Marketing management Chapter 15 doc

PART
DELIVERING VALUE
IN THIS CHAPTER, WE WILL
ADDRESS THE FOLLOWING
QUESTIONS:
1.
What is a marketing channel
system and value network?
2.
What work do marketing
channels perform?
3. How should channels be
designed?
4.
What decisions do companies
face in managing their channels?
5. How should companies integrate
channels and manage channel
6. What is the future for
e-commerce?
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CHAPTER 15 DESIGNING AND
MANAGING VALUE
NETWORKS AND CHANNELS
Successful value creation needs successful value delivery. Holistic
marketers are increasingly taking a value network view of their
busi-
nesses. Instead of limiting their focus to.their immediate suppliers,

distributors, and customers, they are examining the whole supply
chain that links raw materials, components, and manufactured
goods and shows how they move toward the final consumers.
Companies are looking at their suppliers' suppliers upstream and at
their distributors' customers downstream. They are looking at cus-
tomer segments and how company resources can best be orga-
nized to meet needs. Failure to coordinate the value network prop-
erly can have dire consequences.
A Blue Light Shop Online kiosk
at
Kmart.
467
iscount chain Km art's rise in the 1970s was characterized by its
blue light specials and famous (or infamous) in-store announce-
ment, "Attention Kmart Shoppers
1
." But suffering from poor loca-
Itions, an unfavorable image, and deteriorating sales, Kmart decided to try to
match Wal-Mart's everyday low prices. This move, however, forced the com-
pany to drop the widely distributed Sunday newspaper circulars that pro-
moted sales and drove store traffic. Even worse, a terrible replenishment sys-
tem also resulted in numerous hot sellers being out of stock. Kmart filed for
Chapter 11 bankruptcy on January 22, 2002, the biggest retailer to have
done so up to that time.'
1
468 PART 6 DELIVERING VALUE '
III Marketing Channels and Value Networks
Most producers do not sell their goods directly to the final users; between them stands a
set of intermediaries performing a variety of functions. These intermediaries constitute a
marketing channel (also called a trade channel or distribution channel). Formally, mark-

eting channels are sets of interdependent organizations involved in the process of mak-
ing a product or service available for use or consumption. They are the set of pathways a
product or service follows after production, culminating in purchase and use by the final
end user.
2
Some intermediaries—such as wholesalers and retailers—buy, take title to, and resell
the merchandise; they are called merchants. Others—brokers, manufacturers' representa-
tives,
sales agents—search for customers and may negotiate on the producer's behalf but
do not take title to the goods; they are called agents. Still others—transportation compa-
nies,
independent warehouses, banks, advertising agencies—assist in the distribution
process but neither take title to goods nor negotiate purchases or sales; they are called
facilitators.
The Importance of Channels
A
marketing channel system is the particular set of marketing channels employed by a firm.
Decisions about the marketing channel system are among the most critical facing manage-
ment. In the United States, channel members collectively earn margins that account for 30
to 50 percent of the ultimate selling price. In contrast, advertising typically accounts for less
than
5
to 7 percent of the final price.
3
Marketing channels also represent a substantial oppor-
tunity cost. One of the chief roles of marketing channels is to convert potential buyers into
profitable orders. Marketing channels must not just serve markets, they must also make
markets.
4
The channels chosen affect all other marketing decisions. The company's pricing

depends on whether it uses mass merchandisers or high-quality boutiques. The firm's sales
force and advertising decisions depend on how much training and motivation dealers need.
In addition, channel decisions involve relatively long-term commitments to other firms as
well as a set of policies and procedures. When an automaker signs up independent dealers
to sell its automobiles, the automaker cannot buy them out the next day and replace them
with company-owned outlets.
5
In managing its intermediaries, the firm must decide how much effort to devote to push
versus pull marketing.
A
push strategy involves the manufacturer using its sales force and
trade promotion money to induce intermediaries to carry, promote, and sell the product to
end users. Push strategy is appropriate where there is low brand loyalty in a category, brand
choice is made in the store, the product is an impulse item, and product benefits are well
understood.
A
pull strategy involves the manufacturer using advertising and promotion to
persuade consumers to ask intermediaries for the product, thus inducing the intermediaries
to order it. Pull strategy is appropriate when there is high brand loyalty and high involve-
ment in the category, when people perceive differences between brands, and when people
choose the brand before they go to the store. Top marketing companies such as Nike, Intel,
and Coca-Cola skillfully employ both push and pull strategies.
Companies today must build and manage a continuously evolving value net-
work. In this chapter, we consider strategic and tactical issues with marketing
channels and value networks. We will examine marketing channel issues from
the perspective of retailers, wholesalers, and physical-distribution agencies in
Chapter 16.
DESIGNING
AND
MANAGING VALUE NETWORKS

AND
CHANNELS
CHAPTER 15 469
Channel Development
A
new firm typically starts as a local operation selling in a limited market, using existing
intermediaries. The number of such intermediaries is apt to be limited: a few manufactur-
ers'
sales agents, a few wholesalers, several established retailers, a few trucking companies,
and a few warehouses. Deciding on the best channels might not be a problem; the problem
might be to convince the available intermediaries to handle the firm's line.
If the firm is successful, it might branch into new markets and use different channels in
different markets. In smaller markets, the firm might sell directly to retailers; in larger mar-
kets,
it might sell through distributors. In rural areas, it might work with general-goods mer-
chants; in urban areas, with limited-line merchants. In one part of the country, it might
grant exclusive franchises; in another, it might sell through all outlets willing to handle the
merchandise. In one country it might use international sales agents; in another, it might
partner with a local firm.
6
In short, the channel system evolves in response to local opportu-
nities and conditions.
This entrepreneur started by developing channels in a small niche and then expanding
slowly into new channels.
r-
SEAYU ENTERPRISES
INC.
SeaYu is taking a slow and steady approach to channel development for its pioneering product "Petrotech Odor
Eliminator." Designed
to

eliminate
the
odors that pets generate—from
wet
doggy smell
to
kitty litter box
aroma—Petrotech Odor Eliminator was first sold across the country at small pet specialty retailers and kennels,
through breeders, and animal rescue centers. Once
it
established
a
reputation in these specialized channels and
gained some publicity, SeaYu signed
a
contract with the huge PetSmart chain. SeaYu's product will first begin
selling only in PetSmart's mail-order catalog and then will be rolled out to
its
retail locations. In the meantime,
customers have given SeaYu feedback that the product not only eliminates pet
odors,
but is also useful for clear-
ing
the air of
other annoying smells such
as
bacon cooking
or
cigarette smoke. SeaYu plans
to

eventually
broaden distribution into other markets like housewares and the automotive aftermarket.This, in
turn,
could lead
i to deals with larger discount chains such as Wal-Mart or Target.
7
Today's successful companies are also multiplying the number of "go-to-market" or
hybrid channels in any one market area:
s IBM uses its sales force to sell to large accounts, outbound telemarketing to sell to
medium-sized accounts, direct mail with an inbound number for small accounts, retailers to
sell to still smaller accounts, and the Internet to sell specialty items.
a Charles Schwab enables its customers to do transactions in its branches, over the phone,
or on the Internet.
s Staples markets through its traditional retail channel, a direct-response Internet site, vir-
tual malls, and thousands of links on affiliated sites.
Companies that manage hybrid channels must make sure these channels work well
together and match each target customer's preferred ways of doing business. Customers
expect channel integration, characterized by the following features:
• The ability to order a product online and pick it up at a convenient retail location,
a The ability to return an online-ordered product to a nearby store of the retailer,
n The right to receive discounts based on total online and offline purchases.
"Marketing Memo: Multichannel Shopping Checklist" offers some concrete advice on chan-
nel integration. Here's a specific example of a company that has carefully managed its mul-
tiple channels.
p REI
What's more frustrating: Buying hiking boots that cripple your feet or trying on the perfect hiking boots only
to find that the store
is
out
of

stock
in
the size
or
style you want?
At
Recreational Equipment Inc. (REI), out-
door enthusiasts can easily avoid both frustrations. In 59 REI stores across the country, customers are light-
ing
up
gas stoves, pitching tents, and snuggling deep into sleeping bags.
If
an item
is out of
stock,
all
cus-
tomers need
do is tap
into the store's Internet kiosk
to
order
it
from REI's Web site. Less Internet savvy
470 PART 6 DELIVERING VALUE
MARKETING MEMO
MULTICHANNEL SHOPPING CHECKLIST
During the 2003 "back-to-school" season, the e-tailing group, an
e-commerce consulting firm in Chicago, sent mystery shoppers to
visit retail locations of 16 e-tailers to test their claims of an integrated

