Handbook of Micro and Nano Tribology Episode 2 Part 9 pot

“Frontmatter”
Handbook of Micro/Nanotribology.
Ed. Bharat Bhushan
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 1999
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC


© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Handbook of micro/nanotribology / edited by Bharat Bhushan. 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-8402-8 (alk. paper)
1. Tribology Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Bhushan, Bharat, 1949- .
TJ1075.H245 1999
621.8

′

9 dc21

98-24466

CIP
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© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

Foreword

The invention of the scanning tunneling microscope has led to an explosion of
a family that is now called scanning probe microscopes (SPMs). The most
popular instrument in this family is the atomic force microscope (AFM).
According to some estimates, sales of SPMs in 1993 were about 100 million
U.S. dollars (about 2,000 units installed to date) worldwide. The biggest portion
of this results from AFM sales, although the first ideas and preliminary results
were introduced to the scientific community only a few years ago (1986). The
whole field of SPM is not very old (the first operation of STM was in 1981)
and still is in a rapidly evolving state. The scientific industrial applications
include quality control in the semiconductor industry and related research,
molecular biology and chemistry, medical studies, materials science, and the field of information storage
systems.
Soon after the invention of the AFM it was discovered that part of the information in the images
resulted from friction and that the instrument could be used as a tool for tribology. In general, SPMs
are now used intensively in this field. Researchers can image single lubricant molecules and their agglom-
eration and measure surface topography, adhesion, friction, wear, lubricant film thickness, and mechan-
ical properties all on a micrometer to nanometer scale.
With the advent of more powerful computers, atomic-scale simulations have been conducted of
tribological phenomena. Simulations have been able to predict the observed phenomena. Development
of the field of micro/nanotribology has attracted numerous physicists and chemists. This is a field I
personally know very little about. I am, however, very excited that SPMs have had such an immense
impact on the field of tribology.
I congratulate Professor Bharat Bhushan in helping to develop this field of micro/nanotribology. The

Handbook of Micro/Nanotribology

is very timely and I expect that it will be well received by the interna-
tional scientific community. With best wishes.

Prof. Dr. Gerd Binnig

IBM Research Division
Munich, Germany
Nobel Laureate Physics, 1986

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

Preface

Second Edition, 1999

The first edition of the

Handbook of Micro/Nanotribology

was published in the Spring of 1995. Soon after
its publication, the first-of-a-kind monograph became a reference book for the novice, as well as experts,
in the emerging field of micro/nanotribology. Since the field is evolving very rapidly, we felt that the
monograph needed a second edition.
The second edition is totally revised. The scope of the first edition has been expanded. In the first
part, Basic Studies, two new chapters on AFM Instrumentation and Tips and Surface Forces and Adhesion
have been added. In the second part, Applications, four new chapters on Design and Construction of
Magnetic Storage Devices, Microdynamic Devices and Systems, Mechanical Properties of Materials in
Microstructure Technology, and Micro/Nanotribology and Micro/Nanomechanics of MEMS Devices
have been added. The content of each original chapter has been revised and broadened. In many cases,
new authors were invited to contribute chapters on topics covered in the first edition. Of the 16 chapters

in the book — 11 in Basic Studies and five in Applications — 11 are written by new contributors, whereas
five chapters have been thoroughly revised by the original authors.
The organization of the Handbook is straightforward. It is divided into two parts: Part I covers the
basic studies and Part II encompasses design, construction, and applications to magnetic storage devices
and MEMS. The introduction chapter starts out with a definition and the evolution of micro/nanotri-
bology, description of various measurement techniques, and description of various industrial applications
where the study of tribology, on a nanoscale, is critical. After this chapter, the subject matter is presented
as follows: an overview of AFM instrumentation and tips; current understanding of surface physics and
description of methods used to physically and chemically characterize solid surfaces; roughness charac-
terization and static contact models using fractal analysis; surface forces and adhesion; introduction of
sliding at the interface and study of friction on an atomic scale; study of scratching and wear as a result
of sliding, applications to nanofabrication/nanomachining, as well as nano/picoindentation; study of
lubricants used to minimize friction and wear; surface forces and microrheology of thin liquid films;
measurement of nanomechanical properties of surfaces and thin films; and atomic-scale simulations of
interfacial phenomena.
Part II includes material in the following order: design and construction of magnetic storage devices;
microdynamic devices and systems; micro/nanotribology and micro/nano mechanics of magnetic storage
devices; mechanical properties of materials in microstructure technology; and micro/nanotribology and
micro/nanomechanics of MEMS devices.
The Handbook is intended for graduate students of tribology and researchers who are active or intend
to become so in this field. This book should serve as an excellent text for a graduate course in micro/nan-
otribology. For a reduced scope of the course, Chapters 2, 3, and 10 (Part I) and Chapters 12 and 13
(Part II) can be eliminated. For a more concise course, Chapter 4 may also be eliminated.

