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abortion 14–16, 91, 165, 201–23
first-trimester 211–12, 222
illegal 210
legislation against 208, 210, 212 n,
220–1
and moral status of foetuses 202–8

and reproductive freedom 208–12,
220–2
second-trimester 212–13, 222–3
spontaneous 211
third-trimester 212–15, 222–3
and viability 212–15
Abraham 139
abstinence 207; see also celibacy
active euthanasia, see euthanasia
Ad Hoc Committee of the Harvard
Medical School to Examine the
Definition of Brain Death 27
adaptation 25, 29; see also evolution;
natural selection
adoption 211, 219
advance directives 192
aesthetic appreciation of nature 12,
141, 142, 174–5, 224
Africa 32, 140, 146, 163, 221, 226, 230–1
ageism 8
Agent’s Rights principle 156–63, 176,
183, 188, 190, 198, 199, 203–4,
209, 216, 225, 233
agriculture 70, 79–80, 131, 230–2
ahimsa 31–2
air 6, 167, 221
alcohol 215–16
algae 45
aliens, see extraterrestrials
American Indians 74, 163, 171, 230

amoebas 24, 62–3
ancestors 7
Anderson, Ian 114
androids 65, 121, 235
anencephaly 166, 195–6, 213
angels 93, 238
animal husbandry 130, 154; see also do-
mestic animals
animal liberation movement 63, 86; see
also Animal Rights view
animals 10, 14–17, 20, 57–63, 70–1, 78,
85–6, 106–19, 129–30, 140–1, 181,
226–9, 235
captive and domestic 129–30,
168–70, 185, 226, 230–2, 234–7
genetically engineered 235
and language 57, 161–3
moral rights 78, 106–19, 227–9
use in biomedical research 14, 70–1,
85–6, 118
wild 111–12, 130
Animal Rights view 16, 89, 106–19,
227, 229
animism 7
anthropocentrism 5, 10, 17, 41–4, 150,
169
anthropomorphism 35
antibiotics 37, 186, 198
Anti-Cruelty principle 152–6, 166, 176,
182–3, 202, 205, 214, 225–6, 231,

232, 234–5, 237, 240
ants 157
apes 69, 119, 226, 229; see also chim-
panzees; gorillas; orang-utans
Aquinas, Thomas 7
argument from analogy 54–5, 61
argument from marginal case 68, 110
Aristotle 7, 206
Arras, John 193 n
artefacts 174–5
arthropods 61, 151; see also insects; spi-
ders
artificial intelligence 30
artificial life forms 30
artificial womb 215
asceticism 3
aspens 25 n
assisted suicide 187–92
atmosphere 17
Augustine 7
Australia 7, 11, 114–15, 188–9, 231
Australian aboriginal people 7, 73–4,
150, 163, 171
autonomy 4–5, 7, 98, 216
bacteria 35, 37, 42, 48–9, 63
Index
Index 4/30/97 4:17 PM Page 255
Baier, Annette 75, 164
Barber, Theodore Zenophon 119 n
bats 52–3, 58

bears 126, 127
bees 127, 157
beings 52–3; see also sentience
belief 18, 53, 107–8; see also religion;
spirituality
benevolence 31, 98, 99, 155, 160, 188
Benjamin, Martin 85–6
Bentham, Jeremy 18, 64, 65
Beston, Henry 239
Bigelow, John 206 n
bigotry 7–8, 103, 143–4
biocentric holism 126–7
biodiversity, see biological diversity
biological communities 22, 72–4,
124–30, 132, 166–8, 240
biological diversity 17, 74, 114–15, 127,
130
biological egalitarianism 34, 37–8
biological humanity 19, 42, 92–4, 203–4
biomedical research, use of animals 14,
70–1, 85–6, 111, 118, 236
biophilia 73–4
biosocial theory 127–37, 143, 169
biosphere 12, 16, 48–9, 168, 174–5
biota 126
biotheism 34
Birch, Thomas H. 5 n
Bird, C. 63 n
birds 61, 113, 119, 154, 162, 225
birth 201, 215–19