shopping experience in the online/retail returns process.
Overall,
the
study found that 44 percent of in-store returns of merchandise pur-
chased online required a store manager to override the retail system
in order to accept the return. In response to this and several other
inadequacies revealed by the study, the e-tailing group created a
"Best of Breed Multi-channel Shopping Checklist" to help marketers
better integrate online and offline channels:
J Train all store associates on processes for online merchandise
returns.
i List your company's 800 number on the Web homepage, and
be sure your customer service hours of operation are easily
accessible.
Provide an information center that is easy to navigate and
includes contact information, FAQs, guarantees, return policies,
and tips for first-time customers.
Implement a store locator feature that includes store locations,
hours,
and events.
Make store pickup for purchases an option and include real-time
inventory levels, where applicable.
Post the store's weekly circular online for a more complete
mul-
tichannel experience.
Offer gift certificates that can be redeemed online and offline.
Send
e-mail
notifications of the order, shipping, and return credit;
include a reminder of the returns process in notifications as well

as a link to your store locator.
Suppy all pertinent/compatible information for store return of
merchandise on the packing slip or invoice.
Source:
Excerpted from Hallie Mummert, "Multi-Channel Marketers Earn a 'C+' on Returns,"
Target Marketing
(October 2003): 158.
customers can even get clerks to place the order for them from the checkout counters. For its seamless inte-
gration of retail store, Web site, Internet kiosks, mail-order catalogs, value-priced outlets, and toll-free order
number, REI has been named today's top multichannel marketer by Forrester
Research.
And REI not only
gen-
erates store-to-internet traffic, it also sends Internet shoppers into its stores. If a customer browses REI's site
and stops to read an REI "Learn and Share" article on backpacking, the site might highlight an in-store promo
on hiking boots. Linking all its channels has produced outstanding results: In a 24-month period, REI found
that dual-channel shoppers spent 114 percent more than single-channel ones and that tri-channel shoppers
spent 48 percent more than dual-channel shoppers.
8
Different consumers, however, have different needs during the purchase process. Nunes and
Cespedes argue that in many markets, buyers fall into one of four categories.
9
1.
Habitual shoppers - Purchase from the same places in the same manner over time.
2.
High value deal seekers - Know their needs and "channel
surf"
a great deal before buy-
ing at the lowest possible price.
3.

Variety-loving shoppers'-Gather information in many channels, take advantage of high-
touch services, and then buy in their favorite channel, regardless of price.
4.
High-involvement shoppers- Gather information in all channels, make their purchase in
a low-cost channel, but take advantage of customer support from a high-touch channel.
The same consumer may choose to use different channels for different functions in mak-
ing a purchase.
A
consumer may choose to browse through a catalog before visiting a store
or take a test drive at a dealer before ordering a car online.
Consumers may seek different types of channels depending on the particular types of goods
involved. Some consumers are willing to "trade
up"
to retailers offering higher-end goods such
as
TAG
Heuer watches or Callaway golf
clubs;
these same consumers are also willing to "trade
down" to discount retailers to buy private-label paper towels, detergent, or vitamins.
10
Value Networks
A
supply chain view of
a
firm sees markets as destination points and amounts to a linear view
of the flow. The company should first think of the target market, however, and then design the
supply chain backward from that point. This view has been called demand chain planning.
Northwestern's Don Schultz says:
"A

demand chain management approach doesn't just push
things through the system. It emphasizes what solutions consumers are looking for, not what
DESIGNING AND MANAGING VALUE NETWORKS AND CHANNELS CHAPTER 15 471
Sales channel
for
Bowflex fitness
equipment:
a
print ad with
a
coupon
and
an
800
number
for
phone calls.
products we are trying to sell them." Schultz has suggested that the traditional marketing
"four
P's"
be replaced by a new acronym,
SIVA,
which stands for solutions, information, value,
and access."
An even broader view sees a company at the center of
a
value network—a system of part-
nerships and alliances that a firm creates to source, augment, and deliver its offerings. A
value network includes a firm's suppliers and its suppliers' suppliers, and its immediate cus-
tomers and their end customers. The value network includes valued relations with others

such as university researchers and government approval agencies.
A
company needs to orchestrate these parties to enable it to deliver superior value to the
target market. Palm, the leading manufacturer of handheld devices, consists of
a
whole com-
munity of suppliers and assemblers of semiconductor components, plastic cases, LCD dis-
plays,
and accessories; of offline and online resellers; and of 275,000 developers who have
created over 21,000 software programs and 100 hardware add-ons for the Palm operating
systems for hand-held computers and smartphones.
Demand chain planning yields several insights. First, the company can estimate
whether more money is made upstream or downstream, in case it might want to integrate
backward or forward. Second, the company is more aware of disturbances anywhere in
the supply chain that might cause costs, prices, or supplies to change suddenly. Third,
companies can go online with their business partners to carry on faster and more accu-
rate communications, transactions, and payments to reduce costs, speed up information,
and increase accuracy. With the advent of the Internet, companies are forming more
numerous and complex relationships with other firms. For example, Ford not only man-
ages numerous supply chains, but also sponsors or transacts on many
B2B
Web sites and
exchanges as needs arise.
472 PART 6 DELIVERING VALUE
(a) Number of Contacts
MxC=3x3=9
Managing this value network has required companies to make increasing investments in
information technology (IT) and software. They have invited such software firms as
SAP
and

Oracle to design comprehensive enterprise
resource
planning
(ERP)
systems to manage cash
flow, manufacturing, human resources, purchasing, and other major functions within a uni-
fied framework. They hope to break up department silos and carry out core business
processes more seamlessly. In most cases, however, companies are still a long way from truly
comprehensive ERP systems.
Marketers, for their part, have traditionally focused on the side of the value network that
looks toward the customer. In the future, they will increasingly participate in and influence
their companies' upstream activities and become network managers, not only product and
customer managers.
The Role of Marketing Channels
(b) Number of Contacts
M+C=3+3=6
M = Manufacturer
C = Customer
D = Distributor
FIG.
15.1 |
How a Distributor Increases Efficiency
Why would a producer delegate some of the selling job to intermediaries? Delegation means
relinquishing some control over how and to whom the products are sold. Producers do gain
several advantages by using intermediaries:
® Many producers lack the financial
resources
to cany out direct marketing. For example,
General Motors sells its cars through more than
8,000

dealer outlets in North America alone.
Even General Motors would be hard-pressed to raise the cash to buy out its dealers.
B
Producers who do establish their own channels can often earn a greater return by
increas-
ing investment in their main business. If a company earns a
20
percent rate of return on man-
ufacturing and a
10
percent return on retailing, it does not make sense to do its own retailing.
H In some cases direct marketing simply is not feasible. The William Wrigley
Jr.
Company
would not find it practical to establish small retail gum shops throughout the world or to sell
gum by mail order. It would have to sell gum along with many other small products and
would end up in the drugstore and grocery store business. Wrigley finds it easier to work
through the extensive network of privately owned distribution organizations.
Intermediaries normally achieve superior efficiency in making goods widely available
and accessible to target markets. Through their contacts, experience, specialization, and
scale of operation, intermediaries usually offer the firm more than it can achieve on its own.
According to Stern and his colleagues:
Intermediaries smooth the flow of goods and services This procedure is neces-
sary in order to bridge the discrepancy between the assortment of goods and ser-
vices generated by the producer and the assortment demanded by the consumer.
The discrepancy results from the fact that manufacturers typically produce a large
quantity of a limited variety of
goods,
whereas consumers usually desire only a lim-
ited quantity of a wide variety of goods.

