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384 Financial Analysis: Tools and Techniques
The added difficulty of forecasting operations beyond the end of the chosen
analysis period suggests that we also find an acceptable shortcut answer for the
ongoing value. A common way of dealing with the problem is to use a price to
earnings multiple that might be warranted at that point, i.e., to set the value of the
business at the termination point based on 10, 15, or 20 times the after-tax earn-
ings in that year. The multiple chosen will depend on the nature of the business
and the trends in the industry it represents. Because of the power of discounting,
such an approximation of the ongoing value will generally suffice at least for an
initial valuation result. At times the ongoing value is simply represented by the
estimated book value of the business, although this is probably a less satisfac-
tory shortcut than the earnings multiple for the reasons we discussed in earlier
chapters.
Once all the cash flow elements have been estimated, they can be assembled
in the form of a spreadsheet as shown in the generalized format of Figure 11–5,
which parallels the various examples we gave in Chapter 8. The resulting annual
net cash flows (free cash flow) represent the cash available to the company to
support its obligations to all providers of the long-term funds, i.e., the payment of
FIGURE 11–5
Total Company Valuation—A Numerical Example*
Present Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6
EBIT (1 Ϫ t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $10,000 $12,000 $13,000 $12,000 $13,500 $ 12,500
Add: write-offs and
noncash items. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,500 7,000 8,600 9,300 9,900 11,900
Less: net new working
capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ϫ1,200 Ϫ1,400 Ϫ1,800 500 Ϫ1,600 Ϫ2,000
Less: net new capital
investments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ϫ8,000 Ϫ15,000 Ϫ10,200 Ϫ11,000 Ϫ22,000 Ϫ10,000
Add/less: significant
nonoperating items . . . . . . . . . 500 Ϫ300 400 1,200 Ϫ800 0
Free cash flow . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,800 2,300 10,000 12,000 Ϫ1,000 12,400

Ongoing value @ 15 times
earnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . —————187,500
Present value factors
@ 12% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.893 0.797 0.712 0.636 0.567 0.507
Present values @ cost
of capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,965 1,833 7,120 7,632 Ϫ567 101,349
Cumulative present values. . . . . $ 6,965 $ 8,799 $15,919 $23,551 $22,984 $124,333
Firm value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $124.3 million
Nonoperating assets (cash,
marketable securities, etc.). . . 5.7 million
Total value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $130.0 million
Value of outstanding long-
term debt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.0 million
Value of shareholders’ equity . . . $ 90.0 million
*This exhibit is available in an interactive format (TFA Template)—see “Analytical Support” on p. 389.
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CHAPTER 11 Valuation and Business Performance 385
interest, dividends, and potential repayment of debt or even repurchase of its own
shares.
After discounting the pattern of annual cash flows over the chosen time
frame at the appropriate return standard, normally the weighted average cost of
capital, the resulting net present value should be a reasonable approximation
of the value of the total business. Note that the nonoperating assets were added to
the operational firm value to arrive at the total value. In our example we’ve shown
an assumed value of $5.7 million, which raises the total value to $130.0 million.
The quality of the result depends, of course, on the quality of the estimates that
were used in deriving it. The analyst should employ extensive sensitivity analysis
to test the likely range of outcomes, testing different discount rates and especially
different estimates of the ongoing value. In this example the ongoing value based
on the no-growth assumption would be $100 million, when we use a free cash

flow estimate of $12 million, divided by the cost of capital of 12 percent. With a
five percent perpetual growth assumption, the ongoing value would be $12 mil-
lion divided by a net factor of 7 percent, or $171 million. While the impact of dis-
counting moderates the significance of the ongoing value somewhat (the discount
factor in Year 6 at 12 percent is 0.507), the discounted difference between the
earnings multiple assumption of $187.5 million we used, and the no-growth free
cash flow result of $100 million is still a highly significant $44 million ($87.5 ϫ
0.507), or about one-third of the final result. It’s not unusual to find such sizable
ranges of outcomes in what amounts to a quantification of future expectations, not
historical data.
It’ll be useful to demonstrate visually how the firm value developed by this
present value analysis relates to the company’s capital structure. What we’ve
developed by discounting the net cash flow stream and the assumed ongoing
value, plus nonoperating assets, is the approximate fair market value of the com-
pany’s overall capitalization. Figure 11–6 demonstrates that the total recorded
value of a business is the sum of its working capital, fixed assets, and other assets,
which are financed by the combination of long-term debt and equity. The present
value approach has enabled us to express this accounting value in current eco-
nomic terms—a present value which might be higher or lower than the recorded
values on the balance sheet, and which also depends, of course, on all the assump-
tions implicit in the cash flow forecasts including the ongoing value. Only by
coincidence will the two values be precisely equal, because as we discussed
in Chapter 2, recorded values on the balance sheet reflect historical transaction
values which tend to become obsolete with the passage of time.
It should be evident that to arrive at the market value of the shareholders’
equity, we must subtract the value of the long-term debt from the adjusted present
value result—which is the market value of the total business, also called value
of the firm or enterprise value. In our example, therefore, the value of the share-
holders’equity is $90.0 million. It might be necessary to restate the value of long-
term debt based on the current yields prevailing for debt of similar risk, as we

discussed earlier in this chapter, rather than the recorded values on the balance
sheet. For example, if current interest rates are higher than the stated rates for the
company’s debt, the value of the debt will be lower than recorded, and vice versa.
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386 Financial Analysis: Tools and Techniques
By observing this principle, we remain consistent with the weighted average cost
of capital yardstick that was applied in discounting the cash flow pattern, a mea-
sure which contains the cost of incremental debt, as we recall from Chapter 9.
A similar deduction must be made for any preferred stock contained in the capital
structure.
We’ve now achieved a direct valuation of the company’s common equity by
means of an economic (cash flow) approach which is conceptually superior to the
simpler devices discussed in the common stock section of this chapter, although
subject to the range of assumptions underlying it. This approach is the basis for
much of the analytical work underlying modern security analysis, where the use
of cash flow analysis has begun to overshadow most other methodologies.
In a multibusiness company, the approach can be refined by developing
operating cash flow patterns for each of the business units, and discounting these
individual patterns at the corporate cost of capital. If the businesses differ widely
in their risk/reward conditions, one can apply different discount standards that
reflect these differences, as discussed in Chapter 8. In recent years, testing the pre-
sent value of individual business units’ cash flow patterns to determine the rela-
tive contribution to the total value of the corporation has become widely accepted.
Yet, given the nature of the estimates underlying the analysis, there’s noth-
ing automatic about the use of such values in an actual transaction involving
the sale of a company or any of its parts. Different analysts and certainly buyers
and sellers will use their own sets of assumptions in developing their respective
FIGURE 11–6
Present Value of Business Cash Flows and the Capital Structure
Assets Liabilities

