Planning and Design of Airports pptx

Planning and Design
of Airports
Robert Horonjeff
Francis X. McKelvey
William J. Sproule
Seth B. Young
Fifth Edition
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About the Authors
Robert Horonjeff (deceased) was an internationally
known consultant on airport design and professor of

transportation engineering at the University of
California, Berkeley.
Francis X. McKelvey (deceased) was a professor of
civil engineering at Michigan State University. He
served as a consultant on transportation and airport
planning to federal, state, and local agencies, as well as
to private firms in the United States and abroad.
William J. Sproule is a professor of civil and environ-
mental engineering at Michigan Technological University.
He has many years of experience in government service,
consulting, and university teaching and research in
transportation planning, traffic engineering, airport
planning and design, and automated people movers in
Canada and the United States. He is active in several
professional societies and is the 2008 recipient of the
ASCE Robert Horonjeff Award for his work in airport
engineering.
Seth B. Young is an associate professor in the Depart-
ment of Aviation at The Ohio State University and
president of the International Aviation Management
Group, Inc. He serves as a consultant and instructor to
airports around the world on issues of airport
management, planning, and design. Dr. Young is the
chair of the National Academies Transportation Research
Board Committee on Aviation System Planning. He is a
certified member of the American Association of Airport
Executives, a licensed airplane and seaplane commercial
pilot, and a certified flight instructor.
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Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
Part 1 Airport Planning
1 The Nature of Civil Aviation and Airports . . . . . . 3
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Commercial Service Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Passenger Air Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
International Air Transportation . . . . . . . . . . 7
Air Cargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
General Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Civil Aviation Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Historical Review of the Legislative Role
in Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Air Commerce Act of 1926 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Federal Airport Act of 1946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Federal Aviation Act of 1958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Creation of the U.S. Department
of Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Airport and Airway Development Act
of 1970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 . . . . . . . . . . 31
Impact of Airline Deregulation . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
The Airport and Airway Improvement Act
of 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
The Aviation Safety and Capacity Act
of 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
AIR-21: The Wendell Ford Aviation
Investment Act for the 21st Century . . . . . . . . 34
The Aviation and Transportation Security

Act of 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Vision 100 Century of Aviation
Act of 2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
NextGen Financing Reform Act of 2007/
FAA Reauthorization Act of 2009 . . . . . . . 35
State Roles in Aviation and Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
v

Aviation Organizations and Their Functions . . . . . . 37
Federal Agencies of the United States
Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Federal Aviation Administration . . . . . . . . . . 37
Transportation Security Administration . . . . 42
Environmental Protection Agency . . . . . . . . . 42
National Transportation Safety Board . . . . . . 43
State Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
The International Civil Aviation
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Industry and Trade Organizations . . . . . . . . . 45
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Web References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2 Aircraft Characteristics Related
to Airport Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Dimensional Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Landing Gear Confi gurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Aircraft Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Engine Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Atmospheric Conditions Affecting
Aircraft Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Air Pressure and Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Wind Speed and Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Aircraft Performance Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Aircraft Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Payload and Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Runway Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Declared Distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Wingtip Vortices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3 Air Traffi c Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
A Brief History of Air Traffi c Management . . . . . . . 96
The Organizational Hierarchy of Air Traffi c
Management in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
The Air Traffi c Control System
Command Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Air Route Traffi c Control Centers . . . . . . . . . 97
Terminal Approach Control Facilities . . . . . . 98
Airport Traffi c Control Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Flight Service Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Air Traffi c Management Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

vi
Contents
Airspace Classifi cations and Airways . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Airways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Colored Airways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Victor Airways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Jet Routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Area Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Air Traffi c Separation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Vertical Separation in the Airspace . . . . . . . . 111
Assigned Flight Altitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Longitudinal Separation in the Airspace . . . 111
Lateral Separation in the Airspace . . . . . . . . . 113
Navigational Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Ground-Based Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Satellite-Based Systems: Global
Positioning System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
The Modernization of Air Traffi c Management . . . . 127
NextGen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
SWIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
NextGen Data Communications . . . . . . . . . . 130
NextGen Enabled Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4 Airport Planning Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Types of Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
The Airport System Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Airport Site Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
The Airport Master Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
The Airport Project Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Continuing Planning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5 Forecasting for Airport Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Levels of Forecasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Forecasting Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Time Series Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Market Share Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Econometric Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