12
Figure 15.1 shows one major source of cost savings using intermediaries. Part (a) shows
three producers, each using direct marketing to reach three customers. This system requires
nine different contacts. Part (b) shows the three producers working through one distributor,
who contacts the three customers. This system requires only six contacts. In this way, inter-
mediaries reduce the number of contacts and the work.
Channel Functions and Flows
A marketing channel performs the work of moving goods from producers to consumers. It
overcomes the time, place, and possession gaps that separate goods and services from those
who need or want them. Members of the marketing channel perform a number of key func-
tions (see Table 15.1).
Some functions (physical, title, promotion) constitute a forward flow of activity from
the company to the customer; other functions (ordering and payment) constitute a
backward flow from customers to the company. Still others (information, negotiation,
finance, and risk taking) occur in both directions. Five flows are illustrated in Figure 15.2
for the marketing of forklift trucks. If these flows were superimposed in one diagram, the
tremendous complexity of even simple marketing channels would be apparent.
A
manu-
facturer selling a physical product and services might require three channels: a sales
DESIGNING AND MANAGING VALUE NETWORKS AND CHANNELS CHAPTER 15 473
•
Gather information about potential and current customers, competitors, and other actors and forces
in the
marketing environment.
•
Develop and disseminate persuasive communications
to
stimulate purchasing.
•

Reach agreements on price and other terms
so
that transfer
of
ownership
or
possession can
be
effected.
•
Place orders with manufacturers.
•
Acquire the funds
to
finance inventories
at
different levels
in the
marketing channel,
a Assume risks connected with carrying
out
channel work.
•
Provide
for
the successive storage and movement
of
physical products.
B
Provide

for
buyers' payment
of
their bills through banks and other financial institutions,
a Oversee actual transfer
of
ownership from
one
organization
or
person
to
another.
TABLE
15.1 |
Channel Member Functions
channel, a delivery channel, and a service channel. To sell its Bovvflex fitness equipment,
the Nautilus Group has used television infomercials, the telephone, and the Internet as
sales channels; UPS ground service as the delivery channel; and local repair people as the
service channel. When sales failed to meet goals, Nautilus added retail stores to its sales
channels in
2003.
When a competitor infringed on the Bowflex patent by placing an imi-
tation product into retail stores, Nautilus began selling Bovvflex home gyms through the
retail channel.
The question is not whether various channel functions need to be performed—they must
be—but rather, who
is
to perform them. All channel functions have three things in common:
They use up scarce resources; they can often be performed better through specialization;

and they can be shifted among channel members. When the manufacturer shifts some func-
tions to intermediaries, the producer's costs and prices are lower, but the intermediary must
add a charge to cover its work. If the intermediaries are more efficient than the manufac-
turer, prices to consumers should be lower. If consumers perform some functions them-
selves, they should enjoy even lower prices.
I
FIG.
15.2 .
Five Marketing Flows
in
the Marketing Channel
for
Forklift Trucks
474 PART 6 DELIVERING VALUE -
:
Marketing functions, then, are more basic than the institutions that perform them at any
given time. Changes in channel institutions largely reflect the discovery of more efficient
ways to combine or separate the economic functions that provide assortments of goods to
target customers.
Channel Levels
The producer and the final customer are part of every channel. We will use the number of
intermediary levels to designate the length of a channel. Figure 15.3(a) illustrates several
consumer-goods marketing channels of different lengths.
A zero-level channel (also called a direct-marketing channel) consists of a manufac-
turer selling directly to the final customer. The major examples are door-to-door sales,
home parties, mail order, telemarketing, TV selling, Internet selling, and manufacturer-
owned stores. Avon sales representatives sell cosmetics door-to-door; Tupperware repre-
sentatives sell kitchen goods through home parties; Franklin Mint sells collectibles
through mail order; AT&T uses the telephone to prospect for new customers or to sell
enhanced services to existing customers; Time-Life sells music and video collections

through TV commercials or longer "infomercials"; Red Envelope sells gifts online; and
Gateway sells computers and other consumer electronics through its own stores.
"Marketing Insight: M-Commerce Opens Up New Opportunities for Marketers" describes
new developments in that area.
A
one-level channel contains one selling intermediary, such as a retailer.
A
two-level chan-
nel contains two intermediaries. In consumer markets, these are typically a wholesaler and
a retailer. A three-level channel contains three intermediaries. In the meatpacking industry,
wholesalers sell to jobbers, who sell to small retailers. In Japan, food distribution may involve
as many as six levels. From the producer's point of
view,
obtaining information about end
users and exercising control becomes more difficult as the number of channel levels
increases.
Figure 15.3(b) shows channels commonly used in industrial marketing. An industrial-
goods manufacturer can use its sales force to sell directly to industrial customers; or it can
sell to industrial distributors, who sell to the industrial customers; or it can sell through
manufacturer's representatives or its own sales branches directly to industrial customers, or
indirectly to industrial customers through industrial distributors. Zero-, one-, and two-level
marketing channels are quite common.
0-level
(a) Consumer Marketing Channels
1-level
2-level
3-level
Manufacturer
Manufacturer Manufacturer
Retailer

Retailer
Consumer Consumer
0-level
(b) Industrial Marketing Channels
1-level
2-Ievel
Manufacturer Manufacturer
Wholesaler I Wholesaler
Jobber
Retailer
Manufacturer
Industrial
distributors
Consumer Consumer
Industrial
customer
Industrial
customer
Manufacturer
Manufacturer's
representative
Industrial
customer
3-level
Manufacturer
Manufacturer's
sales branch
Industrial
customer
FIG.

15.3 j
Consumer and Industrial Marketing Channels
DESIGNING AND MANAGING VALUE NETWORKS AND CHANNELS CHAPTER 15 475
IARKETING INSIGHT
M-COMMERCE OPENS UP NEW OPPORTUNITIES
FOR MARKETERS
Consumers and businesspeople no longer need to be near a com-
puter to send and receive information. All they need is a cellular
phone or personal digital assistant (PDA). While they are on the
move,
they can connect with the Internet to check stock prices,
the weather, sports scores; send and receive e-mail messages;
and place online orders. A whole field called telematics involves
placing wireless Internet-connected computers in the dashboards
of cars and trucks, and making more home appliances (such
as computers) wireless so that they can be used anywhere in or
near the home. Many see a big future in what is now called
m-commerce
(m for mobile). Consider the fast growth of Internet-
connected phones.
In Japan, millions of teenagers carry DoCoMo phones available
from NTT (Nippon Telephone and Telegraph). They can also use
their phone to order goods. Each month, the subscriber receives a
bill from NTT listing the monthly subscriber fee, the usage fee, and
the cost of all the transactions. The person can then pay the bill at
the nearest 7-11 store. In the United States, Conversagent (for-
merly ActiveBuddy) creates software applications that connect
Instant Messaging users to marketer-created data using conversa-
tional language.
The potential market opportunities for location-based services

are enormous. Consider some possibilities:
• Getting a Coke by pointing and clicking the phone at a vending
machine. The bottle drops down and an appropriate amount is
deducted from the owner's bank account.
• Using the phone to search for a nearby restaurant that meets the
customer's entered criteria.
• Watching stock prices while sitting in the restaurant and deciding
to place a purchase order.
• Clicking the phone to pay the bill for the meal; the cellular phone
replaces the credit
card.
• Coming home and clicking a combination of keys on the phone to
open the door.
Some see positive benefits, such as locating people making emer-
gency 911 calls or checking on the whereabouts of one's children
late at night. Others worry about privacy issues. What if an employer
learns that an employee is being treated for
AIDS
at a local clinic, or
a
wife finds out her husband is out clubbing? Like so many new
tech-
nologies, location-based services have potential for good or harm,
and ultimately will warrant public scrutiny and regulation.
Sources:
Douglas Lamont,
Conquering
the
Wireless
World:

The Age
of
M-Commerce
Instant Message,"
Business
2.0,
February 2002, pp. 98-99.
ew York: Wiley, 2001); Marc Weingarten, "The Medium Is the
Channels normally describe a forward movement of products from source to user. One
can also talk about
reverse-flow
channels. They are important in the following cases: (1) to
reuse products or containers (such as refillable chemical-carrying drums); (2) to refurbish
products (such as circuit boards or computers) for resale; (3) to recycle products (such as
paper);
and (4) to dispose of products and packaging (waste products). Several intermediaries
play a role in reverse-flow channels, including manufacturers' redemption centers, commu-
nity groups, traditional intermediaries such as soft-drink intermediaries, trash-collection
specialists, recycling centers, trash-recycling brokers, and central-processing warehousing.
13
HEWLETT-PACKARD
Each month Hewlett-Packard, the world's second-largest computer maker, sends 1.7 million tons of broken-
down and unwanted electronics to meet their end—or their new beginning—at its Roseville, California, recy-
cling center. Yet the company, in conjunction with recycling partner Noranda Inc., still only recycles less than
1 percent of the hardware it makes. Pressured by complaints about how they dispose of products—including
shipping old machines to be broken down in Asian countries with less strict environmental laws—computer
makers have joined with the EPA, environmental groups, and a nonprofit group called Product Stewardship
Institute. These groups created the National Electronics Product Stewardship Initiative, but the process of cre-
ating a nationwide recycling standard is incredibly slow. Without a system in place, electronics makers like HP
and Dell have launched inventive PR campaigns to spur the public to recycle. On Earth Day 2003, at a