birth control 221–2; see also contracep-
tion
birth rates 220–2
bisexuality 8
bishop pines 72
bivalves 62 n
blame 39–41
Blum, Deborah 162 n
Bolivia 210
brain death 27–8, 196–7
Brandt, R. B. 189 n
Brody, Baruch 201 n
Brown, Lester R. 131 n
bubonic plague 116
Buddhism 31
Burgess, J. A. 201 n
Burton, Keith 187 n
California 72, 232 n, 236
California condors 236
California Native Plant Society 232 n
Callicott, J. Baird 16 n, 19, 21, 72 n, 73,
74 n, 112 n, 123–37, 143, 163 n,
168 n, 169, 241
capital punishment 163, 182
carbon dioxide 17
caring 12–13, 75–6, 137–46, 152–3, 158
Carnap, Rudolf 53 n
carnivores 126, 224; see also meat eat-
ing; natural predation
Carruthers, Peter 57–8, 154, 162, 207

Categorical Imperative 97–9, 190
cats 12, 69 n, 108, 113, 114, 116, 140–1,
162, 170, 176
cattle 70, 129, 176, 230, 232, 234
causal determination 100, 156
Cavalieri, Paola 42 n
Ceausescu government 221
celibacy 14, 209
central nervous systems 36–7, 53,
57–63, 195–6, 204–5
cephalopods 61
cesarean section 213, 217
cetaceans 69 n, 119, 162, 229, 230
Chasoff, Ira J. 216 n
Cheney, Jim 134–5
Cherfas, Jeremy 162 n
chickens 70, 154
children 4, 12, 105, 129, 131, 139, 146,
164–5, 174, 188, 192, 204, 219
chimpanzees 11, 42, 161–2
Christianity 14, 31
Churchland, Paul M. 53–4 n
classical utilitarianism 5 n, 64–5, 77–8;
see also utilitarianism
Clever Hans 161
coma 201; see also persistent vegetative
state
common-sense morality 22, 39, 84,
86–7, 115, 149, 160
communities, see biological communi-

ties; social communities
comparable interests dilemma 78–84
computers 30, 235
concentric circles 128–9, 133–4, 139–40
conceptus 201, 203; see also embryos;
foetuses
concepts 26–7, 108
condors, see California condors
conjoined twins 48 n
consciousness 34–7, 52–5, 80–1, 94, 197
defined 52–3
reality 53–5
256 Index
Index 4/30/97 4:17 PM Page 256
as intrinsic good 80–1
and personhood 94
and will to live 34–5
see also sentience
consequentialism 64
contagious diseases 11, 115–17, 209
contraception 115, 137, 165, 206–7,
209, 219–22
coronary artery disease 234
corvids 162
Cro-Magnons 11
cruelty 50–1, 84–7, 96, 145–6, 152–6,
235–6; see also Anti-Cruelty prin-
ciple
crystals 26
cultural ethical relativism 6, 175–6

culture 6–7, 13, 23, 39, 73–4, 165,
173–6, 230–1, 233, 237
Culver, Charles M. 28 n, 196 n
cyborgs 121
cynicism 41
DNA 47, 203
Darwin, Charles 58–9, 62, 125, 152
Data, the android 56
death 110, 152, 185–200, 210; see also
brain death; euthanasia
death penalty 163, 182
deep ecology 17, 19, 72, 74
deer 112–13, 130
deontology 4–5, 89, 132, 138, 229; see
also Kant, Immanuel
Descartes, René 36–7, 57, 58
deities, see gods and goddesses
desires 4, 18, 35, 107–8
and interests 66
and value of life 35, 69, 80, 110,
218–19, 225–6
dignity 4, 98, 103, 190
diploid cells 203
DNA 203
dogs 50, 69 n, 86, 92, 108, 162, 234
domestic animals 129–30, 168–70, 185,
230–2, 234–7
durable power of attorney 192
dusky-footed woodrats 72–3
dust mites 79

duty 96–100; see also deontology
Dworkin, Ronald 77
Dyaks 163
E.T. 136, 142–3
eagles 239
Earth 25, 122–4, 131, 167, 239, 240
earth 6, 126, 131, 167, 221
eco-feminism 74 n
Ecological principle 166–8, 183, 226,
240
ecosystems, see biological communities
egoism 143–4; see also ethical egoism
Ehrlich, Paul and Anne 11, 221
Eisler, Riane Tennehaus 15 n, 246
elephants 162–3, 229
eliminative materialism 53
embryos 201, 203, 205; see also foetuses
emotion 19, 55–6, 74–7, 96–7, 100, 103,
107, 118, 125, 137–8, 140–5, 157–8,
161, 164, 174, 199, 207–8, 213; see
also caring; empathy; social in-
stincts
empathy 43, 141, 143–4, 146, 151–4,
175, 208
endangered species 18, 127, 130, 167,
181, 226, 240
endemic species 114–15
endorphins 62
ends in themselves 4–5, 98–100, 102,
109, 120, 122

