OXFORD LEARNER''''S GRAMMAR 2 ppsx

Questions
and
answers
19
Answering
questions
?R
A How long should
an
ans
wer
be?
Some
question
s
can
be
answered
in a
word
or
phrase,
but
for
others
you
need
one
or
more
complete

sente
nces., Here are
some
examp
l
es
from real
co
nversation
s.
Didn't you hear
abolilche
bank
robbcl
y?-
No.
I've gal a hac.
'"
What
c%ur?'"
BrauJII
.
Do
you like
sc
hool? -
Yes
, I
do.
It's

OK.
/l
ow
long do you pract
ise?
'"
About /Jalf
all
/J
our.
How
is
Lucy?

S
/J
e's a
laC
better
fl
OW.
In
fact I
think
she'll be
back
at
.
school next week.
Why

did
you
sell
lil
e
car?
'"
It
was
gilli
llg
me too
mu
ch
tr
oub
le. I was
spend
ing
more
money
on
it Ihan
it
was
worth
spending
money
Oil.
It

is usually
enough
10 give
the
rele
van
t piece
of
information wit
hout
rep
ea
ting all t
he
words
of
the
ques
tion. There
is
no
need
10 say
No,
I didn't
Ilear
aboUllhe
bank
robbery
or

fh
e haL is brown in
answer
to
these
qu
estion
s.
NOTE
People sometim
es
gIve
an indirect ;lJlswer or avoid answering the
qUl
:s
tuJIl
.
Wl
ua
lime
will
yO/~
he
I)(u
;k
i'-
We
ll, the$e
me
etings sometimes go

1m/or
I
lOurs
.
Are you
(I.
member
of
tllis
club?-
Why do
yo"
ask?
B Yes/no short answers
We
can
sometimes
answer
wi
th a si
mple
yes
or
no,
but
English
speake
rs often
use
a 'short

answer
'
like
Yes,
I do
or
Nu,
we
haven
'c.
A
shon
an
swer
relates to
the
subject
and
aUxiliary verb
of
the
question.
A positive
answer
is yes +
pronoun
+ auxiliary. A n
egat
ive an
swer

is '
/0
+
pro
n
oun
+ auxiliary +
11
'
1.
Is
it
raining?
Have you finished?
Can your sister swim?
Positive
Yes
,
it
is.
Yes
, I
have
.
Yes,
she call.
Negative
No.
it isn't.
No,

I
ha
ve,,'t.
No,
she can't .
In si
mpl
e
tenses
we
use
the auxiliary verb
do.
Do
YOll
play
lit
e piano?
Did
we
do
Ow
righl thing?
Positive
Yes,
I do.
Yes,
we
did
.

Negative
No,
I
don
't.
No,
we
did"
'to
In this
examp
le,
Ihe
question
has be
as
an
ordinary verb.
Positive Negative
Are you in a !wr/:V?
Yes,
I
am.
No.
I'm
not
.
19
Answering
quest

io
ns
We
can
some
ti
mes use another
phrase
or clause
instead
of
yes
or
110.
Am
I
ill
the
l
eam?",
Ojcourse
(y
ou
are).
Were youlale? ,J'm
afraid
I was.
Does
the
jacket

go
wilh
Ihe
sh
irl? ,
I
think
it does.
We
often
add
information
or
comment
after a
simple
yes
or
tlO
or
after a
short
an~wer.
Were
you
late?
v
Yes, J
missed
the

bus.
Did Carl gel the job?
-N
o,
he didn't,
unfortunately.
/-lave you. read this
book?, "
Yes,
r halle. I
really
enjoyed
it.
TIP
In
some
situations
it
can
seem
abrupt
or
unhelpful to simply
answer
Yes
or
Yes,
it
is.
In

a friendly conversation,
it
is
better
to
add
something
relevant to keep
the
conversation
going.
Is
this CD player new. -
Yes,
it
is.
J
bought
it
last week.
NOTE
a The
full
form
11m
In
a short answer
is
[onnul or emphatic.
Was (he

sd/eme
a
S/.Icce:-,s?
~
No,
it
was
IIot
.
It
W(u a
complete
failure.
b
We
can u
.')
e a shOl1 answer to agree
or
dl
s<
lg
rce with
<.l
st,H
cm
ent.
Agreemg
.
These photos are good.