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

I would like to thank the authors for their excellent contributions in a timely manner. My secretary,
Kathleen Tucker, patiently typed six of the chapters contributed by me to this book. Last, but not least,
I wish to thank my wife, Sudha, my son, Ankur, and my daughter, Noopur, who have been very forbearing
during the preparation of this book.

Bharat Bhushan

Powell, Ohio

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

Preface

First Edition, 1995

Tribology is the science and technology of two interacting surfaces in relative motion and of related
subjects and practices. The popular equivalent is friction, wear, and lubrication. The advent of new
techniques to measure surface topography, adhesion, friction, wear, lubricant-film thickness, and
mechanical properties all on a micro to nanometer scale, to image lubricant molecules and availability
of supercomputers to conduct atomic-scale simulations has led to development of a new field referred
to as Microtribology, Nanotribology, Molecular Tribology, or Atomic-Scale Tribology. This field is con-
cerned with experimental and theoretical investigations of processes ranging from atomic and molecular
scales to microscale, occurring during adhesion, friction, wear, and thin-film lubrication at sliding
surfaces. These studies are needed to develop fundamental understanding of interfacial phenomena on
a small scale and to study interfacial phenomena in micro- and nano structures used in magnetic storage
systems, microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and other industrial applications. The components
used in micro- and nano structures are very light (on the order of few micrograms) and operate under
very light loads (on the order of few micrograms to few milligrams). As a result, friction and wear
(nanoscopic wear) of lightly loaded micro/nano components are highly dependent on the surface inter-
actions (few atomic layers). These structures are generally lubricated with molecularly thin films. Micro-
and nanotribological techniques are ideal to study friction and wear processes of micro/nano structures.
These studies are also valuable in the fundamental understanding of interfacial phenomena in macro-
structures to provide a bridge between science and engineering. Friction and wear on micro- and
nanoscales have been found to be generally smaller compared to that at macroscales. Therefore, micro-

nanotribological studies may identify regimes for ultra-low friction and zero wear.
The field of tribology is truly interdisciplinary. Until recently, it has been dominated by mechanical
and chemical engineers who have conducted macro tests to predict friction and wear lives in machine
components and devised new lubricants to minimize friction and wear. Development of the field of
micro/nanotribology has attracted many more physicists and chemists who have significantly contributed
to the fundamental understanding of friction and wear processes on an atomic scale. Thus, tribology is
now studied by both engineers and scientists. The micro/nanotribology field is growing rapidly and it
has become fashionable to call oneself a “tribologist”. Since 1991, international conferences and courses
have been organized on this new field of micro/nanotribology.
We felt a need to develop a

handbook of micro/nano tribology

. This first-of-a-kind monograph
presents the state-of-the-art of the micro/nanotribology field by the leading international researchers. In
each chapter we start with macroconcepts leading to microconcepts. We assume that the reader is not
expert in the field of microtribology, but has some knowledge of macrotribology. It covers characterization
of solid surfaces, various measurement techniques and their applications, and theoretical modeling of
interfaces.
The organization of the handbook is straightforward. The book is divided into two parts. Part I covers
the basic studies and Part II covers applications to magnetic storage devices and MEMS. Part I includes