Company
book value
History Expectations
Current
assets
Current
liabilities
Long-
term
debt
Working
capital
Fixed
assets
Other
assets
Share-
holders’
equity
> = <
Present value
of company
capitalization
Annual free cash flows
Ongoing
value
Market
value
Time
Represents the basic trade-off of

future cash flows for current value…
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results. There should also be efforts to test the analytical results against compa-
rable transactions, to the extent these are available and relevant.
The actual value finally agreed upon in any transaction between a buyer and
a seller will depend on many more factors, not the least of which are the differ-
ences in assessing business risk and in the return expectations of the parties in-
volved, as well as the in the negotiating stance and skills used by them. We’ll
return to the subject of valuation of a company or combination of companies
within the context of shareholder value creation in Chapter 12.
Using Shortcuts in Valuing an Ongoing Business
In the previous example, an earnings multiple based on EBIT was used to derive
the ongoing value of the business. This multiple simply indicated what a par-
ticular level of current or projected earnings was “worth” at the termination point
of the analysis. After-tax earnings or after-tax operating profit are often used as
well. Closely related to the price/earnings ratio, this rule of thumb is often applied
to quickly value a company, and the result can be an “opener” in initial nego-
tiations. Never precise, the earnings multiple is derived from rough statistical
comparisons of similar transactions, and from a comparative evaluation of the
performance of the price/earnings ratios of companies in the industry. Other mul-
tiples encountered at times, especially with smaller companies or new businesses,
include multiples of sales, or even derived sales volumes based on an estimated
customer group.
When an actual earnings multiple is turned into a ratio of estimated earnings
to value, it provides a rough estimate of the rate of return on the purchase or sell-
ing price—assuming that the earnings chosen are representative of what the future
will bring. When taken as only one of the indicators of value within a whole array
of negotiating data, the earnings multiple and the related crude rate of return have
some merit.
Other shortcuts in valuing an ongoing business involve determining the
total market value of common and preferred equity from market quotations—in
itself somewhat of a challenge in view of stock market fluctuations—and adjust-

ing this total for any long-term debt to be assumed in the transaction. One issue
involved in this approach is the question of how representative the market quo-
tations are depending on the trading pattern and volume of the particular stock.
At times, when no publicly traded securities are involved, the book value of the
business is examined as an indicator of value. Needless to say, the fact that
recorded values don’t necessarily reflect economic values can be a significant
problem.
All of these results can at one time or another enter into the deliberations,
but considerable judgment must be exercised to determine their relevance in the
particular case. In most situations, the discounted cash flow approach will be the
conceptually most convincing measure, despite the difficulties of estimating
the cash flow pattern in specific terms.
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388 Financial Analysis: Tools and Techniques
Key Issues
The following is a recap of the key issues raised directly or indirectly in this chap-
ter. They are enumerated here to help the reader keep the techniques discussed
within the perspective of financial theory and business practice.
1. The concept of value is not independent of the purpose for which it is
used, and its definition and meaning can vary widely with respect to
the conditions and circumstances to which it is applied.
2. The value of a security is a function of the expectations about future
performance placed upon it, which can be individual judgments as
well as collective judgments representing a market.
3. Investors approach the valuation of an investment proposition in
terms of their individual risk preferences and thus will differ widely
in assessing the attractiveness of an investment.
4. While the securities markets provide momentary indications, the
relative value of a share of common stock in the market at any time is a
combination of future expectations, residual claims, and assessments of

general and specific risk, subject to economic and business conditions
and the decisions of management and the board of directors. It’s also
affected by the breadth of trading in the security.
5. Valuation techniques are essentially assessment tools that attempt to
quantify available objective data and estimates. Yet such quantification
will always remain in part subjective, and in part impacted by forces
beyond the individual parties’ control.
6. Valuation of a security or a business is distorted by the same elements
that distort other types of financial analysis: price-level changes,
accounting conventions, economic conditions, market fluctuations,
and many subjective intangible factors.
7. Validation of results achieved from valuation projects ultimately has to
await actual performance in the future; this is why the importance of
sound judgments at the time of the analysis cannot be overstated.
Summary
In this chapter, we’ve brought together a whole range of concepts and basic tech-
niques to provide the reader with an overview of how to value assets, securities,
and business operations. To set the stage, we discussed key definitions of value,
and then took the viewpoint of the investor assessing the value of the three main
forms of securities issued by a company. After covering both value and yield in
these situations, we expanded our view to encompass the valuation of an ongoing
business. Our purpose was to find basic ways of setting the value in transactions
such as sale of a business, restructuring, or the combination of companies in the
form of a merger or acquisition.
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CHAPTER 11 Valuation and Business Performance 389
We found that methods were available for deriving such values, but that the
specific assumptions and the background of the transaction added many, often
complex, dimensions to the basic calculations. We demonstrated the valuation of
a business specifically in cash flow terms, and showed how a company’s equity

can be valued based on cash flow expectations, quite similar to the business in-
vestment analysis we discussed in Chapter 8. Ultimately, value will always remain
partially subjective and will be settled in an exchange between interested par-
ties—but managing effectively for economic performance and value will always
remain the basic obligation of management.
Analytical Support
Financial Genome, the commercially available financial analysis and planning
software described in Appendix I, has the capability to develop and display inte-
grated financial projections directly from input data and built-in data bases, using
the application’s forecasting capabilities. It can automatically derive accounting
measures as well as common cash flow inputs to valuation analysis. The software
is also accompanied by an interactive template (TFA Template under “extras”) for
the cash flow valuation of a business, based on Figure 11–5 on page 384, which
can be used to calculate present values and the equity valuation for any pattern of
inputs and discount rates. The historical database on TRW Inc. contained in the
software can be used to develop projected statements and free cash flow as an in-
put to the valuation template. (see “Downloads Available” on p. 431)
Selected References
Brealey, Richard, and Stewart Myers. Principles of Corporate Finance. 5th ed. Burr Ridge,
IL: Irwin/McGraw-Hill, 1996.
Copeland, Tom; Tim Koller; and Jack Murrin. Measuring and Managing the Value of
Companies. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1995.
Cornell, Bradford. Corporate Valuation: Tools for Effective Appraisal and Decision
Making. Burr Ridge, IL: Business One Irwin, 1993.
Jones, Gary E., and Dirk Van Dyke, The Business of Business Valuation. Burr Ridge, IL:
McGraw-Hill, 1998.
Pratt, Shannon P. Valuing a Business: The Analysis and Appraisal of Closely Held Com-
panies. 3rd ed. Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin/McGraw-Hill, 1995.
Rappaport, Alfred. Creating Shareholder Value. Revised ed. New York: Free Press, 1998.
Ross, Stephen; Randolph Westerfield; and Jeffrey Jaffe. Corporate Finance. 5th ed. Burr