""
Yes,
riley are.
II
doesn't feel very
/lJarm.
~
No,
it doe.m't.
Disagreeing:
J posted the leller.
~N(J,
you
didn't
. /l's still
011
the table
We
c(m't afford
(l
car.
'"
Yes,
we
call,
If
Wf'
borrow tile mOlley
c
We

can use a pronoun +
aUXi
liary
whpn we answer a wh-qucst.
IOJI.
Who filled lhis crossword
111"
"-'
I
did
.
C Requests, offers, invitations,
and
suggestions
We
cannot
usually
answer
t
hese
with a
short
answ
er
such
as
Yes,
yuu can or
Yes,
I would.

Can I
use
your
phone,
plea.se?, ".
Sure.lO[
course_
Would
you
like a chocolare?, Yes, please,
Thank
you.
Would
YOIl
. like to
co
me
to
my
parry?, Yes,
I'd
love
to_
Thank
you
very
much.
Shall
we
l

uwe
a coffee?",C
ood
idea. rYes,
wily
not?
A n
ega
tive
answer
to a request,
invitation
or
s
uggestion
ne
eds
some
explanation.
("m
r use
your
phone, please?"",Sorry,
someone'
f '(Sing
it.
at
the
moment.
Wuuld

you
like
to
come
!O
my
party
on. Sat
urday
?
-I'm
sorry.
I'd
like
to,
but
{'m
goillg
to
be
away
this
weekend
.
S
hall
we
haw
a coffee?",
I've

just
had
one,
but
you
go
ahead.
29
Que
stions
and
answers
20
Question
tags
-+
Audio
A The
form
of
a negative
tag
:0
The form of a tag depends on the subject and auxiliary of the main clause:
/l
's
. , isn'l it? The s
lm
cture
of

a nega
ti
ve
tag is auxiliary + n't + pronoun.
It's raining, isn't
it
?
You
've finished now,
hav
en'
t you?
Th
e others can
go,
can't they?
In simple tenses we use t
he
aux
jli
ary verb
do.
Louise works
at
the hospital,
do
es
n't
sh
e?

You
came h
ome
lat
e,
didn
't you?
In these
examples
the
main
clause has the ordinary
ve
rb be,
It's
co
lder today, isn', it? Those sausages were ni
ce,
weren't they?
Art
er I
am
or I'm

the lag
is
aren't
T?
I'm ulte, aren't I?
NOTE

A negative tag
occas
i
ona
ll
y has the
full
form 'lOt
In
stead
of
,,'
t.
Nol co
mes
af
ter the prono
un
.
Progr
ess
is
bcHig made, is
it
not?
This s
l.
ruclUre is used in a formal style
or
10 add emphasi

s.
B The
form
of
a positive
tag
A
po
sitive tag is like a negative on
e,
but
without n 'l.
It
is
n
't
raifling,
is
it?
You
have,,'t finish
ed,
/rave you?
These beans
do
n',
taste very nice,
do
th
ey?

C
More
details
about
the
pronoun
We
ca
n use the su
bj
ect th
ere
in
a tag.
There were lots
of
people at the carnival, weren't there?
But
we do not use this, that, these
or
those in the tag,
We
use
it
or
ch
ey instead.
11wt
!Va
s lucky. wasn't it?

Th
ese
plates aren't very expensive, are they?
If
the subject is a word ending in -one or -body
(e
.g. anyone. nobody), we use
Ih
ey
in a t
ag.
Anyone could
ju
st walk in her
e,
co
uldn't
th
ey?
Nobody lik
es
go
ing
to
the dentist, do
th
ey?
If the subject is a word
end
ing in -thi"g,

we
use
it
in a tag.
So
me
lh
illg/e
ll
aUla/your
bag.
didn
'l
il
?
20
Question t
ag
s
o Summary
of
structures
with
tags
OFF TO A
USTRALIA
lames: It's colder today, isn't
il
l
Ti

m:
Yes,
it's not lIery warm, is it?
But
I'll be
off
to Australia s
oon
,
as
usual.
Jam
es:
Lucky
yo
u.
You
go there every year, do
you
?
Tim:
Yes,
I always spend
our
winter in Sydney.
lames: You
gee
che best
of
both worlds,

don't
you?
There are
thr
ee main structures.
Positive
statement
+ nega
tiv
e tag:
Nega
ti
ve stateme
nt
+ pos
iti
ve tag:
Po
siti
ve
statement
+ positive
tHg
:
NOTE
for
tags with th e
imp
erative and let's.
>lIE-F.

