ngu phap hoc potx

Chapter 5
Chapter 5
Focus,
Focus,
Theme and
Theme and
Emphasis
Emphasis


Question to discuss
Question to discuss
1
1
. What are the types of focus?
. What are the types of focus?
2. What are the types of inversion?
2. What are the types of inversion?
3. What are the items occurring as
3. What are the items occurring as
theme in subordinate clauses?
theme in subordinate clauses?
4. How are cleft sentences and
4. How are cleft sentences and
pseudo-cleft sentences different?
pseudo-cleft sentences different?


5.

5.
How many existential sentences are
How many existential sentences are
there? How do you transform a
there? How do you transform a
sentence into an existential sentence?
sentence into an existential sentence?
6. Give examples of postponement of
6. Give examples of postponement of
O in SVOC and SVOA clauses?
O in SVOC and SVOA clauses?
7. What are the types of extraposition?
7. What are the types of extraposition?
8. How do you understand
8. How do you understand
emphasis and
emphasis and
reinforcement?
reinforcement?


1. Information focus
1. Information focus

Each tone unit represents a unit of
Each tone unit represents a unit of
information, and the place where
information, and the place where
the nucleus falls is the
the nucleus falls is the

focus of
focus of
information
information
.
.

Types of focus
Types of focus
:
:
3
3


End-focus
End-focus
Contrasive
focus
Contrasive
focus
Focus on
the operator
Focus on
the operator


End-focus
End-focus
is:

is:

The neutral position of
The neutral position of
focus
focus

Chief prominence on the
Chief prominence on the
last open-class item or
last open-class item or
proper noun
proper noun


Example
Example
John Smith was born in
John Smith was born in
L
L
ßndon
ßndon
.
.


Special/ contrastive focus
Special/ contrastive focus


may be placed at
may be placed at
earlier points
earlier points

may fall on the non-
may fall on the non-
final elements of the
final elements of the
clause.
clause.


Example
Example


Focus at S:
Focus at S:


[Who was born in
[Who was born in
Paris?] John
Paris?] John
Smith
Smith
was (born in Paris)
was (born in Paris)

Example
Example


Focus at V:
Focus at V:


[John Smith was married in
[John Smith was married in
London, wasn’t he?]
London, wasn’t he?]
nß
nß
,
,
he was
he was
bãrn
bãrn
in London.
in London.


Example
Example

Focus at Od:
Focus at Od:


[I hear you’re painting
[I hear you’re painting
the dining-room white.]
the dining-room white.]
N
N
ß,
ß,
I’m painting the
I’m painting the
kitchen white.
kitchen white.


Contrastive focus
Contrastive focus
can also be
can also be
signalled by placing the nucleus
signalled by placing the nucleus
on a final item which normally
on a final item which normally
would not have end-focus;
would not have end-focus;
for

for
instance
instance
, on closed-system
, on closed-system
items like pronouns and
items like pronouns and
propositions
propositions

Eg
Eg
:
:


She was talking to
She was talking to
yßu
yßu
(not to
(not to
me
me
)
)


Focus on the operator
Focus on the operator

- Often has the function of
- Often has the function of
signaling contrast between
signaling contrast between
positive & negative meaning.
positive & negative meaning.
E.g:
E.g:


A: We thought Tom didn’t learn
A: We thought Tom didn’t learn
hard.
hard.


B: But he
B: But he
did
did
learn hard.
learn hard.


Focus on the operator
Focus on the operator
-
When the operator is positive, the
When the operator is positive, the
meaning is

meaning is
‘Yes
‘Yes
in contrast to
in contrast to
No’;
No’;
when the operator is negative, the
when the operator is negative, the
meaning is the opposite contrast.
meaning is the opposite contrast.
E.g:
E.g:


You
You
hµven’t
hµven’t
decided , after
decided , after
µll
µll
.
.
(I thought you have)
(I thought you have)


Focus on the operator

Focus on the operator
-
With a rise or fall-rise intonation,
With a rise or fall-rise intonation,
focus on past & future auxiliaries
focus on past & future auxiliaries
often puts contrastive emphasis on
often puts contrastive emphasis on
the tense, not on the positive
the tense, not on the positive
negative polarity.
negative polarity.
E.g:
E.g:


She bought – or
She bought – or
did
did
buy – a villa.
buy – a villa.