Ridge, IL: Irwin/McGraw-Hill, 1999.
Weston, Fred; Scott Besley; and Eugene Brigham. Essentials of Managerial Finance. 11th
ed. Hinsdale, IL: Dryden Press, 1996.
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CHAPTER 12
MANAGING FOR
SHAREHOLDER VALUE
We now return to the primary concept we established at the beginning of this
book, namely, that the basic obligation of the management of any company is to
make investment, operating, and financing decisions that will enhance share-
holder value over the long term. Our discussion of valuing business cash flows in
Chapter 11 strongly suggested that management should periodically reexamine
the company’s policies and strategies to test whether its basic obligation of creat-
ing shareholder value is in fact being met. We recall that increasing shareholder
value depends on making new investments that exceed the cost of capital—an ex-
pression of investor expectations—as well as managing all existing investments
for cash flow results that similarly exceed investor expectations.
The most beneficial aspect of the growing emphasis on shareholder value
creation over the past decade has been the widespread rediscovery of management
fundamentals—even if at times under threat of dismissal by hostile raiders. De-
spite the periodic lapses of economic discipline exemplified in the recent dot.com
bubble, which we discussed in Chapter 1, there has been real progress made with
the prospect of more to come. Growing numbers of corporate managers, in the
U.S. and in other parts of the world, are tackling the critical task of creating value
for their shareholders. They are doing this by reexamining the structure and func-
tioning of their company as a whole and by placing greater emphasis on making
their decisions, large and small, on the basis of sound economic trade-offs. The
basic imperative of requiring all investments to earn above the cost of capital has
been rediscovered as a practical—even if difficult to achieve—goal. Vast efforts

at restructuring, increasing cost-effectiveness, making disinvestments and acqui-
sitions, and developing value-based processes, data flows, measures, and incen-
tives are being carried out in the name of shareholder value creation. In fact,
testing the efficiency with which all resources are employed and defining the
relative contribution from various business segments with an objective “outside”
orientation has become commonplace in many companies. One could argue that
391
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392 Financial Analysis: Tools and Techniques
this approach should really have been commonplace all along, because of the
long-established fact that all business decisions have an economic basis—whether
this is recognized or not. Anumber of specialized measures and valuation method-
ologies have emerged in support of value-based management principles, which
we’ll discuss later in this chapter.
Shareholder Value Creation in Perspective
Before we turn to a detailed discussion of value-based measurement techniques,
it’ll be useful to revisit the business system as shown in Figure 12–1 to provide
an overall perspective for the various analytical processes presented in this book,
and to review their relationship to shareholder value creation. Two additional
FIGURE 12–1
Shareholder Value Creation in a Business System Context
Dis-
investment
Depreciation
effect
Interest
(tax-adjusted)
Dividends
paid

New
investment
Leverage
VolumePrice
Costs
(fixed &
variable)
Investment
base
Shareholders'
equity
Long-term
debt
Operating
profit
after taxes
Earnings
retained
in company
Funds
available
for growth
Managing all new
business investments
as well as all existing
investments for a
targeted economic
return above the cost
of capital
Managing all

operations for
competitive
advantage and
cost-effectiveness
Managing the
trade-off between
dividends, debt
service, and
reinvestment
Managing the capital
structure for proper
leverage, acceptable
risk, and future
flexibility
Funding of
company growth,
given attractive
opportunities suitable
for the portfolio
Exceed cost of
capital
Meet return goals
Meet key success
measures
Cost/benefit
analysis
Risk/reward
analysis
Opportunity
analysis

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CHAPTER 12 Managing for Shareholder Value 393
overview perspectives in Figures 12–2 and 12–3 also will help set the stage for
this chapter.
As the upper part of the diagram shows, companies focusing on share-
holder value will tailor their analytical processes and physical implementation
to achieve economic (cash flow) returns above the cost of capital on new in-
vestments as well as on existing investments, making sure that return goals are
set at appropriate levels and in the proper economic context. We recall the dis-
cussion of Chapters 7, 8, and 9 in which the principles and the measures sup-
porting this approach were presented. One of the key issues to be faced in this
area, however, is the dichotomy between the economic analysis of new invest-
ments, where expected cash flow patterns can be judged in an incremental fash-
ion, and the analysis of the existing investment base, where normal accounting
data and recorded values are the main source of information. It is here where
much of the development of value-based methodologies has taken place, in an
effort to close the conceptual gap between cash flow economics and ratio-based
conventional analysis.
The midsection of the diagram reflects our familiar set of operational trade-
offs, which in a value creation context, should be made with long-term cash flow
generation in mind. Excellent product and service offerings, competitive advan-
tage, and cost-effectiveness are the underlying driving forces, but the many deci-
sions supporting daily activities require not only an analytical understanding of
their cash flow impact, but also measures and incentives that reinforce economic
decision making. Again, the increasing emphasis on value-based management is
fueling a shift away from accounting-based methodology toward cash flow frame-
works. We encountered some of this trend in our discussion of the analytical
approaches of earlier chapters, and we’ll expand on the measures and their impli-
cations later in this chapter.
The bottom part of the diagram deals with the financing aspects of value

creation, where we recognize the many trade-offs we’ve encountered in Chap-
ters 6, 9, and 10. Companies with a value orientation consciously manage these
trade-offs for long-term cash flow generation, and view the disposition of profits
and the target dimensions of the capital structure as critical supportive elements in
their strategic planning. Choices that affect dividend payout, changes in leverage,
repurchase of shares, and funding of future opportunities are made against the
criterion of value creation. The trade-offs chosen here can at times significantly
affect the direction of the company’s strategy.
Another overview of the integration of financial, strategic, and operational
activities supporting shareholder value creation is provided in Figure 12–2. Here
we see the core concept of earning in excess of the cost of capital surrounded by
the key management activities, starting at the top with the evaluation and selection
of sound strategies, leading to broad resource allocation and the analysis of spe-
cific business investments. In this area the analytical tools of Chapters 7 and 8
come into play. This is followed by the identification of those elements and vari-
ables that drive value creation, which form the basis for operational targets and the
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394 Financial Analysis: Tools and Techniques
measures by which performance is gauged. Here the materials of Chapters 3, 4,
and 5 have relevance. Next is the critical area of designing incentives for man-
agers to act in an economic fashion, and to support a long-term view of decision
making. We’ve not focused on such incentive programs because they are beyond
the scope of this book. However, financial and other measures selected for the
purpose must reinforce the economic (cash flow) orientation we have stressed
throughout.
Finally, there’s the broad strategic issue of the portfolio of activities carried
on by the company, which is intimately connected with the capital structure
proportions and trade-offs. Here the materials in Chapters 6, 9, 10, and 11 are the
appropriate background.
Let’s now turn to a final summary overview of the major elements of share-