II
's
your
birthday, isn't it? > E
Il isn't your birthday,
is
it
? > F
It's
your
birthday, is it? > G
E Positive
statement
+
negative
tag

Audio
This kind
of
tag as
ks
the hearer to agree
th
at the
sta
tem
ent in the main clause
is
true.

rt
is sometimes obvious
that
the stat
em
ent
is
true
. For example, in the
conversation in
D,
both
James
and
Tim know that it is colder today. In the
sentence
It's colder
coday,
isn't it?
th
e tag is
nut
rea
lly
a re
qu
est
for
information. It is
an

invitation
to
the
hearer
to
res
pond
.
It's cold, isn't
it
?-
1t'
s freezing. I sh
ou
ld
ha
ve
put
a coat on.
You
're Italian,
aren't
you?-
Yes,
I come
from
Milan. I'm staying here
with so
me
frie

nd
s.
We
can
u
se
a tag in a reply.
It's
not
so
warm
today. - No, it's freezing, isn't it?
Here the tag expresses agreement.
We
do
not need to reply
to
it.
Wh
en the
statement
is
cl
ea
rl
y true, a falling intonation is used
on
the ta
g.
/t

's
cold,

isn't
it
?
Co
a/fires
are nice,

aren't
they?
Bur
when
the
spea
ker is not sure if
th
e
sta
teme
nt
is true, the voice
ca
n rise on
the ta
g.
You'll be back in the spring,
,.
won

"
you
?
We'
re
going
the
rig
ht
way,
,.
aren't
we?
'"
I
hop
e
so.
In the second example the speak
er
can
choo
se
a rising intonation in order
10
ask for reassurance.
NOTE
Sometimes a tag with a
ri
sing intonation

can
expre
ss
surprise.
They have central heating, do,,'t
ril
ey
? Everyone has
cen
tral heating nowadays.
Compare Don 'l they
haw
cen/rat heating?, which
aJ
so expresses
s
u
r
pri
s~
.
>
18A
31
Questions and answers
32
F Negative
statement
+ positive
tag

-+
Audio
This struc
tur
e is used mostly
in
the s
ame
way as the examples in E. The tag
invites the hearer
lO
res
pond
.
Co
mpare
the'se sentences.
/t
's
co
lder,
iSIl
't
it
?
It isn't
so
warm,
is
il?

With both nega
ti
ve and pos
iti
ve
tags,
th
e
vo
ice falls when it
is
obvious that
the stateme
nt
is tru
e.
In
these
exa
mpl
es
with
a rising intonation, t
he
speaker expresses suspicion
or
disapproval
by
inviting the hearer to confirm
or

deny something.
You didn't
make
a scene,
did
you?
-N
o,
of
course I
didn
'
t.
You aren
't
staying in bed ail day,
are
you?
The second example
means
'I hope you aren't staying in bed all
da
y.'
We
can also use the structure with a rising intonation to ask a tentative
question
or
make a tentative re
que
s

t.
You hallen't heard the test results,
have
you
?-N
o, sorry, I haven't.
You cou
ldn'
t lend
me
ten pounds,
could
you
?
'"
Yes
,
OK.
A negative statement can have a negative word
other
than
not
.
There's been
no
news yet, has there?
You
nev
er:
tell

me
anything, do you?
G Positive
statement
+ positive
tag
-+
Audio
This structure has a differe
nt
m
ea
ning
to the examples with a negati
ve
s
tatement
or
a nega
ti
ve tag. Look at this p
ar
t of the conversation in
D.
Jame
s:
I'll
be
off
to Australia soon, as usual.

Tim: You go there every year, do
you?
Tim realizes from Jame
s's
words (as usuafJ that J
ames
goes every year. The
information is
new
to him. He is expressing interest
and
in
vi
ting James
[0
continue
the conv
er
sation
and
give
him
more details. Tim's words
mean
'Oh,
so you
go
there eve
ry
year.'

Here
are
some
more
examples.
I've got
no
time
at
the
moment
.
,
You're busy, are
you
?
-
Very
busy, I'm afraid.
ViC
kY
doesn 't live here
any
more.
'"
Oh, 'she's moved,
has
she?
, ,
She

moved
out
a
bout
a
month
ago.
In
th
e
sec
ond
exam
ple
she's
mOl/e
d,
has
she?
mean
s
th
at I r
ea
li
ze
she h
as
mo
ved but I would like you to confirm this

and
perhaps te
ll
me
mor
e.
Compare
the positive
and
negative tags.
We can't
move
this cupboard., ,.lt
's
h
eallY
, isn't
it
? I tri
ed
to lift it,
but
I couldn'
t.
Here the s
econd
speaker already knows that
it
is heavy.
BUI

in the fo
ll
ow
ing
ex
ampl
e, the information
that
it
is
heavy is new to the second speaker.
We can't
move
this cupboard.
-It'
s heall
Y.
is it? / was afraid it might be.
21
Echo
questions and echo tags
NOTE
a
111
infurmal speech a statement tag
is
somet1mes us
ed
after a
po

siti
ve
Statement.
Yuu're crazy,
YOII
are. That was great, that
was
. Jt makes me mati,
it
does
The tag adds emphasis
to
the
statement.
b A positive statemenl + positive
rag
is nol used in Ame
ri
can Enghsh.
21
Echo questions
and
echo
tags
A Echo
questions
We
can use an echo question when we do not understand what
someone
says. or we find it hard to believe.