English, Jane 213–14
environmental ethics 16–17, 24, 46–9,
67, 71–4, 112, 114–15, 123–33,
166–8
equal consideration principle, see prin-
ciple of equal consideration
ethical egoism 6
ethical relativism 6, 175–6
ethical nihilism 6
ethical subjectivism 6, 175–6
ethics of care 19, 74–6, 137–46, 169,
171
euthanasia 185–200
and animals 185
assisted suicide 187–92
defined 185
types 186–7
non-voluntary active 191–2
non-voluntary passive 192–3
and permanently non-sentient hu-
mans 195–8
voluntary passive 187–8
voluntary active 188–92
evolution 35, 42, 73, 125, 161, 167, 236;
see also natural selection
external world, knowledge of 36
extraterrestrials 93, 120, 136, 142–3,
152, 239
Index 257
Index 4/30/97 4:17 PM Page 257

extinction 11, 115, 167, 226, 230, 236
factory farming 70, 129–30, 154, 237
family 125, 128, 209; see also social
community
farming 79–80
fathers 138–9, 165, 206
femininity 138–9
feminist ethics 19, 74–6, 137–46, 169,
171
Fenigsen, Richard 191 n
feral animals 114–15, 235
fertilization 203
fertilized ova 57, 105, 203, 205–8
fire 6
fish 61, 70, 118, 154
fishing 70, 237–8
fleas 87
foetal abnormality 201, 213, 223
foetal abuse 216
foetuses 4, 14–16, 20, 91, 105, 201–23
folk psychology 53–4
Ford, Norman M. 204 n
Formula of the End in Itself 98–9; see
also ends in themselves
Formula of the Universal Law 97–8
forests 17, 22–3, 142
fossil fuels 131
Fouts, Roger and Deborah 162 n
freedom, and determinism 99–100, 156;
see also right to liberty

French Equatorial Africa 32
Frey, R. G. 66–6, 107 n
friendship 124, 133
frogs 56 n
future generations 17, 44, 150, 168, 174,
202, 220–2
Gaard, Greta 74 n
gametes 203; see also ova; spermatozoa
gathering wild food 11, 80, 84, 237
genetic humanity 19, 42, 92–4, 95,
203–4
genetically engineered organisms 27,
120–1, 151, 152, 235
genome 203
genotype 203, 207
George, Kathyrn Paxton 71 n, 233
Gert, Bernard 28 n, 196 n
Gewirth, Alan 156
ghosts 93; see also spirits
Gilligan, Carol 75, 138
global ecosystem, see biosphere
global warming 131, 221
goal orientation, see teleological organi-
zation
God 36, 139, 238
gods and goddesses 7, 36, 43, 93, 139,
158, 190
goldfish 236
Golden Rule 68, 101, 150
good will 96–7

Goodall, Jane 11 n
Gordon, Mary 222
Gordon, Wendy 91 n
gorillas 42 n, 91 n, 161
grain 70, 230–2
Grant, Michael 25 n
gratitude 124
grazing 230–2
great apes, see apes
Great Barrier Reef 43
Great Chain of Being 238–9
great whales 235–6; see also cetaceans
Greenwood, John D. 54 n
Grey, William 43–4
Gribbon, John 162 n
Griffin, Donald 59, 61
Gruen, Lori 76–7
guilt 33, 39–41, 233
guppies 236
habitats 166–8; see also biological com-
munities
Haezrahi, Pepita 99
haploid cells 203
happiness 64, 96
harm principle 110
Harris, John 120 n
Harrison, Beverly Wildung 210
Hart, H. L. A. 78 n
Hartman, Betsy 210
Hawaii 115