Starbucks support center in Seattle and the following day in New York's Grand Central Terminal, HP accepted
computer hardware made by any manufacturer and recycled it at no charge.
HP
also boosted the incentive for
consumers and small businesses to hire HP to recycle old PCs and monitors through its recycle-by-mail pro-
gram,
which costs S15 to $46 depending on the size of the equipment.
14
476 PART 6 DELIVERING VALUE
A customer operates a Kodak minilab in a retail outlet. Minilabs often
appear in retail stores that also have photo processing departments,
like Walgreens and
CVS
stores.
Service Sector Channels
Marketing channels are not limited to the distribution of physical
goods. Producers of services and ideas also face the problem of
making their output available and accessible to target popula-
tions.
Schools develop "educational-dissemination systems" and
hospitals develop "health-delivery systems." These institutions
must figure out agencies and locations for reaching a population
spread out over an area.
Marketing channels also keep changing in "person" mar-
keting. Before 1940, professional comedians could reach audi-
ences through vaudeville houses, special events, nightclubs,
radio,
movies, carnivals, and theaters. Vaudeville houses have
vanished and been replaced by comedy clubs and cable televi-
sion stations. Politicians also must choose a mix of channels—

mass media, rallies, coffee hours, spot
TV
ads, direct mail, bill-
boards, faxes, e-mail, Web sites—for delivering their messages
to voters.
15
As Internet and other technology advance, service industries
such as banking, insurance, travel, and stock buying and selling
are operating through new channels. Kodak offers its customers
four different ways to print their digital photos—minilabs in retail
outlets, home printers, online services with the Ofoto Web site,
and self-service kiosks.
16
Reaching the right customers was a key factor in one of the
biggest financial services merger ever.
CITICORP
Distribution strategy and the blend of different customer segment targets
was a stated objective of the $70 billion merger between Citicorp and
Travelers Group. Citicorp was one of the world's largest banks, while
Travelers focused on insurance, mutual funds, and investment banking
busi-
nesses. One of the major stated goals of the merger was the ability of each
organization to cross-sell the other's products to its customers and to exploit
the two organizations' distribution channels to maximize the penetration of
the merged companies' products throughout the world.
17
Channel-Design Decisions
Designing a marketing channel system involves analyzing customer needs, establishing
channel objectives, identifying major channel alternatives, and evaluating major channel
alternatives.

Analyzing Customers' Desired Service Output Levels
In designing the marketing channel, the marketer must understand the service output levels
desired by target customers. Channels produce five service outputs:
1.
Lot size- The number of units the channel permits a typical customer to purchase
on one occasion. In buying cars for its fleet, Hertz prefers a channel from which it
can buy a large lot size; a household wants a channel that permits buying a lot size
of one.
2.
Wailing and delivery time - The average time customers of that channel wait for receipt
of the goods. Customers increasingly prefer faster and faster delivery channels.
3.
Spatial convenience -The degree to which the marketing channel makes it easy for cus-
tomers to purchase the product. Chevrolet, for example, offers greater spatial conve-
. DESIGNING AND MANAGING VALUE NETWORKS AND CHANNELS CHAPTER 15 477
nience than Cadillac, because there are more Chevrolet dealers. Chevrolet's greater mar-
ket decentralization helps customers save on transportation and search costs in buying
and repairing an automobile.
4.
Product variety -The assortment breadth provided by the marketing channel. Normally,
customers prefer a greater assortment because more choices increase the chance of
finding what they need.
5.
Service backup -The add-on services (credit, delivery, installation, repairs) provided
by the channel. The greater the service backup, the greater the work provided by the
channel.
18
The marketing-channel designer knows that providing greater service outputs means
increased channel costs and higher prices for customers. Different customers have different
service needs. The success of discount stores indicates that many consumers are willing to

accept smaller service outputs if they can save money.
Establishing Objectives and Constraints
Channel objectives should be stated in terms of targeted service output levels. Under
competitive conditions, channel institutions should arrange their functional tasks to
minimize total channel costs and still provide desired levels of service outputs.
19
Usually,
planners can identify several market segments that want different service levels.
Effective planning requires determining which market segments to serve and the best
channels for each.
Channel objectives vary with product characteristics. Perishable products require more
direct marketing. Bulky products, such as building materials, require channels that mini-
mize the shipping distance and the amount of handling. Nonstandard products, such as
custom-built machinery and specialized business forms, are sold directly by company sales
representatives. Products requiring installation or maintenance services, such as heating
and cooling systems, are usually sold and maintained by the company or by franchised deal-
ers.
Iligh-unit-value products such as generators and turbines are often sold through a com-
pany sales force rather than intermediaries.
Channel design must take into account the strengths and weaknesses of different types of
intermediaries. For example, manufacturers' reps arc able to contact customers at a low cost
per customer because the total cost is shared by several clients, but the selling effort per cus-
tomer is less intense than if company sales reps did the selling. Channel design is also influ-
enced by competitors' channels.
Channel design must adapt to the larger environment. When economic conditions are
depressed, producers want to move their goods to market using shorter channels and with-
out services that add to the final price of the goods. Legal regulations and restrictions also
affect channel design.
U.S.
law looks unfavorably on channel arrangements that may tend to

substantially lessen competition or create a monopoly.
Identifying Major Channel Alternatives
Companies can choose from a wide variety of channels for reaching customers—from sales
forces to agents, distributors, dealers, direct mail, telemarketing, and the Internet. Each
channel has unique strengths as well as weaknesses. Sales forces can handle complex prod-
ucts and transactions, but they are expensive. The Internet is much less expensive, but it
cannot handle complex products. Distributors can create sales, but the company loses direct
contact with customers.
The problem is further complicated by the fact that most companies now use a mix of
channels. Each channel hopefully reaches a different segment of buyers and delivers the
right products to each at the least cost. When this does not happen, there is usually channel
conflict and excessive cost.
A
channel alternative is described by three elements: the types of available business inter-
mediaries, the number of intermediaries needed, and the terms and responsibilities of each
channel member.
TYPES OF INTERMEDIARIES A firm needs to identify the types of intermediaries available
to carry on its channel work.
478 PART 6 DELIVERING VALUE •
Innovative marketing channels: Calyx and
Corolla sells flowers through direct
delivery with
a
print catalog and
an
online store.
For example, a test-equipment manufacturer developed an audio device for detecting
poor mechanical connections in machines with moving parts. Company executives felt this
product would sell in all industries where electric, combustion, or steam engines were used,
such as aviation, automobiles, railroads, food canning, construction, and

oil.
The sales force
was small. The problem was how to reach these diverse industries effectively. The following
alternatives were identified:
B
Expand the company's direct sales force. Assign sales representatives to contact all
prospects in an area, or develop separate sales forces for the different industries.
a Hire manufacturers' agents in different regions or end-use industries to sell the new
equipment.
a Find distributors in the different regions or end-use industries that will buy and carry the
device. Give them exclusive distribution, adequate margins, product training, and promo-
tional support.
Table 15.2 lists channel alternatives identified by a consumer electronics company that pro-
duces cellular car phones.
Companies should search for innovative marketing channels. Medion sold 600,000 PCs in
Europe, mostly via major one- or two-week "burst promotions" at Aldi's supermarkets.
20
Columbia House has successfully merchandised music albums through the mail. Other sell-
ers such as Harry and David and Calyx
&
Corolla have creatively sold fruit and flowers,
respectively, through direct delivery. (See "Marketing Insight: How CarMax Is Transforming
the Auto Business.")
DESIGNING AND MANAGING VALUE NETWORKS AND CHANNELS CHAPTER 15 479
• The company could sell its car phones to automobile manufacturers to be installed as original equipment.
B
The company could sell its car phones to auto dealers.
• The company could sell its car phones to retail automotive-equipment dealers through a direct sales force
or through distributors.
• The company could sell its car phones to car phone specialist dealers through a direct sales force or dealers.