I often eat
bies
of
wood.
~
What
do
you
eat?/You eat what?
My
father knew Bill Clinton. - Who did he know?/
J-I
e knew who?
Did you see the naked
/ody?
- Did I see the what?
The seco
nd
speaker is asking the first
(Q
repeat the important information.
The voice rises
on
the question word.
, What have they done? They've done " what?
NOTE
We
can
use a Slatelllcm with rising intonation
to

check that
we
heard
correc.:t
ly.
I often
ear
bilS
of
wood You ear bits
of
wood?
B Echo
tags

Audio
We
form
an
echo tag
lik
e a question tag. A positive statem
ent
is
followed by a
positive tag, and
a negative stat
ement
is followed by a negative tag.
We're moving hou

se
soon. -
Oh,
are you? .
The
team played brilliantly.
-Did
they really?
My
sister isn't very
well.
, "
I
sn't
she? I'm sorry
to
hear that.
The
children can't swi
m Ca
n't
they
?
These tags express interest in what
someone
has just said. The voice
ri
ses.
Oh,

are you? Did th
ey"
r
ea
ll
y?
Now
look at these exampl
es.
We're
moving house SOOIl."'" You
aren't
,
ar
e you?
The children
ca
n
't
sw
im

They
can, can't they?
Max won
th
e prize.

He
did"

't,
did
he?
The last example expresses surprise or disbelief. The speaker didn't expect
Max to win [he prize.
We
can
use a negative tag in reply to a positive statement.
•
That was great

Yes,
waslI't it?
/t
's
a lovely day.
'"
It
is,
isn"
it
?
The team played brilliantly. -
Yes,
didn't
they?
In
the last example. both
spea
kers

saw
the team and agree that they played
very
well.
33
Leaving
out
and replacing
words
22
Avoidance
of
repetition
A In this
conv~rsat
ion
Mary
's
friends
are
talking abollt
her
new
glasses.
34
MARY
'S
GLASSES
Sarah:
Tom:

Simon:
Tom:
Simon:
Mary's got a
new
pair
of
glasses, look, Do
es
she look different
to before?
No, J
wouldn'r
say
so,
They're very nice. I like them.
I rather like
chern,
yes.
1
think
chey suit
you
extremely well.
Susan: I chink they're good.
Simon:
Tom:
Mary:
Susan:
Tom:

Simon:
Mary:
Very nice.
Yes
: are they a bit bigger
than
your
prem'ous ones?
Mm.
quite
a lot.
l prefer rhem
to the
last.
ones.
Yes,
I
think
they're nice.
They're a different shape, definitely.
Yes,
they're very circular. The
olher
ones were a bit
more
- were lhey a
Vil
more
square?
Yes

, tha.t's right.
And
these are photochromic.
In
many
of
these
sentences,
some
words
are left
out
or
replaced
by a
pronoun.
We
do this
to
avoid repeating a
wo
rd when it
is
not necessary to
repeat'
it.
For example, the topic of the conversation is Mary's glasses, so
there
is
no need to keep repeating

the
word
glasses.
Sentence
I like
them
.
And
th
ese
are pholOchramic.
Very
ni
ce.
r would'l',
say
so.
That's
right.
Meaning
I like
the
glasses.
And these glasses
an
i photochromic.
The glasses
are very nice.
I
wouldn't

say
that
she
looks different.
That
the
other
ones
were a bit
more
square
is right.
23 Replacmg
and
leav
ing
out
nouns
NOTE
So
mellmes we
ca
n Icave
OU
I or rep
la
ce
wo
rd
s