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

ten chapters. The introduction chapter starts out with a definition and evolution of micro/nanotribology,
description of various measurement techniques, and description of various industrial applications where
the study of tribology, on a nanoscale, is critical. Following the introduction chapter, subject matter is
presented in the following order: description of methods used to physically and chemically characterize
solid surfaces, roughness characterization and static contact models using fractal analysis, introduction
of sliding at the interface and study of friction, study of wear as a result of sliding, study of lubricants

used to minimize friction and wear, imaging of lubricant molecules, surface forces and microrheology
of thin liquid films, measurement of micromechanical properties of surfaces and thin films, and atomic-
scale simulations of interfacial phenomena. Part II includes three chapters. Subject matter is presented
in the following order: micro/nanotribology and micro/nano mechanics of magnetic storage devices and
MEMS, role of particulate contaminants in tribology and applications to magnetic storage devices and
MEMS, and modeling of hydrodynamic lubrication with molecularly thin gas films and applications to
MEMS.
The handbook is intended for graduate students of tribology and research workers who are active or
intend to become active in this field. This book should serve as an excellent text for a graduate course
in micro/nanotribology. For a reduced scope of the course, Chapters 2 and 9 from Part I and Chapters 11
to 13 from Part II can be eliminated. For a further reduction, Chapter 3 from Part I can also be eliminated.
I would like to thank the authors for their excellent contributions in a timely manner. And I wish to
thank my wife, Sudha, my son, Ankur, and my daughter, Noopur, who have been very forbearing during
the preparation of this book.

Bharat Bhushan

Powell, Ohio

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

The Editor

Bharat Bhushan, Ph.D.,

a pioneer in tribology and the mechanics of magnetic
storage devices, is an internationally recognized expert in the general fields of
conventional tribology and micro/nanotribology and one of the most prolific
authors. He is presently an Ohio Eminent Scholar and The Howard D. Win-
bigler Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering and the Director

of Computer Microtribology and Contamination Laboratory at The Ohio State
University, Columbus.
He received a Masters in mechanical engineering from the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, a Masters in mechanics and a Ph.D. in mechanical
engineering from the University of Colorado at Boulder, an MBA from Rens-
selaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, NY, a Doctor Technicae from the University
of Trondheim, Norway, and a Habilitate Doctor of Technical Sciences from the
Warsaw University of Technology in Poland. He is a registered professional engineer (mechanical).
He has authored five technical books, 22 handbook chapters, more than 350 technical papers in refereed
journals, more than 60 technical reports, edited more than 24 books, and holds seven U.S. patents. He
is founding editor-in-chief of the

World Scientific Advances in Information Storage Systems Series, The
CRC Press Mechanics and Materials Science Series

, and the

Journal of Information Storage and Processing
Systems

. He has given more than 175 invited presentations on five continents, including several keynote
addresses at major international conferences. He is an accomplished organizer. He organized the first
symposium on Tribology and Mechanics of Magnetic Storage Systems in 1984 and the first international
symposium on Advances in Information Storage Systems in 1990. He continues to organize and chair
the AISS symposia annually. He founded an ASME Information Storage and Processing Systems Division
and is the founding chair. His biography has been listed in over two dozen

Who’s Who

books, including

Who’s Who in the World.

He has received more than a dozen awards for his contributions to science and
technology from professional societies, industry, and U.S. government agencies. He is a foreign member
of the Byelorussian Academy of Engineering and Technology, the Russian Engineering Academy and the
Ukrainian Academy of Transportation, a senior member of IEEE, and a member of STLE, NSPE, Sigma
Xi, and Tau Beta Pi.
Dr. Bhushan has worked for the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, Cambridge, MA; Automotive Specialists, Denver, CO; the R & D Division of Mechanical
Technology, Inc., Latham, NY; the Technology Services Division of SKF Industries, Inc., King of Prussia,
PA; the General Products Division Laboratory of IBM Corporation, Tucson, AZ; the Almaden Research
Center of IBM Corporation, San Jose, CA; and the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the
University of California, Berkeley.
He is married and has two children. His hobbies include music, photography, hiking, and traveling.

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

Contributors

Phillip B. Abel, Ph.D.

NASA Lewis Research Center
Cleveland, Ohio

Alan Berman, Ph.D.