• The company could sell its car phones through mail-order catalogs.
• The company could sell its car phones through mass merchandisers such as Best Buy or Circuit City.
TABLE 15.2 |
Channel Alternatives for a Cellular
Car Phone Maker
Bank One is letting Avon literally open doors for wider distribution of its credit cards:
BANK ONE CORP, AVON PRODUCTS INC.
A
new partnership between Bank One and Avon marks the first time a card issuer has employed another com-
pany's distribution network—Avon representatives—as part of an affinity program to put plastic in more
purses and wallets. Several factors are in the partnership's favor. First, the Avon reps alone make up a lucra-
tive target market. Avon reps get the same rewards as consumers when using the Platinum Visa and they also
reap a $25 credit toward their Avon business account once each approved customer they sign up makes a
purchase. If each rep gets just one account holder signed up, that's 600,000 cards right there. Avon repre-
sentatives and customers are largely women, and Avon says that women control 81 percent of family pur-
chasing decisions and 85 percent of them manage the household checkbook. By partnering with Avon, Bank
MARKETING INSIGHT HOW CARMAX IS TRANSFORMING THE AUTO BUSINESS
For years, buying a used car was considered a dangerous and risky
business; used-car salesmen were stock figures in comedy routines.
Then CarMax emerged to change the face of the industry and its
standards. Circuit
City,
a major retailer of electronic products, started
CarMax, the Auto Superstore, in
1993.
The first superstore opened in
Richmond,
Virginia, where its headquarters are located, and CarMax
is now the nation's leading specialty retailer of used cars; it operates
50 used-car superstores in 24 markets. CarMax also operates

12 new-car franchises, which are integrated or co-located with its
used-car superstores.
What is so special about CarMax? The company locates its used-
car superstores, each carrying around 500 cars, on large lots on the
outskirts of a city near a major highway. Customers enter an attrac-
tive display
room,
where a sales associate finds out what kind of car
they want and then escorts them to a computer kiosk. Using a touch
screen,
the associate retrieves a full listing of the cars in stock that
meet the customer's criteria. A color display of each car can be
shown along with the vehicle's features and its fixed selling
price.
The
company has over 15,000 cars in all, nearly every make and model.
There is no price negotiation. The salesperson, paid a commis-
sion on the number of cars sold rather than their
value,
has no incen-
tive to push higher-priced cars. The customer is informed that
CarMax mechanics have carried out a 110-point inspection and
made any necessary repairs beforehand. Furthermore, a car buyer
receives a
5-day
money-back guarantee and a 30-day comprehen-
sive warranty. If the buyer wants financing, the CarMax associate can
arrange it in 20 minutes. The entire process typically takes less than
one hour.
The company's niche has to been to focus on the used-car mar-

ket. Given that today's cars are better and have longer life expectan-
cies,
many buyers now prefer to save money by buying a used car,
and the substantial growth of car leasing has greatly inflated the sup-
ply of used cars. Banks are more willing to offer low-cost financing
for used cars, especially when research revealed that default rates
were lower for used-car buyers. Finally, dealers have reported earn-
ing a higher profit on used cars, up to $100 more than for a new car.
CarMax has been very successful in achieving even greater mar-
gins:
The
company's average selling price for
a used
vehicle is $15,000
and its average profit margin is 13 percent, compared with industry
averages of $13,650 and
11
percent, respectively. Although the major
auto makes experienced a decline in sales and profitability in 2003
with new
cars,
CarMax experienced sales and revenue growth.
Sources:
Gregory J. Gilligan, "Circuit City's CarMax Superstores Pass $300 Million in Yearly Sales,"
Knight-Ridder/Tribune Business News,
April 5,1997,
p. 19; Arlena Sawyers, "CarMax Is Out of the
Red,
in the Pink,"
Automotive News,

April
16,2001,
p. 28; Laura Heller, "Circuit City Restructures, Spins Off
CarMax Unit," DSN
Retailing
Today,
March 11,2002, pp. 3-4.
480 PART 6 DELIVERING VALUE
One goes directly to the person who holds the purse strings. The benefits go two ways, however, since the
partnership will spur brand awareness for
Avon.
"Every time someone takes the Avon card out of the wallet,
a it will remind them that we are around," says Avon's senior manager of credit card operations.
21
Sometimes a company chooses an unconventional channel because of the difficulty or
cost of working with the dominant channel. The advantage is that the company will
encounter less competition during the initial move into this channel. After trying to sell its
inexpensive Timex watches through regular jewelry stores, the U.S. Time Company placed
its watches in fast-growing mass-merchandise outlets. Avon chose door-to-door selling
because it was not able to break into regular department stores. The company made more
money than most firms selling through department stores.
NUMBER OF INTERMEDIARIES Companies have to decide on the number of intermedi-
aries to use at each channel level. Three strategies are available: exclusive distribution, selec-
tive distribution, and intensive distribution.
Exclusive distribution means severely limiting the number of intermediaries. It is
used when the producer wants to maintain control over the service level and outputs
offered by the resellers. Often it involves exclusive dealing arrangements. By granting
exclusive distribution, the producer hopes to obtain more dedicated and knowledgeable
selling. It requires greater partnership between seller and reseller and is used in the dis-
tribution of new automobiles, some major appliances, and some women's apparel brands.

When the legendary Italian designer label Gucci found its image severely tarnished by
overexposure from licensing and discount stores, Gucci decided to end contracts with
third-party suppliers, control its distribution, and open its own stores to bring back some
of the luster.
22
Exclusive deals between suppliers and retailers are becoming a mainstay
for specialists looking for an edge in a business world that is increasingly driven by
price.
23
s Disney Consumer Products and Wal-Mart signed a landmark pact in 2003 giving Wal-
Mart a six-month exclusive on sales of toys and merchandise from Disney's new Kim
Possible franchise.
s When Scholastic Entertainment relaunched its Clifford the Big Red Dog kids' franchise
after leaving it neglected for years, the company used exclusive deals with Target and JC
Penney
to
enjoy a comfort zone it wouldn't have had if the product had been launched across
several channels.
Selective distribution involves the use of more than a few but less than all of the inter-
mediaries who are willing to carry a particular product. It is used by established companies
and by new companies seeking distributors. The company does not have to worry about too
many outlets; it can gain adequate market coverage with more control and less cost than
intensive distribution. Disney is a good example of selective distribution.
[- DISNEY
Disney sells its videos through five main channels: Movie rental stores like Blockbuster; the company's propri-
etary retail stores, called Disney Stores; retail stores like Best Buy; online retailers likeAmazon.com and Disney's
own online Disney Stores; the Disney catalog and other catalog sellers. These varied channels afford Disney
• maximum market coverage, and enable the company to offer its videos at a number of price points.
24
Intensive distribution consists of the manufacturer placing the goods or services in as

many outlets as possible. This strategy is generally used for items such as tobacco products,
soap,
snack foods, and gum, products for which the consumer requires a great deal of loca-
tion convenience.
Manufacturers are constantly tempted to move from exclusive or selective distribution
to more intensive distribution to increase coverage and sales. This strategy may help in the
short term, but often hurts long-term performance. Intensive distribution increases prod-
uct and service availability but may also result in retailers competing aggressively. If price
wars ensue, retailer profitability may also decline, potentially dampening retailer interest
in supporting the product. It may also harm brand equity, as the Calvin Klein experience
illustrates.
DESIGNING AND MANAGING VALUE NETWORKS AND CHANNELS CHAPTER 15 481
r- CALVIN KLEIN
In May 2000, designer Calvin Klein sued Linda Wachner, CEO of Warnaco Group Inc., for selling his jeans to cut-
rate,
mass-market outlets without his permission. Warnaco, which has the license to make and distribute the
jeans,
was accused by Calvin Klein of making lower-quality jeans for these outlets, and therefore hurting his
image.
The suit was settled out of court in January
2001,
and both sides said they "look forward to expanding
jeans wear sales consistent with the image and prestige of Calvin Klein products." Warnaco would limit distrib-
• uting jeans wear products to department and specialty stores.
TERMS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF CHANNEL MEMBERS The producer must determine
the rights and responsibilities of participating channel members. Each channel member
must be treated respectfully and given the opportunity to be profitable.
25
The main ele-
ments in the "trade-relations mix" are price policies, conditions of

sale,
territorial rights, and
specific services to be performed by each party.
Price
policy calls for the producer to establish a price list and schedule of discounts and
allowances that intermediaries see as equitable and sufficient.
Conditions of sale refers to payment terms and producer guarantees. Most producers
grant cash discounts to distributors for early payment. Producers might also provide distrib-
utors a guarantee against defective merchandise or price declines.
A
guarantee against price
declines gives distributors an incentive to buy larger quantities.
Distributors' territorial rights define the distributors' territories and the terms under
which the producer will enfranchise other distributors. Distributors normally expect to
receive full credit for all sales in their territory, whether or not they did the selling.
Mutual
services
and
responsibilities
must be carefully spelled out, especially in franchised
and exclusive-agency channels. McDonald's provides franchisees with a building, promo-
tional support, a recordkeeping system, training, and general administrative and technical
assistance. In turn, franchisees are expected to satisfy company standards regarding physi-
cal facilities, cooperate with new promotional programs, furnish requested information,
and buy supplies from specified vendors.
Evaluating the Major Alternatives
Each channel alternative needs to be evaluated against economic, control, and adaptive
criteria.
ECONOMIC CRITERIA Each channel alternative will produce a different level of sales and
costs.