holder value creation and their relationship to the three areas of management
decisions: investments, operations, and financing. The diagram in Figure 12–3
will be useful in tying together the various concepts we’ve discussed. It’s de-
signed to assist the reader in visualizing the linkage between management deci-
sions and shareholder value. The diagram shows the three basic types of decisions
on the left and identifies their key impacts on the cash flows that are the drivers
for creating value. The combination of investment and operating decisions gener-
ates cash flow from operations after taxes, or free cash flow, while the financing
decisions influence the capital structure and the level of the weighted cost of cap-
ital of the company. Applying the cost of capital—which of course reflects ex-
pected investor returns—as a discount rate to the free cash flow and ongoing
value determines the total shareholder value, as discussed in Chapter 11. At the
same time, product life cycles, competition, and many other influences affect the
FIGURE 12–2
Shareholder Value Creation in a Management Context
1. Achieve cash
returns above the
cost of capital
2. Make sound new
investments
Seek and evaluate
sound strategies
Allocate resources
to strategies selected
Define and set
operating targets
and implementations
Evaluate results
consistently with
appropriate measures

Identify and evaluate
specific new investments
within strategic context
Identify and test
key value drivers
Manage
capital structure
proportions
Achieve economic behavior
with relevant incentives
Manage business
portfolio balance
and size
Balance short-
versus long-term
viewpoints
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CHAPTER 12 Managing for Shareholder Value 395
size and variability of these projected cash flows. In turn, the capital markets in-
fluence the investor’s return expectation.
Alternatively, the right side of the diagram shows that shareholder value
also can be viewed in the form of total shareholder return (TSR), which we know
to be the combination of cash dividends and realized capital gains, when seen
through the eyes of the shareholder. This investor viewpoint is inseparable from
the basic driving force of the business—cash flow patterns—for it is positive free
cash flow that will permit the company to pay dividends in the first place, and also
will boost the market value of the shares, enabling the investor to realize capital
gains. Naturally, it’s possible to create value by minimizing dividends and rein-
vesting all funds in soundly based opportunities. The value increase would then
come from capital appreciation, assuming successful implementation and ex-

pected growth in cash flow performance. Conversely, under conditions where
sound new opportunities are not available, it might be best for the shareholders
that the company repurchase shares rather than invest in mediocre business pro-
jects to avoid destroying value.
What are the implications of the three overviews we’ve just presented? Note
that we’ve once more returned to a systems view of the corporation, driven by the
same three basic management decisions, but stressing even more the cash flow pat-
terns that are the economic underpinning of performance and value. All financial
analysis techniques and methodologies discussed in this book are ultimately related
to the business system and its strategic context as viewed here and in Chapter 2,
FIGURE 12–3
Shareholder Value Creation in a Cash Flow Context
Operating
decisions
The manager
Dividends
Capital
gains
Share-
holder
value
Free cash
flow from
activities;
ongoing
value
Financing
decisions
Investment
decisions

Expectations
Capital
markets
Competition;
life cycles;
economic
environment
Price/volume/
cost trade-
offs;
cost effective-
ness
Debt;
equity;
leverage;
payout
repurchase
Working
capital;
facilities;
programs
Discount
rate
Cost of
capital
The investor
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396 Financial Analysis: Tools and Techniques
and it’s important that the analytical use of any measure, or a combination of mea-
sures, be judged in this sense.

The basic message of managing for shareholder value is nothing more than
management’s obligation to base all of its investment, operating, and financing
decisions on an economic—cash flow—rationale, and to manage all resources en-
trusted to its care for superior economic returns. Over time, consistency in this ap-
proach will generate growing shareholder value, and relative growth in share price
performance. If this sounds fundamental, it’s intended to be, since the challenge
for the 21st century is competitive survival through managing better in a world
arena—where economic fundamentals are gaining dominance over ideology.
Financial analysis in its many forms, as introduced in Chapter 2 and specifically
explained in the remainder of this book, is an essential toolkit for analytically ori-
ented persons of any viewpoint, as they judge the financial/economic performance
and outlook of any business.
Evolution of Value-Based Methodologies
Over the last two decades, a number of value-based methodologies have evolved
and are gaining increasing acceptance. Their basic aim is to link performance ex-
pressed in past and expected cash flow patterns or their surrogates to the market
value of a company as a whole and to the relative price level of its common
shares. They have become popular within the context of value-based management
processes, and various consulting firms use these approaches to establish a firm
connection between management actions and shareholder value results. More-
over, such programs relate cash flow thinking and results to management in-
centive pay. They are designed to provide a coherent set of economic principles
that should guide a company’s planning processes, investment policies, financing
choices, operational decisions, and management incentives toward increasing
shareholder value, as displayed earlier in our overviews.
The change in thinking underlying these processes is exemplified in the
simple diagram of Figure 12–4, which displays the significant shift in emphasis as
reflected in the way corporate performance is being measured.
Prior to the 1980s, management emphasis in the majority of situations
tended to be on achieving consistently high profit margins. The asset base neces-

sary to support operations was of secondary importance, almost an afterthought,
as indicated by the separation border. The idea was that if margins were high
enough, asset recovery and returns would take care of themselves, as would fund-
ing of new investment needs for rapid growth. Needless to say, companies apply-
ing this way of thinking did not make the best use of invested funds, and asset
effectiveness was problematic. In the ’80s the emphasis shifted toward growth of
profits in absolute terms, again with a focus on the operating statement and less at-
tention paid to asset effectiveness. With some luck, sufficient profit growth would
support existing and new investments, but this mindset still left asset effectiveness
open to real questions.
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It wasn’t until the ’90s that formal closure began between the asset base and
operating profits, usually in the form of a percent return of profits on assets, ex-
pressed in a variety of ways. While recorded values and accounting-based profit
could introduce distortions, and while using short-term returns as a goal could
lead to less than optimal new investment actions, combining assets and profitabil-
ity was a significant step toward a more integrated way of judging results and
making new decisions. As more economic and integrated measures began to
be used in practice, growing efforts were made to deal with the shortcomings of
accounting-based thinking, and to provide more meaningful signals to managers
at all levels. Shareholder value creation was introduced and was based on a vari-
ety of adjusted data representing the asset base and operating results.
One key element was the rediscovery of the cost of capital (which first ap-
peared in economic literature around 1890!) as a key criterion for judging per-
formance. The concept of economic profit was defined as the excess of adjusted
earnings over the cost of the adjusted resources supporting them. Another key ele-
ment was the rediscovery of cash flow as the driver of value, whether in the form
of free cash flow for judging a whole company, or net cash flows for investment
proposals. Various cash flow measures gained importance, among them cash flow
return on investment (CFROI) in a variety of forms. The common theme during
this evolution was the belated recognition that any business entity is in fact an
economic system which has to be judged over a reasonable time horizon with