Hegel, Georg Willhelm Friedrich 7
heterosexism 8
hibernation 26 n, 56
Hill, Thomas E. 21–2
holism 126–7
homeostasis 168
homicide 11, 37, 187, 189, 191, 203
Homo sapiens 42, 126, 127; see also gen-
etic humanity; human beings
homophobia 8
human beings 5–6, 8, 185–200; see also
Human Rights principle
258 Index
Index 4/30/97 4:17 PM Page 258
human chauvinism, see anthropocen-
trism
human genome 203
human rights 77–8, 134; see also moral
rights
Human Rights principle 164–6, 183,
192–5, 197, 199, 202, 205, 206,
209, 211, 214–18, 229, 233
human sacrifice 139
human vulnerability 153–4, 228, 238
Hume, David 7, 12, 75, 76, 124–5,
152–3, 159
Hunter, Nan 202 n, 213 n
hunting 11, 70, 130, 163, 230, 237–8
sport 237–9
subsistence 11, 70, 130, 230

identity, of zygote and embryo 203–4,
207
imperfect duty 99
in utero surgery 217
inanimate objects 5, 8, 24–6, 42, 63,
131, 141, 151–2, 166–8, 175
incest 201, 222
India 116, 176
Indians, see American Indians
indigenous species 130, 232, 237
individualism 16, 157, 159
individuation, of embryos 203–4
Indonesia 226
infanticide 92, 165–6
infants 10, 19, 70, 76, 88–9, 101–2, 105,
108, 118, 136, 139, 164–5, 181,
192, 205, 207, 217–19
inherent value 109–10, 118, 167–8, 238
inherent worth 38, 238
injustice 145, 170
insecticides 155
insects 32–3, 61–2, 79, 86, 151, 157
instrumental value 15, 49, 109, 150, 167
intelligible world 100
interests 66–7, 78–84
Interspecific principle 168–70, 183, 226,
235, 240
intrinsic properties 19, 21, 122–3, 126,
135, 148, 201–2, 218, 224, 240,
241–2

intrinsic value 46–7, 98
introduced species, see non-indigenous
species
Inuits 230
invertebrate animals 16, 61–2, 80, 82–4,
86–7, 154, 156
involuntary medical treatment 188
Jaggar, Allison 16 n
Jainism 6, 14, 31, 79
Jaini, Padmanab S. 6, 246
Jamieson, Dale 80–1
Jennings, J. S. 62–3
Jesus 31
Jonas, Hans 28 n, 46 n, 55–6 n, 60 n
Judaeo–Christian tradition 31, 137,
165, 170–1, 182
justice 104–5, 109, 124, 135, 145,
159–60
Kagan, Janet 93 n
Kahane, Howard 44 n
Kane, Hal 131 n
Kant, Immanuel 4, 7, 31, 50, 72, 89–90,
93 n, 96–104, 119, 120–2, 132, 143,
156, 190, 235, 241
Kellert, Stephen R. 73
kindness 155
King David 170–1
knowledge
of external world 37, 136–7
of other minds 54–5

Kohlberg, Lawrence 138 n
Kortlandt, Adriaan 11 n
Kuhse, Helga 193 n
land ethic 73–4, 124–6, 128–9, 130; see
also environmental ethics
language 61, 82, 107–8, 158, 161–2,
225, 239
and apes 161–2
and belief 107–8
and moral agency 158, 161–4
pidgin 162
and self-awareness 8
and sentience 61
sign 161–2
Latin America 210, 221
Leakey, Richard 12 n
Lee, Tanith 93 n
Lem, Stanislaw 160 n
Leopold, Aldo 72, 112, 123–6, 127
Lewin, Roger 12 n
life 18, 25–49, 202–4
as criterion of moral status 18, 24,
30–49
defined 25–30
and moral status of foetuses 202–4
value of 80, 83
Index 259
Index 4/30/97 4:17 PM Page 259
Life Only view 24, 30–49
Life Plus view 24, 41–9