Figure 15.4 shows how six different sales channels stack up in terms of the value added
per sale and the cost per transaction. For example, in selling industrial products costing
between $2,000 and $5,000, the cost per transaction has been estimated as $500 (field sales),
FIG.
15.4 j
The Value-Adds Versus Costs of Different
Channels
Source: Oxford Associates, adapted from
Dr. Rowland T. Moriarty, Cubex Corp.
482 PART 6 DELIVERING VALUE
$200 (distributors), $50 (telesales), and $10 (Internet). Banks claim that in selling retail bank-
ing services, the cost per transaction is $2 (teller), $.50 (ATM), and $.10 (Internet). Clearly,
sellers would try to replace high-cost channels with low-cost channels when the value added
per sale was sufficient. The lower-cost channels tend to be low-touch channels. This is not
important in ordering commodity items, but buyers who are shopping for more complex
products may prefer high-touch channels such as salespeople.
When sellers discover a convenient lower-cost channel, they try to get their customers
to use it. The company may reward customers for switching. Many airlines initially gave
bonus frequent flier mileage awards when customers booked reservations on line. Other
companies may raise the fees on customers using their higher-cost channels to get them
to switch. Companies that are successful in switching their customers to lower-cost chan-
nels,
assuming no loss of sales or deterioration in service quality, will gain a channel
advantage.
26
As
an example of an economic analysis of channel choices, consider the following situation:
A North Carolina furniture manufacturer wants to sell its line to retailers on the
West Coast. The manufacturer is trying to decide between two alternatives: One
calls for hiring 10 new sales representatives who would operate out of a sales office

in San Francisco. They would receive a base salary plus commissions. The other
alternative would be to use a San Francisco manufacturers' sales agency that has
extensive contacts with retailers. The agency has 30 sales representatives, who
would receive a commission based on their sales.
The first step is to determine whether a company sales force or a sales agency will pro-
duce more sales. Most marketing managers believe that a company sales force will sell more.
They concentrate on the company's products; they are better trained to sell those products;
they are more aggressive because their future depends on the company's success; and they
are more successful because many customers prefer to deal directly with the company.
However, the sales agency could conceivably sell more. First, the agency has 30 representa-
tives,
not just
10.
This sales force might be just as aggressive as a direct sales force, depend-
ing on the commission level. Some customers prefer dealing with agents who represent sev-
eral manufacturers rather than with salespersons from one company; and the agency has
extensive contacts and marketplace knowledge, whereas a company sales force would need
to build these from scratch.
The next step is to estimate the costs of selling different volumes through each channel.
The cost schedules are shown in Figure 15.5. The fixed costs of engaging a sales agency are
lower than those of establishing a company sales office, but costs rise faster through an
agency because sales agents get a larger commission than company salespeople. The final
step is comparing sales and costs.
As
Figure 15.5 shows, there is one sales level (S
B
) at which
selling costs are the same for the two channels. The sales agency is thus the better channel
for any sales volume below
S

15
,
and the company sales branch is better at any volume above
S
B
. Given this information, it is not surprising that sales agents tend to be used by smaller
firms,
or by large firms in smaller territories where the volume is low.
CONTROL AND ADAPTIVE CRITERIA Using a sales agency poses a control problem.
A
sales agency is an independent firm seeking to maximize its profits. Agents may concentrate
on the customers who buy the most, not necessarily those who buy the manufacturer's
FIG.
15.5 I
Break-even Cost Chart for the Choice
Between
a
Company Sales Force and
a
Manufacturer's Sales Agency
: DESIGNING AND MANAGING VALUE NETWORKS AND CHANNELS CHAPTER 15 483
goods. Furthermore, agents might not master the technical details of the company's product
or handle its promotion materials effectively.
To develop a channel, members must make some degree of commitment to each other
for a specified period of time. Yet these commitments invariably lead to a decrease in the
producer's ability to respond to a changing marketplace. In rapidly changing, volatile, or
uncertain product markets, the producer needs channel structures and policies that provide
high adaptability.
Ill Channel-Management Decisions
After a company has chosen a channel alternative, individual intermediaries must be selected,

trained, motivated, and evaluated. Channel arrangements must be modified over time.
Selecting Channel Members
Companies need to select their channel members carefully. To customers, the channels are
the company. Consider the negative impression customers would get of McDonald's, Shell
Oil,
or Mercedes-Benz if one or more of their outlets or dealers consistently appeared dirty,
inefficient, or unpleasant.
To facilitate channel member selection, producers should determine what characteristics
distinguish the better intermediaries. They should evaluate the number of years in business,
other lines carried, growth and profit record, financial strength, cooperativeness, and ser-
vice reputation. If the intermediaries are sales agents, producers should evaluate the num-
ber and character of other lines carried and the size and quality of the sales force. If the
intermediaries are department stores that want exclusive distribution, the producer should
evaluate locations, future growth potential, and type of clientele.
Training Channel Members
Companies need to plan and implement careful training programs for their intermediaries.
Fast-growing Culver's restaurants requires its Midwestern franchisees to work 60 hours in
one of the
5
restaurants Culver owns and then work 12-hour
days,
6
days a week for
4
months
at headquarters, learning every facet of how Culver operates logistically and financially.
27
Microsoft requires third-party service engineers to complete a set of courses and take certi-
fication exams. Those who pass are formally recognized as Microsoft Certified Professionals,
and they can use this designation to promote business. Others use customer surveys rather

than exams.
KYOCERA MITA CORPORATION
In 2003, Kyocera Mita America commissioned J.D. Power and Associates to develop a program to survey
Kyocera Mita dealers' customers and certify those dealers that met or exceeded national benchmarks for
sales and service customer satisfaction. Certification is based on customer satisfaction with an office equip-
ment dealer's product knowledge, expertise in machine operation, ability to advise customers about their spe-
cific needs, and timely delivery of the equipment. Additional areas covered by the program are ability to
schedule service appointments in a timely manner, concern for customer needs, and clear explanations of
services performed. "The J.D. Power and Associates certification recognizes Kyocera Mita Total Solution
Provider dealers for outstanding customer experience, and allows them to differentiate within the dealer mar-
ketplace, helping to contribute to increased customer traffic and higher sales," said Michael Pietrunti, vice
president of marketing at Kyocera Mita America. "This certification positions dealers as industry-wide
lead-
ers in customer satisfaction."
28
Motivating Channel Members
A
company needs to view its intermediaries in the same way it views its end users. It needs
to determine intermediaries' needs and construct a channel positioning such that its chan-
nel offering is tailored to provide superior value to these intermediaries.
Being able to stimulate channel members to top performance starts with understanding
their needs and wants. The company should provide training programs, market research
programs, and other capability-building programs to improve intermediaries' performance.
484 PART 6 DELIVERING VALUE .
The children's corner in an Apple retail
store.
Apple stores are designed to be a complete
technology experience for the customer, who has access to every
Apple
product, to in-store

presentations and workshops, and to expert advice.
The company must constantly communicate its view that the intermediaries are partners in
a joint effort to satisfy end users of the product.
Producers vary greatly in skill in managing distributors. Channel power can be defined
as the ability to alter channel members' behavior so that they take actions they would not
have taken otherwise.
29
Manufacturers can draw on the following types of power to elicit
cooperation:
a Coercive power. A manufacturer threatens to withdraw a resource or terminate a rela-
tionship if intermediaries fail to cooperate. This power can be effective, but its exercise pro-
duces resentment and can generate conflict and lead the intermediaries to organize coun-
tervailing power.
E2 Reward power. The manufacturer offers intermediaries an extra benefit for performing
specific acts or functions. Reward power typically produces better results than coercive
power, but can be overrated. The intermediaries may come to expect a reward every time the
manufacturer wants a certain behavior to occur.
u Legitimate power. The manufacturer requests a behavior that is warranted under the
contract. As long as the intermediaries view the manufacturer as a legitimate leader, legiti-
mate power works.
m Expert power. The manufacturer has special knowledge that the intermediaries value.
Once the expertise is passed on to the intermediaries, however, this power weakens. The
manufacturer must continue to develop new expertise so that the intermediaries will want
to continue cooperating.
Q
Referent power. The manufacturer is so highly respected that intermediaries are proud to
be associated with it. Companies such as IBM, Caterpillar, and Hewlett-Packard have high
referent power.
30
Coercive and reward power are objectively observable; legitimate, expert, and referent