FIGURE 12–4
The Changing Emphasis in Corporate Performance Measures
"History" The 80s The 90s Emerging Practice
"Profit Margin"
¥ High growth
environment
¥ Any growth
environment
¥ Any growth environment
¥ Valuation and strategy tools
*EVA is a registered trademark of Stern Stewart & Co.
¥ Lower and
inconsistent
growth conditions;
acquisitions
%
$$
"Operating Profit $$"
"Profit Growth"
"Return
on Assets"
"Shareholder Value
Creation over Time"
Asset
base
Asset
base
Asset
base
Changes

Cost of
capital
Adjust-
ments
Profit Profit
%
$$ EVA*
$$
Free
cash
flow
Profit
Profit
Sales
Costs
Current
asset
values
Cash
flow
%
CFROI
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398 Financial Analysis: Tools and Techniques
performance and value criteria that reflect and encourage the cash flow trade-offs
underlying management decisions, incentives, execution, and results.
A Review of Key Measures
At this point we should review in broad terms the key performance and value
measures encountered in current business practice, and to comment in more detail
on several of the emerging tools that support shareholder value creation. We’ve

grouped the measures into earnings, cash flow, and value categories, and will take
up each area in sequence.
Earnings Measures
The five measures in this area are the traditional ways of stating earnings or relat-
ing earnings to different expressions of invested capital, which we discussed in
Chapter 4. They are being supplanted increasingly by cash flow and value-based
measures, especially for internal planning, analysis, and evaluation purposes. We
list them here more for completeness than for their current relevance.
• Earnings per share (EPS) is accounting net income after taxes divided
by the number of shares outstanding.
• Return on investment (ROI) is accounting profit divided by the book
value of the investment supporting the operations, both defined in a
variety of ways.
• Return on net assets (RONA), or return on capitalization, is after-tax
accounting operating profit (NOPAT) divided by the book value of
total assets less current liabilities.
• Return on capital employed (ROCE) is accounting operating profit
(NOPAT) over the book value of assets supporting the operations.
• Return on equity (ROE) is accounting net income after taxes divided
by the book value of shareholders’ equity.
EPS, one of the most commonly quoted indices of performance, which
we discussed in several places in this book, has declined from its former pre-
eminence. While still tracked by security analysts as an indicator of near-term per-
formance, and used in simple valuation situations via the earnings multiple, EPS
expresses only the income side of the accounting spectrum. Moreover, it is subject
to the many rules of accounting that have moved performance data further and
further away from cash flow. In addition, the number of shares outstanding will
fluctuate even more in these days of share buybacks, and will affect the level and
trend of this measure.
ROI is the simplest way of expressing the profitability of asset use, and in

its unadjusted form remains a basic accounting measure, not an expression of eco-
nomic performance. The accounting earnings reflect many noncash charges and
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CHAPTER 12 Managing for Shareholder Value 399
additions, while the book value of the investment is a recorded value, not a cur-
rent economic value. It might be useful as an approximation, but can often be un-
reliable because of the nature of accounting data, as we mentioned in Chapter 4.
RONA has become fairly popular, using a more focused operating profit
related to the net assets, or capitalization, as recorded on the balance sheet. It still
suffers from some of the same accounting issues as ROI, especially in the valua-
tion of the asset base.
ROCE is a further modification, focusing on operating profit and operating
assets, but with similar accounting issues remaining. Mostly applied to internal
goal setting, it helps to make asset utilization a performance issue, at least near-
term. It does not, however, relate well to economic measures used in judging new
investments, nor does it assist in making day-to-day decisions on an economic
basis.
ROE is the relationship of accounting net profit to the recorded residual
ownership claim of the common shareholders, a recorded value buffeted by a
whole host of set-asides, reserves, and reclassifications. Still widely quoted and at
times used in goal setting, the measure by its very nature cannot reflect the eco-
nomic performance of a company. Apart from the usual accounting issues it’s also
affected by the financial leverage employed by a company. Beside the measure’s
shortcomings for internal use, the leverage distortion makes peer comparisons
more difficult, when capital structures vary.
Cash Flow Measures
The more recent approaches to performance and value measurement are in-
variably based on cash flow analysis, with much emphasis placed on removing
accounting allocations and noncash adjustments to arrive at cash provided by op-
erations and cash invested to support the operations. They relate closely to com-

monly used economic criteria like net present value and internal rate of return,
thus linking the economic approach to new investments with the assessment of
ongoing operations. We’ve discussed many of these already in earlier chapters,
and will take up the most current ones later in this section.
• Free cash flow is operating cash flow (net income after taxes plus
depreciation and amortization, but often adjusted to remove interest
expense), less new business investments (including changes in working
capital) plus dispositions of assets.
• Cash flow return on gross investment (ROGI) is operating cash flow
(net income after taxes plus depreciation and amortization) divided
by gross assets (before accumulated depreciation).
• Cash flow return on investment (CFROI) is the internal rate of return
over the life of the investment, based on operating cash inflows, cash
investment outflows, and cash recoveries. It involves a variety of
adjustments to arrive at operating cash flows and the cash value
of the asset base involved, as we’ll demonstrate.
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400 Financial Analysis: Tools and Techniques
• Total shareholder return (TSR) is the yield to the investor from shares
held over one or several periods, calculated from the combination of
dividends and change in share value.
• Total business return (TBR) is the internal rate of return from a
business unit or unlisted company over one or several periods, from
the combination of cash flows and change in capital value. It involves
a variety of adjustments to develop beginning and ending values of the
business.
Free cash flow has become a commonly accepted concept, useful as an eco-
nomic criterion for periodic results, but, even more importantly, representing a
key element in the valuation of companies and their parts, as well as in strategic
planning analyses.

