-Rosel
Island
Roviana-New
Georgia
Sa-Pentecost
Sa'a-Malaka
Sambi.
Samoa
Samot-Amsint
San
Cristobal
Santa
Cruz
SelePet
Sen&eng
Seniang-Makkula
Sesake-Nouna
Siane
Siar-Lak
Sianfa-lak
Sigaba-Sio
Sigawa-Sio

Simbu-Chimbu
Sio
Siuai-Siwai
Siwul
Small
Nambas-Malekkla
Society
Islands-Tahiti
Soromaja-Tar
South
Mendi-Kewa
South
Ragans-Pentecost
Strong's
lsland-Kowae
Suki-Boai
Sumau-Garla
Tagata
Samoa-Samoa
Tahiti
Taiora-Tairora
Tairora
Tana-Tanna
Tan_
Tan
Tannese-Tanna
Tapiro-Kapquku
Tariba-Usino
Tasmaisan
Tauade

Tauata-Tauade
Tchambuh-Chambri
Te'enana-M
quems
Islands
Telefol-Telefdimin
Telefolmin
Telefomin-Telefolmin
Te
Maori-Maori
Thirteen
Island-Woleai
rTiari-Dieri
Timputs-Kurtatchi
Tinputz-Kurttchi
T1ii
Tjaroro-Camoos
To'aba'ita-Malaita
Tokelau
ToW
Tongs
Tongareva
Tor
Torres
Steait
Isblnders
Trans-Fly-Keraki
Trobriand
Islands
Truk

Tuamotu-Raroia
Tubuai
Archipelago-Raps
Tugeri-Marind-nim
Tui
Kaba-Bau
Tungaru-Kiribsti
Tuvadu
Ualan-Kowae
Uap-Yap
Uleai-Woleai
Union
Islands-Tokelau
Urrominna-Died
Usino
Uves
Uvean-Uvea
Vakuta-Trobriand
Islands
Vokeo-Wopo
Vulkan
Islanders-Manam
Wagarabai-Miyannin
Wageva-Wogeo
Waibuk-Wovan
Wailpiri-Wari
Walbiti-Warpi
Wallis
Island-Uvea
Walpiri-Warlpiri

Waluli-KaXui
Walurili-Ambae
Wamira
Wantost
Wape
Wape-Wape
Wapei-Wape
Wapi-Wape
Wapu-Wantoat
Wardpiri
Waropen
Washkuk-Kwoma
Wasida-Orokalva
Wasio-Kurtatchi
Waskuk-Kwom,
Wedau-Wamira
Weleya-Woleai
Western
Central
Enga-Mae
Enga
Western
Desert
Aborigines-Ngraaa
Western
Elema-Orokolo
West
Nakanai-Laai
West
Ouvean-Loyaky

Islands
Wianu-Yangoru
Dodken
Wik-Wik
Mungkan
Wik
Mungkan
Wikmunkan-Wik
Munskan
Wisaesi-Kahill
Wiyaw-Wovan
WOge
Wola-Mendi
Wolesi
Wombunger-Wongabon
Wongaibon
Wongai-bun-Wongaibon
Wonghi-Wongaibon
Wonghibon-Wogailon
Wongksadieri-Dieri
Wonkadieri-Dieri
Wonti-Waropen
Wopu-Wantoat
Worpen-Waropen
Wovan
Wulamba-Murngin
Yangoru-Yafnt-
Bodken
Yangoru
Boilken

Yap
Yatmul-latniu
Yela-Rosel
Island
Ylr
Yoront
Yolngu-Murngin
Yungar
Yuulngu-Murngin