power are more subjective and dependent on the ability and willingness of parties to recog-
nize them.
Most producers see gaining intermediaries' cooperation as a huge challenge.
31
They often
use positive motivators, such as higher margins, special deals, premiums, cooperative adver-
tising allowances, display allowances, and sales contests. At times they will apply negative
sanctions, such as threatening to reduce mar-
gins,
slow down delivery, or terminate the rela-
tionship. The weakness of this approach is that
the producer is using crude, stimulus-response
thinking.
More sophisticated companies try to forge a
long-term partnership with distributors. The
manufacturer clearly communicates what it
wants from its distributors in the way of market
coverage, inventory levels, marketing develop-
ment, account solicitation, technical advice
and services, and marketing information. The
manufacturer seeks distributor agreement with
these policies and may introduce a compensa-
tion plan for adhering to the policies. Here are
three examples of successful partner-building
practices:
H Timken Corporation (roller bearings) has
its sales reps make multilevel calls on its
distributors.
H DuPont has a distributor marketing steering
committee that meets regularly

a Rust-Oleum introduces a menu of market-
ing programs each quarter; distributors choose
the programs that fit their needs.
DESIGNING AND MANAGING VALUE NETWORKS AND CHANNELS CHAPTER 15 485
Evaluating Channel Members
Producers must periodically evaluate intermediaries' performance against such stan-
dards as sales-quota attainment, average inventory levels, customer delivery time, treat-
ment of damaged and lost goods, and cooperation in promotional and training programs.
A
producer will occasionally discover that it is paying too much to particular intermedi-
aries for what they are actually doing. One manufacturer that was compensating a dis-
tributor for holding inventories found that the inventories were actually held in a public
warehouse at its expense. Producers should set up functional discounts in which they pay
specified amounts for the trade channel's performance of each agreed-upon service.
Underperformers need to be counseled, retrained, motivated, or terminated.
Modifying Channel Arrangements
A
producer must periodically review and modify its channel arrangements. Modification
becomes necessary when the distribution channel is not working as planned, consumer
buying patterns change, the market expands, new competition arises, innovative distribu-
tion channels emerge, and the product moves into later stages in the product life cycle.
Consider Apple.
APPLE
To combat its lowly 3.4 percent share of the U.S. personal computer market, Apple has opened more than
75 retail locations since
2001.
The stores sell Apple products exclusively and target tech-savvy customers
with in-store product presentations and workshops; a full line of Apple products, software, and acces-
sories; and a "Genius Bar" staffed by an Apple specialist. Although the move upset existing retailers, Apple
explained that since www.apple.com generated roughly 25 percent of sales, its own retail chain was a nat-

• ural extension.
32
No marketing channel will remain effective over the whole product life cycle. Early buy-
ers might be willing to pay for high value-
added channels, but later buyers will switch
to lower-cost channels. Small office copiers
were first sold by manufacturers' direct sales
forces, later through office equipment deal-
ers,
still later through mass merchandisers,
and now by mail-order firms and Internet
marketers.
In competitive markets with low entry bar-
riers,
the optimal channel structure will
inevitably change over time. The change
could involve adding or dropping individual
channel members, adding or dropping partic-
ular market channels, or developing a totally
new way to sell goods.
Adding or dropping individual channel
members requires an incremental analysis.
What would the firm's profits look like with
and without this intermediary?
An
automobile
manufacturer's decision to drop a dealer
requires subtracting the dealer's sales and esti-
mating the possible sales loss or gain to the
manufacturer's other dealers. , . , . . . . . . . .

n
. ., . A Navistar truck, one of the many models the company produces and sells through a network of
Sometimes a producer considers dropping
all intermediaries whose sales are below a cer- dealerships that have the technical expertise and local contacts to keep Navistar in markets both
tain amount. Look at Navistar: large and small.
486 PART 6 DELIVERING VALUE «
p NAVISTAR
Navistar's operating company, International Truck and Engine Corporation, noted at one time that 5 percent of its
dealers were selling fewer than three or four trucks a year. It cost the company more to service these dealers
than their sales were worth, but dropping these dealers could have repercussions on the system as a
whole.
The
unit costs of producing trucks would be higher, because the overhead would be spread over fewer trucks; some
employees and equipment would be idled; some business in these markets would go to competitors; and other
dealers might become insecure. Other factors include nonrepresentation in smaller markets, longtime loyal cus-
tomers not being serviced appropriately, and overall fewer dealers with technical knowledge to serve the cur-
H
rent customer base. All these factors must be taken into account.
The most difficult decision involves revising the overall channel strategy.
33
Distribution
channels clearly become outmoded, and a gap arises between the existing distribution sys-
tem and the ideal system that would satisfy target customers' needs and desires (see
"Marketing Memo: Designing a Customer-Driven Distribution System"). Examples abound:
Avon's door-to-door system for selling cosmetics had to be modified as more women entered
the workforce; IBM's exclusive reliance on a field sales force had to be modified with the
introduction of low-priced personal computers; and in retail banking the trend toward
opening branches has now come full circle within just a decade:
r- BRANCH BANKING
Just ten years ago bank branches seemed to be a dying breed, a casualty of banking industry consolida-

tion and the belief that automated teller machines, online banking, and telephone call centers would
reduce customers' reliance on their neighborhood branches. In Manhattan alone, the number of branches
and bank offices dropped from 607 to 459 between June 1994 and June
2001.
Yet now bankers say that
the industry overestimated the attraction of electronic banking and the profitability of retail banking. Many
people want "high-touch" over "high-tech," or at least the choice, and banks are responding by opening
branches at a breakneck clip. Bank of America, for instance, plans to open 550 branches over the next
three years. Bank One Corp., which lopped off 80 of its branches between 2000 and 2002, is expanding
again.
Banking analysts caution, however, that the expansion of the branch distribution channel, if not well
thought out, could dilute banks' earnings. The banks that will succeed, they say, are those that are fully
committed to the retail strategy, such as Seattle-based Washington Mutual, and Cherry
Hill,
New Jersey's,
Commerce Bancorp Inc. According to Commerce's CEO, simply building a branch system is not enough.
Banks need a proven, "value-added" business model to entice customers and cross- and up-sell their
• products.
34
::: Channel Integration and Systems
Distribution channels do not stand still. New wholesaling and retailing institutions emerge,
and new channel systems evolve. We will look at the recent growth of vertical, horizontal,
and multichannel marketing systems; the next section examines how these systems cooper-
ate,
conflict, and compete.
Vertical Marketing Systems
One of the most significant recent channel developments is the rise of vertical marketing
systems.
A
conventional marketing channel comprises an independent producer, whole-

saler
(s),
and retailer(s). Each is a separate business seeking to maximize its own profits,
DESIGNING AND MANAGING VALUE NETWORKS AND CHANNELS CHAPTER 15 487
MARKETING MEMO
DESIGNING A CUSTOMER-DRIVEN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Stern and Sturdivant have outlined an excellent framework, called
Customer-Driven Distribution System Design, for moving a poorly
functioning distribution system closer to a customer's ideal system.
Companies have to reduce the gaps between the service outputs that
target customers' desires, those the existing channel system deliv-
ers,
and those management thinks are feasible within the existing
constraints. Six steps are involved:
1.
Research target customers' value perceptions, needs, and
desires regarding channel service outputs.
2.
Examine the performance of the company's and competitors'
existing distribution systems in relation to customer desires.
3. Find service output gaps that need corrective action.
4.
Identify major constraints that will limit possible corrective
actions.
5. Design a "management-bounded" channel solution.
6. Implement the reconfigured distribution system.
Source:
Anne
T.
Coughlan,