ROGI at times serves as a simple substitute for a periodic economic return,
relating operating cash flows to recorded operating assets—which have been
“grossed up” by adding back accumulated depreciation to provide a surrogate for
current values of the asset base. It can be a useful approximation to a more rigor-
ous cash flow analysis in many situations, but could introduce some distortions
because in effect it relies on the original cost of assets of different ages as a broad
surrogate for current value.
CFROI, in its most sophisticated form, is an economic return developed for
the company or its parts, representing an internal rate of return over the average
life of the operating assets involved. It’s directly comparable to the cost of capital,
and to the results from cash-flow-based new investment analyses. The methodol-
ogy requires a series of adjustments and several conceptual constructs, as we’ll
discuss later.
TSR has become a popular concept, used and published widely, because it
expresses the annual return achieved by an investor from holding a company’s
shares over a specified period of time, based on dividends and change in market
value. It links to a company’s cost of capital calculation as an expression of
the shareholder expectations to be considered in establishing the cost of equity
capital.
TBR is a parallel measure to CFROI, designed to measure the internal rate
of return of business units or other entities, based on free cash flow and estimates
of the beginning and ending values of the entity, much like the analysis of an in-
vestment project as presented in Chapter 8.
Value Measures
The seven value measures listed here similarly reflect the evolution from simple
multiples to present value cash flow concepts. Again we’ve discussed several of
the basic measures in earlier chapters, but later we’ll go into more detail about the
most important ones for current value-based management practice.
• Earnings multiples are based on total income after taxes or EPS
multiplied by a judgmental factor. They are related to the price/earnings

ratio, which is often employed as a guide for the factor used.
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CHAPTER 12 Managing for Shareholder Value 401
• Cash flow multiples are a modification of earnings multiples, using
total income after taxes plus depreciation and amortization, or the
same on a per share basis, multiplied by a judgmental factor.
• Economic profit, or economic value added (EVA),* is the difference
between operating profit after taxes (NOPAT) and a capital charge,
which is based on the cost of capital times the net operating assets
employed. It’s also expressed as the change in economic profit from
period to period. The measure requires a variety of adjustments to
operating profit and the asset base, as we’ll see.
• Market value added (MVA) is the difference between the book value of
the total invested capital and the market value of the various forms of
capital. It requires a variety of adjustments to the recorded values and
a careful judgment about how representative current share values are.
• Cash value added (CVA) is the difference between the required annual
cash flow to amortize an investment (using the cost of capital as the
discount factor), and the actual cash flows generated, expressed as
a present value differential.
• Shareholder value (SHV), as we know, is the present value of the
estimated future free cash flows over the planning period, discounted
at the company’s cost of capital, plus the present value of the ongoing
value of the business, plus any nonoperating assets (such as marketable
securities and other investments), less the amount of long-term debt
outstanding. It represents the present value of shareholders’ equity
under the assumed conditions.
• Shareholder value added (SVA) is the change in total shareholder value,
either from period to period or over a longer planning time span, using
the process of calculating shareholder value (SHV) as described above

for each data point.
Earnings multiples are still a popular way of establishing a “ball park” fig-
ure for the value of a business, even though accounting earnings are subject to
many potential distortions from an economic standpoint.
Cash flow multiples represent an effort to reflect operating cash flows, even
though in their simplest form only depreciation and amortization is added back.
Again, they are useful mainly as a first estimate before applying more sophisti-
cated techniques.
EVA, the concept popularized by Stern Stewart & Co., is a form of eco-
nomic profit derived from the excess (or deficit) of operating earnings after sub-
tracting the cost of capital of the assets employed. With a variety of adjustments
to both operating profit and the asset base, this approach can be used to track
changes in value creation from period to period, and to establish a valuation of
the company. Economic profit is not a new principle, because in its basic form it
*EVA is a registered trademark of Stern Stewart & Co.
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402 Financial Analysis: Tools and Techniques
simply states that a company or a business unit is adding value when after-tax
earnings before interest are higher than the weighted cost of capital of the re-
sources employed in the creation of these earnings.
MVA is an expression of the value created by a business in excess of the
amount of the invested capital as shown on the balance sheet, on a periodic basis
as well as over a longer time span. Given that the base is recorded capital, a vari-
ety of adjustments are required to make the measure meaningful.
CVA establishes the economic value created, in cash flow terms, over and
above the cash flows required to recover the capital employed in a business, using
the cost of capital as a standard. It closely parallels the net present value criterion
and it is consistent with internal investment analyses.
SHV is, of course, the familiar concept of letting expected cash flows rep-
resent the present value of shareholders’ equity as a measure of value creation of

the total company. Discussed in Chapter 11, this model of value representation
underlies much of the value-based management activity extant in modern corpo-
rate America.
SVA has become a useful addition to the concept of total shareholder value,
because of the importance of establishing trends in value creation when assessing
corporate strategic plans and their impact over a period of time. It’s also used in
assessing the value creation potential from combinations and acquisitions, as
we’ll see later.
Economic Profit and CFROI
We’ll now discuss, in a little more detail, two of the most popular measures cur-
rently in use in value-based management processes. As we’ve stated before, eco-
nomic profit (EVA) represents a yardstick for measuring whether a business is
earning above the cost of capital of the resources (capital base) it employs. The
calculation is a straightforward subtraction of the cost of capital from net operat-
ing profit:
EVA ϭ NOPAT Ϫ Ck
where
NOPAT ϭ Operating profit after taxes (adjusted)
C ϭ Capital base employed (net of depreciation)
k ϭ Weighted average cost of capital
Note that the formula as stated relies on reported earnings and the recorded
capital base supporting these earnings, not on cash flows. In effect, EVA is deter-
mined by subtracting from operating earnings a capital charge for the book value
of the money invested in the company by owners and creditors. For a business
unit, the capital charge is usually based on the net assets employed. At first glance,
EVA therefore appears to be more of an accounting-based than an economic
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CHAPTER 12 Managing for Shareholder Value 403
measure. In practice, however, Stern Stewart & Co. makes a large series of ad-
justments when working with client companies. These adjustments are made to

calibrate the measure more closely to an economic cash flow basis, in an effort to
parallel the economic valuation concepts we discussed earlier (see the references
at the end of the chapter). Moreover, the EVA approach is applied not only to mea-
suring current performance but also to measuring new investments and to devel-
oping incentive compensation.
What are some of the key adjustments used in applying the EVA concept?
Starting with the accounting statements of a company, the first step is to derive an
adjusted NOPAT, while the second is the development of the relevant capital base.
The major adjustments in the NOPAT and capital base calculations occur in the
following areas:
• Operating lease expenses.
• Major research and development expenses.
• Major advertising and promotion expenses.
• Inventory value adjustment (LIFO).
• Deferred income taxes.
• Goodwill amortization.
• Separation of nonoperating assets.
In the case of operating leases, an adjustment becomes necessary because
there’s a preference for showing the unrecorded value of the leased assets as part
of the capital base, and removing the imputed interest expense on these leased
assets from the income statement. The lease payments are capitalized on the bal-
ance sheet, with an offsetting matching liability, and the capital value is amortized
over the appropriate time period. This amortization expense is then subtracted
from earnings in arriving at NOPAT.
The effects of research and development as well as advertising and pro-
motion expenditures incurred in a given period often extend into future periods,
although current accounting rules require the total expense to be charged to the
period in which it was incurred. The adjustment to NOPAT involves removing
these expenses from the income statement, capitalizing them as part of the capital
base, and amortizing them over an appropriate time period. This periodic amorti-