Ihal
come later in the senlencc.
If
you
WI1n(
10.
yo
u
Cl
m
pay
by
credit
(.1m/.
(= If
yo
u want to pay by credit card . . . )
After he had
been gi
ve
" oxygen,
rh
e patient
re
covered
(= After the
patient
had been given oxygen, . . )
Here he refers forwards to the
paciem,

whi
ch comes laler in the sent
t'
nce
B
It
is not always possible to avoid
rep
etition.
We
sometimes
need to repeat a
word
to make the meaning clear.
I bought a
book
and
a
CD
yesterday. I've got
the
book
here,
but
I can't
remember where I pUl the
CD
.
We
cannot

u~e
it
instead
of
the
book
or
the CD because we need
to
make clear
which
one
we are talking about.
It
is sometimes
more
helpful to repeal things
because
it
makes the meaning
easier to understand.
After aboll/
half
a
mil
e you'll see a school
on
the
lefl.
Tum

right
just
after
the
school.
We
can also repeal words for emphasis.
This
ja
cket
is
COllon, the b
es
t
cotton
you
can gel.
It
is
possible here to say the best
you
c
an
get,
but
the
speaker chooses
to
emphasi?e the f
ac

t that the jacket is
made
of
cotton.
23
Replacing and leaving
out
nouns
We
often replace a
noun
phrase with a
pronoun
to avoid rep
ea
ting the no
un
,
as
happens
with glasses in MAny'S (
;L
ASSES in 22.
Mary's got
some
new
glasses. They're very ni
ce.
Have
you

seen Mary? She's got
so
me
new
glasses.
For
more
details
about
pronoun
s,
> 175.
We
can also leave
out
a noun after certain word
s.
A number: There's
only
one CD
il1
he
re
.
""
No,
tI,
ere are
two, look.
A quantifier: I've

got
some
chocolate h
ere.
Would
YOll
like
some?
This, that, these,
or
tho
se:
Myoid
glasses weren't pholochromic,
but
these are.
A
super
lative adjective: Which
que
stion was lhe
most
difficult?

;
We
cannot
leave out
the
whole

noun
phra
se.
(NOT I've got
some
chocolate her
e.
Wottld-y&tJ-like1)
35
Leaving
out
and replacing words
24 Leaving
out
words
afte
r the auxiliary
36
A A
se
ntence
can
end
with
an
auxiliary if the
meaning
is clear from
the
context.

I'm doing this wrong. -
Yes
, it looks as
ifyuu
are.
Kale
hadn't broug/u
an
umbrella. She was pleased
10
see that l.auren
had
.
I
dOIl
't
want
to
answer chis leller,
but
perhaps / should.
Can
you get cable
TV?
We
can
.
If
the
verb is in a

simple
tense,
we
usc
the
auxiliary verb do.
I
don
't enjoy parties as
much
as
my
wife does.
Don'llaugh
.
IJ
you do, I'll kill you.
We
can
also
end
a
sentence
with t
he
orciinary verb
be.
This piece isn't long enou.gh

111i

s one
is
.
V\
'e
of
len
use
this kind
of
sentence
when
we
are
expressing a
compariso
n
or
contrast.
The
meeting went OIJ [oliger
than
I thouglll
it
wou
ld.
I'm
fWI
a s
wd

ent,
but
my
girlfriend is.
NOTE
The stress can be on the auxiliary or the slIbject, whichever is the new infurma
ti
on.
I've made a
mlSwke
. -
Yes.
I'm afrOld you
HAVE
(focus on the fact)
Someo
ne
's
matte a mIstake -
Yes,
I'm
a/rrJuJ
~
'OU
have. (fOl" llS on the person)
B The auxiliary can
be
positive
or
negative. A positive auxiliary

cannot
be
a
short
form .
Am
I too late? -
Yes
, I'm afraid
you
are. (
NOT
I!m
-afraid
,Ob.
'.
e.)
fiU(
an
auxilia
ry
can
be
followed by
rWi
or
uy
the
short form
It

'l.
Am
I
too
late? -
Of
course
you
aren
't/y
ou
're
not
.
We
can
use a negative auxi
li
ary to
co
ntrad
i
ct
someo
ne
.
VI
'
hal
did

you have Jor breakfast?

/
did~l
'I.
I never
hav
e breakfast.
C Usually everything aFter
the
auxilial)' is left
out.
Can you
see
now?, ,
Yes,
I can.
After
can we leave
out
see
now.
BUl
in
so
me
contexts
we
PUI
a

word
or
phrase
after
the
auxiliary, for
examp
le, a tag
or
an
adverbial.
This
is
a nice colour.
-I
t
is
, isn't it?
Is there a
markettoday
?-
I
don
'l know. There was yes(erday.
In
the
second
examp
le a market
is

left
out
of
the
allswer,
but
yesterday is new
information.
D So
metim
es we ha
ve
to use two auxiliary verbs. When the first auxiliary is a
n
ew
word in the
co
ntex
t,
we
can
not
leave
out
the
second.
Have the team
won?-
Everyone's smiling, so they
mllst