lifeboat case 169–70
lions 27
living will 192
Locke, John 94–5, 158
locomotion 55
logical behaviourism 53
Lomasky, Loren E. 218
Lorenz, Konrad 224–5
love 14, 75–7, 139, 144, 166, 195
Lovelock, James 25 n, 168 n
Lower Palaeolithic 11
Luker, Kristen 208–9
Lynch, Joseph 58
McFall v. Shimp 217
MacIver, A. M. 51
McCaffrey, Anne 93 n
McCloskey, H. J. 105–6
machines 18, 29–30, 47, 93, 151–2 n
life 18, 30, 151–2 n
moral status 235
sapience 93, 235
sentience 18, 30
teleological organization 29–30, 47
Macintosh computer 30
Macklin, Ruth 187 n
Malasia 163
malice 84–5
male chauvinism, see sexism
mammals 61, 154, 225
Manning, Rita 145–6

Maple, T. L. 163 n
Marcus, Ruth Barcan 40–1
Marquis, Don 206 n
marsupials 114
Martin, Michael W. 34, 232 n
Martin, P. S. 11 n
Masai 230–1
maximalist definition of personhood
94–5, 119–20
maxims of action 97–8
Mayr, Ernst 27 n
meat eating 11, 14, 33, 69–70, 111, 130,
142, 169, 229–34
mechanical life-support 27
medicine, see biomedical research
megafauna 11
memory 18, 107, 118, 156, 225
mental competence 188, 189, 192
mental disability 88, 101–2, 131, 164–6,
174, 191, 192, 207
mental incompetence 192–4, 199
mental states, see belief; consciousness;
sentience; etc.
mercy killing, see euthanasia, active
mere means 98, 109, 188
metabolism 25–6
mice 32, 69, 116–18, 226, 228
micro-organisms 34, 36, 40, 49, 63, 149,
175
microbes, see micro-organisms

Midgley, Mary 59–60, 129–30, 133–4,
160, 173–4, 228
Miles, H. Lyn White 162 n
Mill, John Stuart 5 n, 64
Milliken, Nancy 217 n
minimalist definition of personhood
94–5, 119–20
mitochondria 47
mixed social communities 129–30,
168–70, 226
Mohr, James C. 208
molluscs 62
monistic accounts, see moral status, uni-
criterial accounts
moral agency 4–5, 19, 50, 90, 95, 100–6,
109–10, 120–1, 143–4, 156–64, 169,
174, 209, 224–6, 228
moral common sense 21–2, 39, 84, 87,
115, 149, 160, 172, 177, 242
moral dilemmas 40–1
moral feelings 12; see also caring; em-
pathy; social instincts
moral law 96–8, 156
moral monism 20
moral nihilism 6
moral patients 110
moral persons 104–5
moral pluralism 20
moral principles 104, 138–9, 145–6, 147
moral reasoning 102–5, 138–9, 149

moral rights 77–8, 89, 99, 101, 106,
145–6, 156–63, 174, 227–8; see also
right to bodily integrity; right to
liberty; right to life; right to reli-
gious freedom; right to reproduce
moral rules 138–9, 145–6, 153
moral status
concept 4, 9–10
defined 3
multi-criterial account 19–23, 148–
77, 181–3, 218, 224, 240–2
need 10–3
role in moral theory 13–14
260 Index
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uni-criterial accounts 17, 20–3, 122,
132, 172, 176–7, 183–4, 224, 240–1
moral subjectivism 6, 175–6
moral virtues 14, 103–4, 124–5, 155
mosquitos 39, 155, 226, 228
mothers 125, 139, 215–18
mountains 24, 112, 131
multi-criterial account, see moral status
murder 77, 134, 135, 187, 191, 194, 203,
208
Nagel, Thomas 52–3, 58, 153
naming 165, 169
Narveson, Jan 65 n
Native Americans, see American
Indians

natural predation 111–14, 237
natural rights 158
natural selection 35, 73, 125
natural world 12, 15, 73, 91, 131; see
also biological communities; en-
vironmental ethics
Nature Conservancy 115
Navajo 171
Neanderthals 11, 12 n
Nelson, Leonard 94 n
Neolithic Era 11 n
nervous systems 60, 205
Netherlands 191
neurochemicals 60, 62
New South Wales 114
Newland, Kathleen 210 n
Nickel, James 8 n
Nietzsche, Friedrich 7
nihilism, see moral nihilism
nitrogen 48
Noddings, Nel 19, 75–6, 137–46, 169,
171, 241
non-indigenous species 114–15, 130,
137, 143, 151, 152, 237
Noonan, John 201 n
Northern Territory of Australia 188–9
nuclear family 125, 128
oceans 24
old-growth forests 22; see also rain-
forests