Forecasting Requirements and Applications . . . . . . 162
The Airport System Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
The Airport Master Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
The Future Aviation Forecasting Environment . . . . 168
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Contents
vii

Part 2 Airport Design
6 Geometric Design of the Airfi eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Airport Design Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Airport Classifi cation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Utility Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Transport Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Runways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Runway Confi gurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Single Runway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Parallel Runways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Intersecting Runways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Open-V Runways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Combinations of Runway Confi gurations . . . . 181
Runway Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
The Wind Rose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Estimating Runway Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Runway System Geometric Specifi cations . . . . 201
Parallel Runway System Spacing . . . . . . . . . . 205
Sight Distance and Longitudinal Profi le . . . . 207
Transverse Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Airfi eld Separation Requirements
Related to Runways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Obstacle Clearance Requirements . . . . . . . . . 213
FAR Part 77 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
ICAO Annex 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
TERPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Runway End Siting Requirements . . . . . . . . . 223
Taxiways and Taxilanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Widths and Slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Taxiway and Taxilane Separation
Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Sight Distance and Longitudinal Profi le . . . . 234
Exit Taxiway Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Location of Exit Taxiways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Design of Taxiway Curves
and Intersections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
End-Around Taxiways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Aprons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Holding Aprons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Terminal Aprons and Ramps . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Terminal Apron Surface Gradients . . . . . . . . 254
Control Tower Visibility Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . 254
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

viii
Contents
Contents
ix
7 Structural Design of Airport Pavements . . . . . . . . . 257
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Soil Investigation and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
The CBR Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

The Plate Bearing Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Young’s Modulus (E Value) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Effect of Frost on Soil Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Subgrade Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
FAA Pavement Design Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Equivalent Aircraft Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Cumulative Damage Failure Method . . . . . . 270
Design of Flexible Pavements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
CBR Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Layered Elastic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Design of Rigid Pavements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Westergaard’s Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Finite Element Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Joints and Joint Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements . . . . 279
Design of Overlay Pavements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Pavements for Light Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Pavement Evaluation and Pavement
Management Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
8 Airport Lighting, Marking, and Signage . . . . . . . . 291
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
The Requirements for Visual Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
The Airport Beacon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Obstruction Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
The Aircraft Landing Operation . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Alignment Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Height Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Approach Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
System Confi gurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

Visual Approach Slope Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Visual Approach Slope Indicator . . . . . . . . . . 301
Precision Approach Path Indicator . . . . . . . . 302
Threshold Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Runway Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Runway Edge Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Runway Centerline and Touchdown
Zone Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Runway End Identifi er Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

x
Contents
Taxiway Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Taxiway Edge Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Runway Guard Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Runway Stop Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Runway and Taxiway Marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Runways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Runway Designators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Runway Threshold Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Centerline Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Aiming Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Touchdown Zone Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Side Stripes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Displaced Threshold Markings . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Blast Pad Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Taxiway Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Centerline and Edge Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Taxiway Hold Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Taxiway Shoulders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

Enhanced Taxiway Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Closed Runway and Taxiway Markings . . . . 328
Airfi eld Signage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Runway Distance Remaining Signs . . . . . . . . 330
Taxiway Guidance Sign System . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Taxiway Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Types of Taxiway Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Signing Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Sign Size and Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Sign Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
9 Airport Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Purpose of Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Design Storm for Surface Runoff . . . . . . . . . . 343
Determining the Intensity-Duration
Pattern for the Design Storm . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Determining the Amount of Runoff by
the FAA Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Determining the Amount of Runoff by
the Corps of Engineers Procedure . . . . . . . 358
Layout of Surface Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
10 Planning and Design of the Terminal Area . . . . . . 383
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
The Passenger Terminal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Components of the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Contents
xi
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Terminal Demand Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

Facility Classifi cation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Overall Space Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Level of Service Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
The Terminal Planning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Space Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Other Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Overall Space Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Concept Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Horizontal Distribution Concepts . . . . . . . . . 417
Vertical Distribution Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Schematic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Design Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
The Apron Gate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Number of Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Ramp Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Gate Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Aircraft Parking Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Apron Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Apron Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Passenger Conveyance to Aircraft . . . . . . . . . 457
Apron Utility Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Part 3 Special Topics in Airport Planning and Design
11 Airport Security Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
History of Airport Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Airport Security Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Security at Commercial Service Airports . . . . . . . . . 472
Passenger Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473