zation, a smaller amount, is then subtracted from earnings in arriving at NOPAT.
Inventory values under LIFO can, over time, become understated because
the recorded cost of the earlier items in inventory remains unchanged, while
recent additions are charged into cost of goods sold. To adjust for this disparity,
inventories on the balance sheet are restated to current higher values, with an
offsetting increase to earnings. This adjustment also is referred to as adding back
the change in the LIFO reserve.
Deferred income taxes, as we discussed in earlier chapters, arise from tim-
ing differences between taxes due on corporate tax returns and those reflected on
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404 Financial Analysis: Tools and Techniques
the books. In an effort to represent the cash taxes actually paid during a period, the
change in deferred taxes is added or subtracted in the revised NOPAT calculation.
Finally, where sizable goodwill amounts are carried on the balance sheet,
the periodic amortization reflected on the income statement is reversed so that
earnings are higher. Goodwill remains unchanged on the balance sheet, on the as-
sumption that this asset is a permanent part of the capital base.
In most cases, the net effect of these adjustments will result in a somewhat
higher NOPAT and an expanded capital base, but not necessarily in proportion to
their impact on the EVA calculation.
How is the result of the EVA calculation to be interpreted? There are two
ways of looking at the outcome. The first is an absolute determination of whether
periodic earnings have exceeded or fallen short of earning the cost of capital.
The second interpretation tracks the change from period to period, to reflect the
amount of value creation. For example, let’s assume that in 1999 a company fell
short of earning the cost of capital by $200 million, but in 2000 achieved a posi-
tive economic profit of $50 million. Under the first interpretation, economic profit
was highly negative in 1999, and positive in 2000. Under the second interpre-
tation, the company’s management created $250 million of economic profit
between 1999 and 2000, by having reversed the negative results of 1999 into pos-

itive territory in 2000. From a value-based management standpoint, both inter-
pretations are used, the first usually for goal setting in operations, planning, and
investment, and the second as an incentive to bring about change. As we’ll see
shortly, such economic profit analyses are best viewed over several periods,
because being modified accounting results they are subject to some of the same
period-to-period distortions as unadjusted accounting measures.
CFROI, the most sophisticated and empirically grounded methodology for
value-based management, was developed over many years of statistical analysis
by the former HOLT Value Associates, now functioning both as a part of The
Boston Consulting Group and separately as Holt Value Associates LP. This cash-
flow–based approach, originally intended as an analytical guide for portfolio man-
agers, is based on translating a company’s financial results through a variety of
adjustments into a current-dollar cash flow return on investment (CFROI) mea-
sure, which expresses the company’s economic performance. This concept, when
applied to expected cash flows and combined with projected growth in the com-
pany’s asset base, can then be used in a proprietary analytical model to calculate
the company’s market value. The HOLT model recognizes the adjusted cash flow
contributions from existing assets and combines them with new investment cash
flows, all on a comparable economic basis. This culminates in the concept of cash
value added (CVA), which amounts to finding the economic value created by suc-
cessful business strategies and investments over and above earning the cost of
capital on a discounted cash flow basis.
In effect, the HOLT model transforms a company’s financial data into a
consistent series of economic “project” cash flows that, when discounted at an
empirically derived investor’s return standard (generalized cost of capital for the
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CHAPTER 12 Managing for Shareholder Value 405
market as a whole), permits calculation of the relative market value of the com-
pany’s capitalization. In most cases, the calculated share values not only track
very closely with historical price patterns but also become predictors for an ex-

pected market value based on a company’s strategic plans—if the assumed plan
cash flows are realized in the future, of course. The model is a highly integrated
and sophisticated application of the economic cash flow principles we’ve dis-
cussed throughout this book (see the references at the end of the chapter for addi-
tional reading).
The CFROI performance measure itself can be illustrated by the diagram in
Figure 12–5, where the data are taken from the financial statements of a company
after a variety of adjustments, some similar to the ones we described for the EVA
process. In contrast to EVA, however, the approach is strictly cash flow based, and
the data are adjusted to a current-dollar basis. Note that the diagram is a present
value analysis of the current value of the gross investment in the company, a level
cash flow projection over 12 years, the average asset life assumed, and the value
of nondepreciating assets recovered at the end of 12 years. In this example, the
result is an internal rate of return of 20 percent, which represents the cash flow
return earned by the company in the current year. The reason the cash flow pattern
was extended over the assumed average life of the assets and a recovery was pro-
vided is simply that the CFROI concept is designed to parallel the familiar new
project economics cash flow patterns we discussed in Chapters 7 and 8. There we
emphasized that the economic life and any recoveries must be taken into account
to be able to calculate an internal rate of return. The CFROI result expresses only
the performance for the year under analysis. The CFROI for the next year would
be based on that year’s cash flows, extended over the assumed asset life, using
asset values adjusted as necessary for the current investment as well as for the
assumed capital recovery at the end, and the process is repeated for ensuing years.
FIGURE 12–5
A CFROI Perspective (thousands of dollars)
Current-dollar
gross cash
invested:
$3,600

Value of
nondepreciating
assets: $400
Result: CFROI is 20%
(the internal rate of return of this cash flow pattern)
Average asset life assumed: 12 years
Annual aftertax adjusted cash flow before interest: $800
(Current-year cash flow assumed to continue)
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406 Financial Analysis: Tools and Techniques
The adjustments underlying the data in Figure 12–5 are made in three areas.
The first involves transforming accounting net income into a gross cash annual
flow. The following changes were made:
Accounting net income: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $425
Add back depreciation effect, other noncash charges . . . . . . . . . . 200
Add back tax-adjusted interest expense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Add back tax-adjusted operating lease expense (see below) . . . . . 50
Adjust for inventory valuation (LIFO reserve) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Adjust for inflation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Current dollar gross cash flow: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $800
When appropriate, adjustments to add back unusual advance expenditures on
research and promotion also are made. Note the inflation adjustment, which cur-
rently is not large in U.S. companies, but can be significant in other economies.
The second area involves transforming recorded assets into a current cash
value investment base. The following changes were made:
Recorded total assets: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $3,125
Add back accumulated depreciation to arrive at original cost . . . . . 950
Adjust gross fixed assets for current dollar value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Capitalize operating leases to show imputed asset value . . . . . . . 350
Subtract non-interest-bearing liabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1,100)