Olson, Robert 100 n
orang-utans 42 n, 161–3
organisms 25, 46–7, 182; see also life
Oregon 189
organ transplantation 196
ova, see fertilized ova; unfertilized ova
oysters 19, 62
oxygen 17
ozone layer 221
paramecia 62
Pacific Northwest 22
pain 18, 35–6, 52–5, 67, 84–5, 141, 152,
189, 205
Palaeolithic people 11
Papua New Guinea 174
Pargetter, Robert 206 n
parrots 162
passive euthanasia, see euthanasia
patriarchy 165
patrilocality 165
Patterson, Francine 91 n
People for the Ethical Treatment of
Animals 115
perfect duty 99
perfectionist theory of justice 109
persistent vegetative state 166, 197–8
persons 18–19, 85–6, 90, 91–5, 104–5,
164
defined 91–5
maximalist vs. minimalist definition

90, 94–5, 119–20
moral status 85–6, 90–4, 96, 98–101,
119–21
potential personhood 105–7; see also
Agent’s Rights principle
Personhood Only view 90–121
Personhood Plus view 119–21
pesticides 79 n
Petchesky, Rosalind Pollack 211–12
pets 129–30, 169; see also mixed social
communities
pidgin languages 161
Piers, Maria W. 165 n
pigs 10, 69 n, 76, 115, 154, 162
Piper, H. Beam 93 n
plants 34–6, 63, 71–3, 131, 141, 151,
175
pleasure 18, 35, 52–5, 64, 67, 152
plovers 59
Plumwood, Val 46, 128 n
pneuma 206
Point Reyes National Seashore 232 n
political correctness 8
population control 221–2
population size 11, 12, 131, 202, 220–2
posterity, see future generations
potential, and moral status of foetuses
205–8
Index 261
Index 4/30/97 4:17 PM Page 261

poultry 70
poverty 191, 216, 221, 231
predators 224–5, 237; see also natural
predation
pragmatic arguments 137, 150–1,
157–61
praise 39
preference utilitarianism, see utilitarian-
ism
pregnancy 215–18
premature infants 214–15
President’s Commission for the Study of
Ethical Problems in Biomedical
and Behavioral Research 28 n,
197 n
primitive streak 204
principle of equal consideration 5,
65–9, 71, 78–9, 82–6, 89, 229
principles, see moral principles
privacy
and mental states 54
as legal right 216
private objects 54
projectile weapons 11
promises 9, 40, 48, 97–8, 171
psychophysical identity 107
quaking aspens 25 n
quality of life 194, 234–5
Queensland 22
Quammen, David 114 n

rabbits 115, 127, 130, 136–7
raccoons 126
Rachels, James 58–9, 193 n
racism 7–8, 68, 103, 144, 216
radishes 72
Radner, Denise and Michael 57 n, 61
rainforests 17, 22
rape 201, 222
rational agents, see moral agency
rational egoism 143–4
rationality 18, 89, 91, 103; see also
moral agency
rats 116–18, 140, 226, 228
Rawls, John 104–5, 138 n, 156
reason 12–13, 20, 31, 62, 65, 69,
95–100, 121, 124–5, 138, 149–51,
156, 158, 165, 225; see also ra-
tionality
receptacles for utility 77–8, 109
reciprocity 139–42, 159, 161, 163, 166,
225–6
reductive materialism 53
redwoods 16–17
Reed, A. W. 74 n
reflexive consciousness 85
Regan, Tom 16 n, 18, 78 n, 84–5, 90–1,
106–22, 132, 169–70, 229, 241
relational properties 21, 88, 122–3, 132,
135, 148, 172, 202, 218, 224, 241–2
Relationships Only view 123–47