Tape Operations
Seagate Technology
Costa Mesa, California

Bharat Bhushan, Ph.D.

Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio

Donald Brenner, Ph.D.

Department of Materials Science
and Engineering
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, North Carolina

Nancy A. Burnham, Ph.D.

Department of Physics
IGA – Ecole Polytechnique
Lausanne, Switzerland

Jaime Colchero, Ph.D.

Dep. Fisica de la Mat. Condensada
Universidad Autonoma de Madrid
Madrid, Spain

Fredric Ericson, Ph.D.

Department of Materials Science

Uppsala University
Uppsala, Sweden

John Ferrante, Ph.D.

Department of Physics
Cleveland State University
Cleveland, Ohio

Judith A. Harrison, Ph.D.

Chemistry Department
United States Naval Academy
Annapolis, Maryland

Jacob N. Israelachvili,
Ph.D.

Department of Chemical
Engineering
University of California
Santa Barbara, California

Hiroshi Kano, Ph.D.

Recording Media Division
Sony Corporation
Sakuragi Tagajo City, Japan

Hirofumi Kondo, Ph.D.

Recording Media Division
Sony Corporation
Sakuragi Tagajo City, Japan

Andrzej J. Kulik, Ph.D.

Department of Physics
IGA - Ecole Polytechnique
Lausanne, Switzerland

Othmar Marti, Ph.D.

Abteilung fuer Experimentelle
Physik
Universitaet Ulm
Ulm, Germany

Ernst Meyer, Ph.D.

Institut fur Physik
Basel, Switzerland

Richard S. Muller, Ph.D.

Berkeley Sensor & Actuator Center
University of California
Berkeley, California

Hiroyuki Osaki, Ph.D.

Recording Media Division
Sony Corporation
Sakuragi Tagajo City, Japan

Norio Saito, Ph.D.

Recording Media Division
Sony Corporation
Sakuragi Tagajo City, Japan

Jan-Åke Schweitz, Ph.D.

Department of Materials Science
Uppsala University
Uppsala, Sweden

Steven J. Stuart, Ph.D.

Chemistry Department
United States Naval Academy
Annapolis, Maryland

Hiroshi Takino, Ph.D.

Recording Media Division
Sony Corporation
Sakuragi Tagajo City, Japan

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

Contents

Part I Basic Studies

1 Introduction—Measurement Techniques and Applications

Bharat Bhushan

2 AFM Instrumentation and Tips

Othmar Marti

3 Surface Physics in Tribology

John Ferrante and Phillip B. Abel

4 Characterization and Modeling of Surface Roughness and Contact Mechanics

Arun Majumdar and Bharat Bhushan

5 Surface Forces and Adhesion

Nancy Burnham and Adrzej A. Kulik

6 Friction on an Atomic Scale

Jaime Colchero, Ernst Meyer, and Othmar Marti

7 Microscratching/Microwear Nanofabrication/Nanomachining, and Nano/pico-

indentation Using Atomic Force Microscopy

Bharat Bhushan

8 Boundary Lubrication Studies Using Atomic Force/Friction Force
Microscopy

Bharat Bhushan

9 Surface Forces and Microrheology of Molecularly Thin Liquid Films

Alan Berman and Jacob N. Israelachvili

10 Nanomechanical Properties of Solid Surfaces and Thin Films

Bharat Bhushan

11 Atomic-Scale Simulations of Tribological and Related Phenomena

Judith A. Harrison, Steven J. Stuart, and Donald W. Brenner



Part II Applications

12 Design and Construction of Magnetic Storage Devices

Hirofumi Kondo,
Hiroshi Takino, Hiroyuki Osaki, Norio Saito, and Hiroshi Kano

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

13 Microdynamic Systems in the Silicon Age

Richard S. Muller

14 Micro/Nanotribology and Micro/Nanomechanics of Magnetic Storage Devices

Bharat Bhushan

15 Mechanical Properties of Materials in Microstructure Technology

Fredric Ericson and Jan-Åke Schweitz

16 Micro/Nanotribology and Micro/Nanomechanics of MEMS Devices

Bharat Bhushan