have
.
I
don
't
know
If
Tom is still waiting. He
might
be
.
When
is the fence going to be repaired? '"
It
already has been.
In
the
se
examp
les
mu
st, might.
and
has
ar~
new
in
the
contex
t,

so
we
use
both
verbs.
25
Other
structures
where
words are left
out
Bur when the (wo auxi
li
aries are
both
In
the previous sentence, then
\VC
can
leave
OllI
the
second
auxiliary.
The gale
hasn
't been repaired, bl.ll the fence
has
(been).
YOIl

could
have
hurl
yourself,
jumping
off
there.
-I
suppose
}
could
(
ha
lle).
In British English, do is sometimes used after
an
auxiliary.
I
don't
want
La
answer
this leller,
but
perhaps
I s
hould
(do).
Have we
won

the contract?, , nveryone's
smili
ng
, so we must
have
(do
li
e).
Here do
mean
s
'answer
the letter
',
and
done
means 'won the contract'.
25
Other
structures
where
words are left
out
A
Short
questions
A short
yes/no
queslion consists
of

an
auxilia
ry
+ suhject.
I've been to New York before.
Have
you?-No,
I haven'l.
I
wanted
Karen
to
pa.
~s
her test. , "And
did
she? -
Yes
, forwnately.
Here it
is
clear from the context thal
And
did
she?
mean
s 'And d
id
she pass
her

test't
In
a short wh-question, we simply use a question word or question
phra
se
I
think
I'm
going to give
up
my course .
,
Really?
Mty?
I've gOl a
hair
appointment
litis afternoon.
""
What
lim
e?
When the question word
is
the subject,
th
e ClLlxilial), can come after
it'.
Something rather st
rang

e
has
happened.
'" W/1at (
has
)?
A sub-clause can also
end
with a
que
stion word
if
the meaning
is
clear from
the context.
The road is closed to traffic. No
one
knows
why
.
I
put
the
[eUer
somewhere,
and
now
I
can'l

remember
where
.
NOTE
For wily
III
s
tructures
su
ch
as
WIl
Y lite /iurry?
and
Wily bOllle
r?,
> I
SA
NOle
h.
B Leaving
out
a
to
-i
nf
i
nitive
clause
When there

is
no need to repeat a to-infinitive clause,
we
can sometimes
leave out the words after
to.
Would
you
like to
join
us for lunch?
Yes,
I'd love to.
lane
gut
(he job, al(hough
she
didn
'(
expecc
lO
.
We need
people
to serve
ref
reshments. Are
you
willing to?
I

didn't
take
any
notes
becaLL~e
I
didn't
feel ale need
~a.
You've swieched the campUler
of!
I
coLd
you not
to,
aidn't
I?
Th
is
happens most often when
to
follows a
ve
rb, adjecti
ve,
or
noun, c.g. love
to,
willing to, need to.
But we

repea
t
an
auxiliary after lo.
iane
was chosen
for
the
Job,
although
she
didn
'l expect
to
be.
I'm
nof
s
ure
if
lhe system
has
crashed.
bw
if
. seerns to h
ave
(done).
Leaving out and replacing words
Sometimes

we
can leave out to. This happens especia
ll
y after the verbs like,
try. and want.
You can s
cay
as long as
you
like.
Take one 0/ these brochur
es
If
you
want.
We
often leave
Out
to
after
an
adjective or noun.
You can'come through
now
if
you're ready.
I'd love t,o ask that
qu
es
lion,

but
/ Ilaven 't
gOlthe
nerve.
C Leaving
out
the
main verb
The main verb can sometimes be left out.
The boys sat on
the
wall
and
the girls
on
the seal.
{

and the girls sat on the seat.}
America has won twelve medals
and
Australia ten.
( and Australia has won ten medals
.)
We do not need to repeat the verb when there are
twO
clauses with the same
structure and the same verb.
26
Leaving

out
the
first
word
38
A
In
conversational English certain kinds of words can be left out at the
beginning
of a sentence
if
the meaning
is
clear without them.
A:
Ready?
B:
Sorry,
no
.
CaIl'C
find
my car
lceys.
A: Doesn't maller. We can go
in
my
car.
Betler gel going, or we'll be late.
lt

is
clear
in
this s
it
uation that Ready? means 'Are you ready?'
and
that Doesn't
matter
means 'It doesn't matter.'
B The pronoun
J can be left out at the beginning
of
a statement.
Can't
find
my keys. [= I
can't
find my
keys)
We
can leave out J and a positive auxiliary.
Sorry I was late. (= I'm sorry I was lale.)
Talk
10
you
suo
n.
(=
1'

lIl
alk
to
you soon.)
It, it's, or there's can also be left out.
Peels
colder coday. [=
It
feels colder today.)
Co
lder today.
(=
U'
s co
ld
er today
.)
A cold
wind
coday.
(=
There's a cold wind today.)
We
can sometimes leave out alan or the before a noun at the beginning of
the sentence.
Cup
of
coffee is whac I lIeed. (A cup
of
coffee

)
Television's broken down. (The
tel~vision

)
27
Too,
either, so, and neither/nor
C
We
can
leave
out
the auxiliary or
the
ordinary
verb
he
from a yes
Ina
question.
Your
problem
been sorted
out?
(=
Has your
problem
been sorted out?)