Relationships Plus view 123
religion 4, 8, 30–2, 37, 96, 171–6, 190,
198, 226, 230; see also animism;
Buddhism; Christianity; God;
gods and goddesses; Jainism;
Judaeo–Christian tradition; spir-
ituality; supernatural beings
replaceability 77–8, 80
reproduction, as criterion of life 25–6
reproductive freedom 16, 208–12
reptiles 61, 118, 154
resentment 157, 159–60
Respect for Life principle 149–52, 166,
176, 182, 202, 204, 225
Reverence for Life 32–49, 149
rhinoceroses 226
Rhoden, Nancy 187–8 n, 193 n, 215 n
right not to be harmed 109
right to bodily integrity 217, 220
right to liberty 9, 99, 109, 120, 156–7,
160, 174, 183–5, 188, 198, 209,
222
right to life 9, 77, 99, 109, 120, 156–7,
160, 174, 183–7, 189–92, 194, 209,
222
right to religious freedom 8, 134, 230
right to reproduce 220
Ritchie, D. G. 112 n
rivers 12, 24, 131, 162, 167, 174, 221
Robertson, John 194, 216 n, 217 n, 220

robots 121, 235; see also androids; cy-
borgs; Data
Rodd, Rosemary 61, 63, 82
rodents 116–18
Rodman, John 46 n, 69 n, 72–3
Rode v. Wade 212
Rollin, Bernard E. 61, 62 n, 67
Rolston, Holmes, III 46–7, 67 n, 71 n,
167 n
Roman Catholic Church 208, 210
Romania 221
Rorty, Richard 53–4
Routley, Richard and Val 128 n; see
also Plumwood, Val
262 Index
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sacred cows 175–6
sacred objects 7, 171
sacredness 7, 15, 149, 171
St Paul 31
sainthood 14, 227
Sandel, Michael J. 158 n
sapient machines 93
Sapontzis, S. F. 66 n, 92, 113–14
scepticism
about moral status 5–6
about external world 36–7
about conscious experience 53–5
Schopenhauer, Arthur 7, 34
Schweitzer, Albert 17–18, 24, 30–49,

122, 149, 241
science, see biomedical research
science fiction 93, 120–1, 136
seals 162
second-trimester abortions 213, 222
self-awareness 18, 80, 82, 87, 156,
218–19
self-concept 219
self-defence 38, 117, 140, 160, 182
semen 206; see also spermatazoa
senility 207; see also mental disability
sensible world 100
sense organs 36, 60
sentience
as a criterion of moral status 16, 18,
50–2, 63–89, 149–56
defined 5, 52–7
distribution 25–6, 57–63
evidence for 60–1
and foetuses 204–6, 211
and personhood 94
Sentience Only view 51–2, 63–84
Sentience Plus view 51–2, 84–9
sentiments 11, 124–5; see also caring;
empathy; social instincts
sex education 209
sexism 7, 68, 103, 144
sexist language 31 n
sexual intercourse 207, 208–9, 221–2
sexually transmitted diseases 209

shallow ecology 17
Sherwin, Susan 75
Shiprock 171
shrimps 62
Sidgwick, Henry 64, 65
sign language 161–2
simplicity 21–3, 26, 59–60, 133–5, 173
Singer, Beth 158 n
Singer, Peter 16 n, 18, 42, 62, 63–71, 74,
76–84, 94, 122, 132, 193 n, 229–30,
231, 241
Skinner, B. F. 8–9
slavery 14–15, 103, 135, 208
sleep 26 n, 56, 206
sliding scale of moral status 87–8,
225–6, 229
slippery slope arguments 44–5
slugs 79
smallpox 236
snails 79, 156
snow leopards 17
social atomism 158–9
social communities 18, 76, 124–46,
152–3, 164–6, 181, 219
social insects 157
social instincts 11, 125, 143–4, 152–3,
157, 161, 171, 174, 181, 207, 224
social sentiments, see caring; social in-
stincts
social virtues 124, 169

soft determinism 100
soil 48, 126, 131, 142, 231
son preference 165
South America 11, 221
sparrows 87–8
species 16, 18, 20, 24, 71–2, 84, 91, 115,
127, 130–1, 166–8, 240
speciesism 67–8
spermatazoa 19, 203, 206
spiders 61, 80–2, 118, 151, 226
Spielberg, Steven 136
spirits 7, 28, 93
spirituality 12, 34, 151, 171, 176, 181,
237
Star Trek 56
Steinbock, Bonnie 117, 153, 205 n
Stich, S. P. 54 n
Stone, Christopher 20
Stone, Jim 206 n
Stone Age, see Palaeolithic people
stones 4–8, 52–3
subjectivism, see moral subjectivism
subjectivity 59–60, 211
subjects-of-a-life 90–1, 107–11, 120,
156, 225–7, 229
suicide 99, 102, 182, 190
Sumner, L. W. 87, 201 n, 207 n
supererogation 14
supernatural beings 5, 7, 36, 190
survival 26, 29–30, 37–9, 70, 73, 79, 82,