Baggage Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Employee Identifi cation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Perimeter Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Vulnerability Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Security at General Aviation Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Future Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
12 Airport Airside Capacity and Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Capacity and Delay Defi ned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Capacity and Delay in Airfi eld Planning . . . 485

xii
Contents
Approaches to the Analysis of Capacity and Delay . . . . 486
Factors That Affect Airfi eld Capacity . . . . . . 489
Formulation of Runway Capacity through
Mathematical Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Mathematical Formulation of Delay . . . . . . . 490
Formulation of Runway Capacity through
the Time-Space Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Formulation of Ultimate Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Mathematical Formulation of
Ultimate Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Application of Techniques for Ultimate
Hourly Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
Parameters Required for Runway
Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
Computation of Delay on Runway Systems . . . . . . 520
Graphical Methods for Approximating

Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Application of Techniques for Annual
Service Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Simulation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Gate Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Analytical Models for Gate Capacity . . . . . . 539
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
13 Finance Strategies for Airport Planning . . . . . . . . . 543
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Federal Funding Programs in the United States . . . . . 544
The Airport Development Aid
Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
The Passenger Facility Charge
Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
State and Local Participation in Financing
Airport Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Bond Financing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
General Obligation Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
General Airport Revenue Bonds . . . . . . . . . . 559
Special Facility Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
PFC Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
CFC Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
Privatization of Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
Financial Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Rate Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
Evaluation of the Financial Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Contents
xiii

14 Environmental Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
Policy Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
Pollution Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
Air Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Aircraft and Airport Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Sound Pressure and Sound Pressure Level . . . 580
Aircraft Noise Effects and Land-Use
Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
Determining the Extent of the Problem . . . . 598
Finding Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Noise Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Construction Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
Social Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
Land Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
Displacement and Relocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
Parks, Recreational Areas, Historical Places,
Archeological Resources,
and Natural and Scenic Beauty . . . . . . . . . 617
Consistency with Local Planning . . . . . . . . . . 618
Ecological Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Wildlife, Waterfowl, Flora, Fauna,
Endangered Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Wetlands and Coastal Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Flood Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
Engineering and Economic Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
Costs of Construction and Operation . . . . . . 620
Economic Benefi ts and Fiscal Requirements . . . 624
Energy and Natural Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . 624

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
15 Heliports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
Heliports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
The Nature of Helicopter Transportation . . . 629
Characteristics of Helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
Factors Related to Heliport Site Selection . . . 631
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
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Preface
I
n the preface to the fourth edition of this text, the late Dr. Francis
McKelvey remarked that the technological and legislative devel-
opments related to the air transportation industry in the 1980s
and early 1990s were of such significance that an updating of the book
was needed. The fourth edition, published in 1994, enhanced previous
editions, the first of which was published in 1962.
In the 16 years since this last update, it may be said that the
changes to the practice of airport planning and design have been
more significant than in any other era in the history of aviation.
Implementation of twenty-first-century technologies has resulted in
the first major overhaul to aircraft and air navigation systems in
generations, computer-based analytical and design models have
replaced antiquated monographs and estimation tables, and highly
significant geopolitical events have all but rewritten the rules of
planning, designing, and operating civil-use airports.
These significant enhancements to the aviation system have
resulted in unique challenges in creating an updated fifth edition of

this important and highly accepted text. While every attempt was
made to keep to the traditional structure of the book and to preserve
the theoretical strengths for which it is most well known, much of the
material in the previous edition required more replacement than
simply being made current. Within this latest edition the reader will
find, for example, new and entirely different strategies to estimate
required runway lengths and their associated required pavement
thicknesses. This text attempts to maintain the flavor of previous
editions while understanding, for example, that airport navigational
aids of the previous century are becoming all but obsolete, in favor
of a digital, satellite-based communication and navigational system,
and that airport financing strategies are in a revolutionary state, given
anticipated changes to federal aviation funding mechanisms.
Updating this edition has, in fact, been a continuous “race against
time,” as important changes to the aviation system were constantly
occurring during the process.
xv

xvi
Preface
In light of these challenges, this fifth edition is hoped to again be
the standard text for those interested in the fundamentals of airport
planning and design. The information located within these chapters
is applicable both for academic coursework and as a reference on the
desks of airport planning and design professionals. As the industry
continues to move forward, it is of course recommended that
the latest design standards published by the Federal Aviation
Administration, the International Civil Aviation Organization, and
local, state, and other federal agencies be consulted.
Seth B. Young, Ph.D.