Everything
all
right?
(;
Is everything all right?)
We
can
some
times leave
out
the
subject
as well,
especia
ll
y
if
the subject is
you
or
there.
Tired?
(;
Arc you tired?)
Any
free seats in here?
{=
Are
there
any

fr
ee
seats
in here?}
Need a loan? Just give us a ring. (=
Do
you
need
a
loan
?)
The
last
example
is
from
an
advertisement
whi
ch
is
written in a
conversational style.
D
We
can
some
time
s leave
out

an
imperative verb,
especia
lly be
or
a verb
which
expresses
movement.
Careful.
(;
Be careful.)
This way, please.
(;
Come
this way, please.)
27
Too, either,
so,
and
neither/nor
A
Too
and
either
After a
clause
th
ere
ca

n
be
a
short
addition
with
lOo
or
either. It expresses
the
idea
that
what
is
true
of
one
thing
is also
true
of
another.
These are
the
patterns.
Posit
iv
e:
subjec
t + auxiliary + too

You're
yawning.
'"
You
are, too.
We
're
bOlh
tired
.
Negative:
subject
+ aux.iliary + n'l +
either
My
sister can'l drive,
and
lIer
husband
can't
either.
In
simple
tenses
we u
se
the iluxiliary verb do.
I like chocolate

/ do, lOO.

That
calculator doesn't
work

This
one
doesn't
either.
We
can
also use be
on
it
s
own
as
an
ordinary
verb.
I'm tired.
-1
am,
laO.
In informal English we
can
say
Me
too
or
Me

neither.
I'm lired.
'"
I
am,
too.lMe too.
I
haven't
gOI
any
money.
""
I
haven't
eirher.lMe
neither.
B
So
and
neitherfnor
We
can
also form a
short
addition with so
and
neither
or
110r
. Here so

mean
s
' lOO',
'a
lso'.
39
Leaving
ou'
and replacing words
Positive: so + aux iliary + subject
I like chocolate. - So do I.
You
're beawiful. - So are you.
Children s
hould
beha/lB lhemse
llJes,
and
so
should
adults.
Negative: neither! nor + auxiliary + s
ubject
'
My
sisler can't drive,
and
neil
her
/

nor
can
her
husband.
We haven't got a colour printer. - Neither/Nor
have
we.
The apples don't taste very nice.
", Neither/Nor do
the
oranges, I'm afraid.
So
do I
mean
s
the
same as J
do
too, and neither!
nor
do I
means
the
same
as J
don't either.
NOTE
fo
r Chi
ldr

en slwuld beha
ve
th
em
se
l
ves,
as
should adults, > 233D NOlc.
C Negative
after
positive; positive
after
negative
In
the
se example
s,
a negative
addition
follows a positive s
tatement,
and
vice
versa. This
kind
of
addition
is
used

to
express a
contrast.
\"'hat
is
true
of
one
thing
is
not
true
of
another.
I'm tir
ed.
"-'
Well,
I'm
not
.
We
don't
go
bowling.
,
WE
do.
The
stress

is
on
the subject J
and
we.
We
can
al
so use a short s
tatement
to
contradict
what
s
omeone
say
s.
You're tired.
'"
N
o,
I'm
NOT.
You don't go bowling.
, ,
We DO.
The
slles
s is
on

not
or
on
the
auxiliary.
28
So
and
not:
I
think
so,
I
hope
not,
etc
40
A So replacing a clause
The
word so
ha
s a
number
of
different uses. In these examples, it replaces a
whole clause.
Will you be going out?
'"
Yes
, J expect

so.
~
(
:::
I
expect]
will
be
going
DUt.) .
I'm
not
su.re
If
this
is
the right
an
swer, bll t 1
think
so.
[s
your luggage insured?