2. Inversion
2. Inversion

Subject-verb
Subject-verb
inversion

inversion

Subject-operator
Subject-operator
inversion
inversion


Subject-verb
Subject-verb
inversion
inversion

Is mainly found in clauses of Types
Is mainly found in clauses of Types
SVA
SVA


and
and
SVC
SVC

Eg:
Eg:
*
*
Here
Here

comes
comes


the taxi
the taxi
. (A V S)
. (A V S)
*
*
Quite complicated
Quite complicated


was
was


these maths
these maths
problems
problems
. (C V S)
. (C V S)


Subject-operator
Subject-operator

inversion
inversion

Normal subject-verb order, with
Normal subject-verb order, with
the adverb following the
the adverb following the
auxiliary
auxiliary
, would usually be
, would usually be
preferred.
preferred.

Eg:
Eg:


*
*
Hardly
Hardly


had
had


I
I

come
come
before he left.
before he left.


Subject-operator
Subject-operator
inversion
inversion

Slamming the door
Slamming the door


is
is


master Jack
master Jack
Blacks
Blacks
, the son of the
, the son of the
headmaster.
headmaster.


This is a
This is a
journalistic
journalistic
type of
type of
inversion: the
inversion: the
predication
predication
is
is
fronted in order to bring
fronted in order to bring
end-
end-
focus
focus


on a complex subject.
on a complex subject.


Theme
Theme

Theme
Theme
:

:
the initial unit of a
the initial unit of a
clause
clause

The theme
The theme
is the
is the
most
most
important part of a clause
important part of a clause
from
from
the point of view of its
the point of view of its
presentation of a message in
presentation of a message in
sequence.
sequence.



The expected or ‘unmarked’
The expected or ‘unmarked’
theme of a main clause is:
theme of a main clause is:

-
-


Subject in a statement
Subject in a statement


-
-
Operator in a yes-no question
Operator in a yes-no question


-
-
Wh
Wh
-element in a
-element in a
wh
wh
-question
-question


- Main verb in a command
- Main verb in a command

Theme
Theme


Theme
Theme

Thematic fronting or
Thematic fronting or
“Marked theme”
“Marked theme”
:
:
-
In informal speech, an element is
In informal speech, an element is
commonly fronted with nuclear stress,
commonly fronted with nuclear stress,
and is ‘marked’ (given special
and is ‘marked’ (given special
emphasis) both thematically &
emphasis) both thematically &
informationally
informationally
E.g:
E.g:


Co as theme:

Co as theme:


Entertainment
Entertainment
you consider it.
you consider it.


Theme
Theme
-
A second type of marked theme is in
A second type of marked theme is in
rhetorical style:
rhetorical style:
E.g:
E.g:


A as theme:
A as theme:


In
In
Hanoi
Hanoi
I
I

lÝve
lÝve
, and
, and
in
in
Hanoi
Hanoi
I’ll
I’ll
wßrk
wßrk
.
.
Such class often has
Such class often has
double information
double information
focus
focus
, one nucleus coming on the
, one nucleus coming on the
theme & the other on a later part of
theme & the other on a later part of
the clause
the clause


Theme and focus
Theme and focus


The theme
The theme
may be characterized as
may be characterized as
the
the
communicative point of departure
communicative point of departure
for
for
the rest of the clause.
the rest of the clause.

The theme and the focus
The theme and the focus
: are two
: are two
communicatively prominent parts of
communicatively prominent parts of
the clause.
the clause.


The theme
The theme


the point of initiation
the point of initiation

The focus
The focus
the point of completion
the point of completion


The theme and the focus
The theme and the focus
-
The theme of a clause is
The theme of a clause is


given
given
information
information
more often than any other
more often than any other
part.
part.
-
The theme and focus can
The theme and focus can
coincide
coincide
;
;
E.g
E.g

,
,
when the focus falls on the subject
when the focus falls on the subject
:
:


A
A
:
:
Who gave you that book?
Who gave you that book?


B
B
:
:


bill
bill
gave it to me.
gave it to me.


3. Theme in subordinate
3. Theme in subordinate

clauses
clauses

In subordinate clauses, the
In subordinate clauses, the
usual items occurring as
usual items occurring as
theme are:
theme are:




subordbinators
subordbinators
wh
wh
-elements
-elements
the
the


relative pronoun
relative pronoun


that
that