Subtract goodwill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (300)
Current dollar gross cash investment: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $3,600
Note that the adjustment to transform the original cost of fixed assets into a
current-dollar equivalent is a significant amount, which is based on choosing
appropriate inflation measures. Non-interest–bearing liabilities, such as accounts
payable, accruals, taxes payable, and other noncontractual liabilities, are subtracted
to arrive at a modified net asset figure. Importantly, goodwill is subtracted as ir-
relevant to the economics of this calculation, because the fixed asset adjustment
to current values stands as a surrogate for goodwill arising from the premium paid
for purchased assets.
The third area involves the development of a cost of capital standard in real
(noninflationary) terms, which is based on a real risk-free interest rate, a real stock
market premium, and a real interest cost of debt. The HOLT methodology uses a
market-based cost of capital in those terms, rather than a company-specific cost of
capital as discussed in Chapter 9, on the assumption that individual company risk
(␤) is expressed in the expected cash flow performance.
As we mentioned earlier, the CFROI calculation is one of the measures used
in the HOLT methodology to judge whether a company is performing above the
cost of capital in any given period. Because it’s a strictly cash-based measure,
CFROI is directly comparable to the cost of capital criterion. CFROI reappears in
the HOLT methodology as part of an overall performance profile which links
CFROI performance, past and projected investment growth, and competitive im-
pact into a valuation framework that expresses past and prospective share price
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TEAMFLY

Team-Fly
®

CHAPTER 12 Managing for Shareholder Value 407
performance. The competitive impact is recognized in the form of a fade effect
(reducing extraordinary results over time as unsustainable), and is incorporated
into the judgment about the ongoing value of the business. We’ve given only a
brief overview of this highly integrated methodology here; for more information
the reader should turn to the references at the end of the chapter.
How can we compare economic profit and CFROI with some of the other
measures? The table in Figure 12–6 is a highly simplified example of how the var-
ious approaches apply in the case of a company with an initial investment of

$12 million, including $2 million of working capital, level net operating profit
after taxes (NOPAT) of $825,000, and an economic life of eight years. We’ll as-
sume that no additional investments are required, that the working capital will be
recovered in Year 8, and that all excess cash is paid out to the owners. In a real sit-
uation there would be more complex conditions, but for purposes of illustration
this stripped-down example will provide acceptable indications.
First we show an economic profit analysis, in which a cost of capital charge
of 10 percent is applied to the declining book value of the investment base. This
charge is offset against the level annual NOPAT of $825,000. Note that during the
first three years the economic profit is negative, with breakeven achieved in Year
4, and with growing positive amounts in the remaining years. Given that we’ve
assumed a level annual NOPAT, this pattern is not surprising, because the capital
charge is being applied every year to a declining investment base. When we use a
10 percent discount rate to the individual annual economic profit results, the net
present value is 0, suggesting that in this simplified example the company is earn-
ing exactly its cost of capital.
The same result is achieved when we proceed with a basic CFROI analysis
as shown in the middle of the table. First we move from accounting NOPAT to
a periodic operating cash flow by adding back the noncash depreciation effect,
arriving at a level $2.075 million. This parallels the approach we used with new
investment projects, as described in Chapters 7 and 8. Moving on, we find that in
this instance the investment base does not decline, because we are recovering the
initial cash investment from future cash flows via a level capital charge plus a
level capital amortization. The former is simply a 10 percent charge against the
initial investment base. The second, in effect, represents an annuity that will build
up to a future value of $12 million at 10 percent in Year 8, an amount sufficient to
recover the initial investment. Note that the combined capital charge and capital
amortization is exactly equal to the operating cash flow of $2,075 million, indi-
cating that the internal rate of return of this business is exactly 10 percent.
The major difference between the economic profit and the cash flow return

approaches is the respective periodic patterns and their interpretation. Note that
the end results are the same, namely a net present value of zero and an internal
rate of return of 10 percent. The meaning of the periodic elements as shown, how-
ever, is quite different, because in the case of economic profit we’re observing an
adjusted accounting profit as well as a declining capital base as reflected on the
books of the company. In the case of CFROI we are dealing with after-tax cash
flows in every instance that over time provide a recovery of the investment and a
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408 Financial Analysis: Tools and Techniques
FIGURE 12–6
An Illustration of Economic Profit, CFROI, and Earnings Measures (thousands of dollars)*
Economic Profit Analysis Year 0 Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7 Year 8
Book value of fixed investment (beginning) . . . . . . . — $10,000 $ 8,750 $ 7,500 $ 6,250 $ 5,000 $ 3,750 $ 2,500 $ 1,250
Working capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000
Total book value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 12,000 10,750 9,500 8,250 7,000 5,750 4,500 3,250
Cost of capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10%
Capital charge @ 10% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — $ 1,200 $ 1,075 $ 950 $ 825 $ 700 $ 575 $ 450 $ 325
NOPAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 825 825 825 825 825 825 825 825
Economic profit (EVA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — Ϫ375 Ϫ250 Ϫ125 0 125 250 375 500
Net present value of economic profits @ 10% . . . –0–
Cash Flow Return on Investment Analysis
NOPAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 825 825 825 825 825 825 825 825
Add back depreciation effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 1,250 1,250 1,250 1,250 1,250 1,250 1,250 1,250
Operating cash flow generated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 2,075 2,075 2,075 2,075 2,075 2,075 2,075 2,075
Initial investment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ϫ12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000
Cost of capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10%
Capital charge @ 10% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200
Capital amortization @ 10% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 875 875 875 875 875 875 875 875
Terminal recovery of working capital . . . . . . . . . . . . — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,000
Total cash flow required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $Ϫ12,000 $ 2,075 $ 2,075 $ 2,075 $ 2,075 $ 2,075 $ 2,075 $ 2,075 $ 4,075

Present value of future cash flows . . . . . . . . . . . . Ϫ12,000
Net present value @ 10% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . –0–
Other Measures
ROE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.9% 7.7% 8.7% 10.0% 11.8% 14.3% 18.3% 25.4%
ROCE/RONA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.9 7.7 8.7 10.0 11.8 14.3 18.3 25.4
ROGI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.3 17.3 17.3 17.3 17.3 17.3 17.3 17.3
CFROI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
*This exhibit is available in an interactive format (TF
A Template)—see “Analytical Support” on p. 423.
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