Acknowledgments
T
he fifth edition of this historic text could never have been
created without the career efforts of its original author, the late
Dr. Robert Horonjeff, and his coauthor on later editions, the
late Dr. Francis McKelvey. Their authorship will always be first
credited. Updating this book without their personal guidance was
immensely challenging. It is only hoped that they would be satisfied
with knowing their original philosophies still form the basis for
this text. Contributing to this update have been the fine efforts of
Dr. William Sproule, who studied under Dr. McKelvey and helped
bring his goal of maintaining the currency of this text to fruition.
Many thanks go out to the institutions at which the original
authors were, and those who helped update this latest edition have
been, lucky enough to be employed: the University of California at
Berkeley, Michigan State University, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical
University, Michigan Technological University, Jacobs Consultancy,
and The Ohio State University. It is hoped that the students, faculty,
and professionals of these and all such institutions continue to find
this text a valuable resource.
This book is dedicated to the memories of Dr. Horonjeff and
Dr. McKelvey, who have helped to immortalize the formal practice of
planning and designing the world’s airports. Their life’s efforts have
resulted in bettering the lives of countless students, professionals,
and users of civil aviation.
Seth B. Young, Ph.D.
xvii
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PART
1

Airport
Planning
CHAPTER 1
The Nature of Civil Aviation
and Airports
CHAPTER 2
Aircraft Characteristics
Related to Airport Design
CHAPTER 3
Air Traffi c Management
CHAPTER 4
Airport Planning Studies
CHAPTER 5
Forecasting for Airport Planning
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CHAPTER
1
The Nature of
Civil Aviation
and Airports
Introduction
Since its beginning in the early twentieth century, civil aviation has
become one of the most fascinating, important, and complex indus-
tries in the world. The civil aviation system, particularly its airports,
has come to be the backbone of world transport and a necessity to
twenty-first-century trade and commerce.
In 2008, the commercial service segment of civil aviation, con-
sisting of more than 900 airlines and 22,000 aircraft, carried more
than 2 billion passengers and 85 million tons of cargo on more than
74 million flights to more than 1700 airports in more than 180 coun-

tries worldwide. Millions more private, corporate, and charter
“general aviation” operations were conducted at thousands of com-
mercial and general aviation airports throughout the world. In many
parts of the world, commercial service and general aviation serve
as the primary, if not the only method of transportation between
communities.
The magnitude of the impact of the commercial air transporta-
tion industry on the world economy is tremendous, contributing
more than $2.6 trillion in economic activity, equivalent to 8 percent
of the world gross domestic product, and supporting 29 million
jobs. In the United States alone civil aviation is responsible for
$900 billon in economic activity and 11 million jobs. General avia-
tion serves an equally important role in the world’s economy, pro-
viding charter, cargo, corporate, medical, and private transport, as
well as such services as aerial photography, firefighting, surveil-
lance, and recreation. In the United States alone, there are more
than 225,000 registered general aviation aircraft and more than
600,000 registered pilots.
3

4
Airport Planning
The presence of civil aviation has affected our economic way of
life, it has made changes in our social and cultural viewpoints, and
has had a hand in shaping the course of political history.
The sociological changes brought about by air transportation are
perhaps as important as those it has brought about in the economy.
People have been brought closer together and so have reached a bet-
ter understanding of interregional problems. Industry has found new
ways to do business. The opportunity for more frequent exchanges of

information has been facilitated, and air transport is enabling more
people to enjoy the cultures and traditions of distant lands.
In recent years, profound changes in technology and policy have
had significant impacts on civil aviation and its supporting airport
infrastructure. The industry continues to grow in numbers of aircraft,
passengers and cargo carried, and markets served, from nonstop
service on superjumbo aircraft between cities half-way across the
planet, to privately operated “very light jets” between any of thou-
sands of small airports domestically. Growth encouraged from tech-
nological advancements countered with increased constraints on the
civil aviation system due to increased capacity limitations, security
regulations, and financial constraints have resulted in ever increasing
challenges to airport planning and design.
Civil aviation is typically considered in three sectors, commercial
service aviation (more commonly known as air carriers or airlines),
air cargo, and general aviation. Although the lines between these tra-
ditional sectors are becoming increasingly blurred, the regulations
and characteristics regarding their individual operations are often
mutually exclusive, and as such, those involved in airport planning
and design should have an understanding of each sector.
Commercial Service Aviation
Commercial service aviation, supported by the world’s airlines, is by
far the most well known, most utilized, and most highly regulated
segment of civil aviation. It is the segment of the industry responsible
for providing public air transportation between the world’s cities.
In the United States, domestic commercial air service accommo-
dated nearly 650 million enplaning passengers in 2008, flying
approximately 570 billion passenger-miles, reflecting a slight decline
following the most recent surge in the growth of air transportation
since the mid-twentieth century, and forecasted to carry more than