84, 132; see also value of life; via-
bility
Index 263
Index 4/30/97 4:17 PM Page 263
survival value
of biophilia 73–4
of Ecological principle 167
of moral obligations to non-human
world 150, 167
of partiality to human interests 84
of Respect for Life principle 150–1
of sentience 58, 81, 84
of social instincts 125, 143
Swedenborg, Emanuel 93 n
Sylvan, Richard, see Routley, Richard
and Val
sympathy 11, 42, 124–5, 141, 213–14,
224
Taylor, Paul 28–30, 33 n, 38, 46, 67 n
Tawia, S. A. 205
technology 12, 239
teleological organization 28–30, 35,
45–9, 151–2
telos 30, 46
ten Have, Henk A. M. J. 191 n
teratogens 215–16
termites 157
theism 4
third-trimester abortion 213, 222–3
Thompkins, P. 63 n

Thompson, Janna 47
tigers 163, 239
Tooley, Michael 92, 201 n, 218–19
topsoil 126, 131, 231; see also earth;
soil
totipotency 203
Transitivity of Respect principle 170–2,
174, 183, 195–9, 202, 204, 208,
209, 211, 214, 226, 235, 238, 240
trees 12, 16–17, 22–3, 72
tropical rainforests 17
truth 36
twins 48 n, 203
Uluru 7, 171
unfertilized ova 19, 206–7
uni-criterial accounts, see moral status
United Nations Universal Declaration
of Human Rights 8 n
United States Supreme Court 189, 212
universal will 34
universalizability requirement 97–8
universe 25, 34, 43, 239
Upper Palaeolithic 11
utilitarianism 5, 18, 22, 63–89, 101, 126,
138, 143, 170
act vs. rule 75 n, 77 n
classical 5, 64–5, 77–8
preference 64–9, 77–8, 86, 131 n, 138
value of life 40–3, 46–9, 69–70, 72–3,
80–2, 149–52, 194, 219; see also

Respect for Life principle; Rever-
ence for Life
Veach, Robert 197 n
veal calves 70, 154
vegan diet 64 n, 71 n, 232
vegetarian diet 33, 64, 69–71, 130, 142,
229–34
veil of ignorance 156
vertebrate animals 16, 34, 61, 154, 156
viability 212–15
violence 11, 37, 157, 187, 190; see also
murder; natural predation; war
viruses 35, 47, 63, 174
vitalism 28
war 12, 182
warm-bloodedness 154
Warren, Mary Anne 7 n, 165 n, 201 n
Washoe 161
water 6, 124–6, 167, 221
Webster v. Reproductive Health Services
212 n
Weir, Robert F. 193 n
Welie, Jos V. M. 191 n
Wellman, Carl 159
Wenz, Peter 134
whales 162, 230, 235–6
whole-brain death 27–8, 196–7
wild animals 130, 235; see also biologi-
cal communities
will to live 31, 34–7, 45

Wilson, Edward O. 73
Wilson, Meredith 66 n
Wittgenstein, Ludwig 54
Wolgast, Elizabeth 16
wolves 112–13
women 7, 75, 103, 138–9, 201–4,
208–12, 215–23, 233
and moral reasoning 75, 138–9
and rationality 7, 103–4
women of colour 218
women’s rights 202, 204, 208–12,
215–22; see also Agent’s Rights
principle; Human Rights principle;
reproductive freedom
woodlice 51
woodrats 72–3
264 Index
Index 4/30/97 4:17 PM Page 264
World Health Organization 210 n
worms 19, 62, 79
‘worthless life’ 44, 49
Ziff, Paul 55 n
Zimmer, Carl 11 n
zygotes 203–4, 205–8
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