Erin
Anderson,
Louis
W.
Stern,
and Adel
I. El-Ansary,
Marketing Channels,
6th
ed.
(Upper Saddle River,
NJ:
Prentice
Hall,
2001).
even if this goal reduces profit for the system as a whole. No channel member has com-
plete or substantial control over other members.
A
vertical marketing system (VMS), by contrast, comprises the producer, wholesaler(s),
and retailer(s) acting as a unified system. One channel member, the channel captain, owns
the others or franchises them or has so much power that they all cooperate. The channel
captain can be the producer, the wholesaler, or the retailer. Notable producer channel cap-
tains are Coca-Cola with soft drinks, Gillette with shaving products, and Procter
&
Gamble
with detergents.
VMSs arose as a result of strong channel members' attempts to control channel behavior
and eliminate the conflict that results when independent members pursue their own objec-
tives.
VMSs achieve economies through size, bargaining power, and elimination of dupli-

cated services. They have become the dominant mode of distribution in the U.S. consumer
marketplace, serving between 70 and 80 percent of the total market. There are three types of
VMS:
corporate, administered, and contractual.
ORPORATE VMS A
corporate VMS
combines successive stages of production and distrib-
ution under single ownership. For example, Sears obtains over 50 percent of the goods it
sells from companies that it partly or wholly owns. Sherwin-Williams makes paint but also
owns and operates 2,000 retail outlets. Giant Food Stores operates an ice-making facility, a
soft-drink bottling operation, an ice cream plant, and a bakery that supplies Giant stores
with everything from bagels to birthday cakes.
ADMINISTERED VMS An administered VMS coordinates successive stages of produc-
tion and distribution through the size and power of one of the members. Manufacturers
of a dominant brand are able to secure strong trade cooperation and support from
resellers. Thus Kodak, Gillette, and Campbell Soup are able to command high levels of
cooperation from their resellers in connection with displays, shelf space, promotions,
and price policies.
The most advanced supply-distributor arrangement for administered VMSs involve
distribution programming, which can be defined as building a planned, professionally
managed, vertical marketing system that meets the needs of both manufacturer and dis-
tributors. The manufacturer establishes a department within the company called
distributor-relations planning. Its job is to identify distributor needs and build up mer-
chandising programs to help each distributor operate as efficiently as possible. This
department and the distributors jointly plan merchandising goals, inventory levels,
space and visual merchandising plans, sales-training requirements, and advertising and
488 PART 6 DELIVERING VALUE
promotion plans. The aim is to convert the distributors from thinking that they make
their money primarily on the buying side (through tough negotiation with the manufac-
turer) to seeing that they make their money on the selling side (by being part of a sophis-

ticated, vertical marketing system). Kraft and Procter
&
Gamble are two companies with
excellent distributor-relations planning.
ONTRACTUAL
VMS A
contractual
VMS
consists of independent firms at different levels of
production and distribution integrating their programs on a contractual basis to obtain
more economies or sales impact than they could achieve alone. Johnston and Lawrence call
them "value-adding partnerships" (VAPs).
35
Contractual VMSs now constitute one of the
most significant developments in the economy. They are of three types:
1.
Wholesaler-sponsored voluntary chains - Wholesalers organize voluntary chains of
independent retailers to help them compete with large chain organizations. The whole-
saler develops a program in which independent retailers standardize their selling prac-
tices and achieve buying economies that enable the group to compete effectively with
chain organizations.
2.
Retailer cooperatives - Retailers take the initiative and organize a new business entity to
carry on wholesaling and possibly some production. Members concentrate their pur-
chases through the retailer co-op and plan their advertising jointly. Profits are passed
back to members in proportion to their purchases. Nonmember retailers can also buy
through the co-op but do not share in the profits.
3.
Franchise organizations -A channel member called a franchisor might link several suc-
cessive stages in the production-distribution process Franchising has been the fastest-

growing retailing development in recent years. Although the basic idea is an old one,
some forms of franchising are quite new.
The traditional system is the manufacturer-sponsored retailer franchise. Ford, for example,
licenses dealers to sell its cars. The dealers are independent businesspeople who agree to
meet specified conditions of sales and services. Another is the manufacturer-sponsored
wholesaler franchise. Coca-Cola, for example, licenses bottlers (wholesalers) in various mar-
kets who buy its syrup concentrate and then carbonate, bottle, and sell it to retailers in local
markets.
A
newer system is the service-firm-sponsored
retailer
franchise.
A
service firm orga-
nizes a whole system for bringing its service efficiently to consumers. Examples are found in
the auto-rental business (Hertz,
Avis),
fast-food-service business (McDonald's, Burger King),
and motel business (Howard Johnson, Ramada Inn).
THE NEW COMPETITION IN RETAILING Many independent retailers that have not
joined
VMSs
have developed specialty stores that serve special market segments. The result
is a polarization in retailing between large vertical marketing organizations and indepen-
dent specialty stores, which creates a problem for manufacturers. They are strongly tied to
independent intermediaries, but must eventually realign themselves with the high-growth
vertical marketing systems on less attractive terms. Furthermore, vertical marketing sys-
tems constantly threaten to bypass large manufacturers and set up their own manufactur-
ing. The new competition in retailing is no longer between independent business units but
between whole systems of centrally programmed networks (corporate, administered, and

contractual) competing against one another to achieve the best cost economies and customer
response.
Horizontal Marketing Systems
Another channel development is the horizontal marketing system, in which two or more
unrelated companies put together resources or programs to exploit an emerging marketing
opportunity. Many supermarket chains have arrangements with local banks to offer in-store
banking. Citizen Bank has 256 in-store branches in supermarkets in New England. Each com-
pany lacks the capital, know-how, production, or marketing resources to venture alone, or it is
afraid of the risk. The companies might work with each other on a temporary or permanent
DESIGNING AND MANAGING VALUE NETWORKS AND CHANNELS CHAPTER 15 489
I AM AN ENGINEER.
A Parker-Hannifin ad that stresses
its engineering expertise in many
applications.
basis or create a joint venture company. H&R Block, Inc., for example, entered into an agree-
ment with GEICO insurance to provide car insurance information to Block customers.
Customers now can contact GEICO through a special toll-free number.
Multichannel Marketing Systems
Once, many companies sold to a single market through a single channel. Today, with the
proliferation of customer segments and channel possibilities, more companies have
adopted multichannel marketing. Multichannel marketing occurs when a single firm uses
two or more marketing channels to reach one or more customer segments.
PARKER-HANNIFIN
The Parker-Hannifin Corporation (PHC) sells fluid power and electromechanical motion and control systems to a
variety of mobile and stationary equipment markets through distributors and direct
OEM
sales.
There appears to
be little conflict between channels selling to separate target market segments such as forestry, marine, indus-
trial,

agricultural, mining, and many others.
By adding more channels, companies can gain three important benefits. The first is
increased market coverage. The second is lower channel cost—selling by phone rather than
490 PART 6 DELIVERING VALUE
personal visits to small customers. The third is more customized selling—adding a technical
sales force to sell more complex equipment. The gains from adding new channels come at a
price, however. New channels typically introduce conflict and control problems. Two or
more channels may end up competing for the same customers. The new channels may be
more independent and make cooperation more difficult.
PLANNING CHANNEL ARCHITECTURE Clearly, companies need to think through their
channel architecture. Moriarty and Moran propose using the hybrid grid shown in Figure 15.6
to plan the channel architecture.
36
The grid shows several marketing channels (rows) and
several demand-generation tasks (columns). The grid illustrates why using only one
channel is not efficient. Consider using only a direct sales force. A salesperson would
have to find leads, qualify them, presell, close the sale, provide service, and manage
account growth. It would be more efficient for the company to perform the earlier tasks,
leaving the salesperson to invest his or her costly time primarily to close the sale. The
company's marketing department would generate leads through telemarketing, direct
mail, advertising, and trade shows. The leads would be sorted into hot, warm, and cool by
using qualifying techniques such as checking whether a lead wants a sales call and has
adequate purchasing power. The department would also run a preselling campaign
informing prospects about the company's products through advertising, direct mail, and
telemarketing. The salesperson comes to the prospect when the prospect is ready to talk
business. This multichannel architecture optimizes coverage, customization, and control
while minimizing cost and conflict.
Companies should use different channels for selling to different size customers.
A
com-

pany can use its direct sales force to sell to large customers, telemarketing to sell to midsize
customers, and distributors to sell to small customers; but these gains can be compromised
by an increased level of conflict over who has account ownership. For example, territory-
based sales representatives may want credit for all sales in their territories, regardless of the
marketing channel used.
Multichannel marketers also need to decide how much of their product to offer in each of
the channels. There are many different approaches to take—consider the following two:
37
m J&R Music and Computer
World,
the $292 million marketer of consumer electronics,
offers its entire product line in its catalog, on its
Web
site, and in its store to give customers
the same view of its goods regardless of which channel they choose to shop. J&R sees offer-
FIG.
15.6
The
Hybrid
Grid
Source:
Rowland
T.
Moriarty and Ursula
Moran,
"Marketing Hybrid Marketing
Systems,"
Harvard Business Review
(November-December 1990): 150.
Demand-generation Tasks

Lead
generation
Qualifying
sales
Presales Close of sale
Postsales
service
Account
nanagement
VENDOR
Internet
CUSTOMER
VENDOR
National account
management
CUSTOMER
VENDOR
Direct sales
CUSTOMER
VENDOR
Telemarketing
CUSTOMER
VENDOR
Direct mail
CUSTOMER
VENDOR
Retail stores
CUSTOMER
VENDOR
Distributors

CUSTOMER
VENDOR
Dealers and value-
added resellers
CUSTOMER
VENDOR
Advertising
CUSTOMER