1 billion passengers by 2020, as illustrated in Fig. 1-1.
Intercity travel, of course, is not solely available through commer-
cial service aviation. Intercity travel may be accommodated using
either private modes of transportation, most commonly via private
automobile travel, or through other modes of public transportation,
such as bus, rail, or ship. Private automobile travel, accounts for
The Nature of Civil Aviation and Airports
5
nearly 90 percent of the total intercity (defined as trips greater than
50 mi in distance) travel in the United States, and public transporta-
tion or common-carrier travel (bus, rail, and air) accounts for the
remaining portion.
Since the later half of the twentieth century, there has been a
steady increase in overall travel, by private automobile and public
transportation. Air transportation has had the greatest increase in
overall passengers served. In the United States, this period has also
witnessed a dramatic reduction in rail travel except for the rail mar-
kets in the Northeast United States. These relationships are shown in
Table 1-1.
As illustrated in Table 1-2, air transportation in the United States
accounts for the vast majority of domestic travel for trips exceeding
750 mi, and approximately one third of trips 500 to 750 mi in length. In
all, air transportation accounts for approximately 70 percent of the
United States’ public intercity transportation. With the exception of
travel to Canada and Mexico, air transportation serves nearly 100 per-
cent of travel between the United States and international destinations.
In many parts of the world the use of private automobile is much
less significant, and the use of rail transportation is much more prev-
alent. However, growth in commercial aviation in markets such as
Europe and India are forecast to take greater numbers of passengers

off the rails and onto airlines.
Much of the historical growth in air carrier transportation has been
largely credited to the 1978 Federal Airline Deregulation Act, which
allowed air carriers to freely enter and compete in domestic markets in
FIGURE 1-1 Total scheduled U.S. domestic passenger traffi c: 1940 to 2020
(U.S. Bureau of Transportation Statistics).
0
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
Year
2000 2010 2020 2030
200,000
400,000
600,000
Passengers (thousands)
Passenger-Miles (millions)
800,000
1,000,000
1,200,000
Historical Forecast
Revenue Passengers (thousands)
Revenue Passenger-Miles (millions)

6
Airport Planning
Year Highway
Annual
Growth,
%
Civil
Aviation

Annual
Growth,
% Rail
Annual
Growth,
%
1960 1,272,078 33,399 21,261
1965 1,555,237 22 57,626 73 17,388 –18
1970 2,042,002 31 117,542 104 10,771 –38
1975 2,404,954 18 147,400 25 8,444 –22
1980 2,653,510 10 219,068 49 11,019 30
1985 3,012,953 14 290,136 32 11,359 3
1990 3,561,209 18 358,873 24 13,139 16
1995 3,868,070 9 414,688 16 13,789 5
2000 4,390,076 13 531,329 28 14,900 8
2005 4,884,557 11 603,689 14 15,381 3
Source: U.S. Bureau of Transportation Statistics.
TABLE 1-1 U.S. Passenger Travel by Mode
TABLE 1-2 Percent of Trips by Mode for One-Way Travel Distance
Mode
One-Way Distance
50–499
Miles
500–749
Miles
750–999
Miles
1000–1499
Miles
1500 +

Miles
Personal
vehicle
95.4 61.8 42.3 31.5 14.8
Air 1.6 33.7 55.2 65.6 82.1
Bus 2.1 3.3 1.5 1.5 1.4
Train 0.8 1.0 0.9 0.7 0.8
Other 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.7 1.0
Total 89.8 3.1 2.0 2.3 2.8
the United States, and “open skies” agreements throughout the 1990s
between nations to allow for more service between international desti-
nations. The most recent growth in air transportation is attributable to
changing airline business models, such as the emergence of the “low-
cost carrier” (LCC), as well as increasing numbers of international open
skies agreements that have proliferated since 2000.