[ don't know. I
hop
e
so.
-
Has the committee reached a decision? '" iNell: il

se
em
s so.
,
Vve
cannot
leave
out
so,
and
we
cannot
use, it in
the
se
cont
e
xt
s.
(
NO
T -¥es.+expeel. ) and (NOT
-Y
er,-/-eJ::
pee
/ t
l)
In this
structure
with so replacing a claus

e,
:we can li
se
these verbs
and
expressions: be afraid, it appears/appe
ar
ed, a
ss
um
e. believ
e,
r.x
p
ec
l,
gu
ess,
hope, imagine, presume, say,
it
seems/seemed, suppose, susp
ec
t,
teil
(someone), think.
Por do
so,
>
29A.
28

50
and
not
· I th
ink
so, I
hope
not.
etc
We
do not use
knuw
or be sure
in
this struc
tur
e.
The flight
has
been cancelled.
'"
Ye
s,
I
know
. (
NO
T
¥e~tUHtJ-"W.
J

The flight h
as
been cancelled.

Are
you
s
ur
e?
(NOT
Are-J'otHUr
e-stt?)
NOTE
We
can u
s£'
so with the
ve
rb
be.
r m travellmg
around
t i
ll!
world

Is
rllal
so
?

Here
Is
thut
so?
(= Is that tru
e?)
ex
presses mterest.
B
So
or
not
in
the
negative
There
are
two negative structures.
Negative verb
+ so: Will
you
be
going
ou
t?, ,
I
don't
e
xpect
so.

Positive verb + ntJl: Is this watch
broken?
- !
hop
e not.
With
the
verbs expect, imagine,
and
think,
we usually form the negative with
n't

so.
Is
it a
publi
c
holiday
on
Monday?
, ,
J
don't
think
so.
I
think
not
is

possible but rather fomlal.
There are
some
verbs and phrases which always form the negative with not.
It's
no
use
wailing
any
longer

I
gue
ss
flat.
Is
this
pictur
e worth a lot
of
money
?
-I'm
afraid
not
.
These verbs include assume, gues
s,
hop
e,

pr
es
ume, and suspect.
We
also use
not
after
afraid
.
Some
ve
rbs can be used in either structure.
Will they give us a day off?
'""'
1
don't
s
uppose
so.
We
can't
just
le
ave
without
telling a
nyon
e
I
suppose

not.
These verbs arc appear,
believe,
say,
see
m,
and
su.ppose.
The two structures with
say
ha
ve
different meanings.
Is
the
illness seriou
s?
- 1 don't
kn
ow. The doctor
didn
't
say
so.
ls the illtwss seriou
s?
'""'
No,
it i
SH'

t. T
he
doctor
said
flat
.
C
So
at
the
beginning
With a few verbs,
so
can come at the beginning
of
the
clause.
We
use this
structure
to
co
mment
on the truth of a statement.
Is there going to
be
an
extra day's
holiday?-
Well, so I've he

ard
.
The
exam
has
been
postponed. Or so I
understand
.
These verbs include
assum
e,
believe, he
ar
, say,
and
und
erSland.
We
can use so they say
to
ex
press the idea that a piece
of
information
ma
y be
just a rumour.
Th
ey'

re
giving
away
free
ticket~'i.
Or
so
they
say.
So
yo
u s
ay
expresses doubt or disbelief
about
w
hat
someone
says.
You're bounr}
lO
gel a
ni
ce
welcome

So
you
say
. I rather

doubt
it
myself
We
can
al
so
li
se
appear
and seem after it.
Mark
and
Laura.
are
good [r,-ends

So
it
appears. I
So
it
seems.
41
I.caving
out
and
replacing
words
o

If
so and
if
not
So
and
nOl
can
r
ep
lace a clause after
if
Looking for a higher rate
of
interest?
If
so,
you need our Super
Sa/Jers
account_
Have you
gOl
transport?
If
not
, I can give you a lift.
E
Not
after
an adverb

We
can also use not after certain adverbs.
Will
your
friend be fit w
travel?-No
, definitely
not
.
These adverbs include certainly, definitely, maybe,
of
course, perhaps,
possibly, presumably,
and
probably.
29 More
patterns
with
so
12
A
Do
so,
do it, and do
that
We can
use
do
so
or

do
it
to
avoid repeating
an
action verb and the words that
ro
ll
ow
it.
Do
so
is
a little formal.
If
you
have
not
already
paid
this bill, please
do
so immediately.
She
had always
wanted
to
fly
a plane,
and

now
al
last s
he
was
doing
sol
it
.
The stress
is
on do, not on
so
or it.
When
do
has a different
subject
from the verb it replaces,
we
cannot
use
so.
Everyone else
jumped.
Why
couldn't
you.
do
it?

Here the
subjec
ts everyone
else
and
you
are different.
When we use
do
that, we usually stress
lhal'.
We need someone
to
serue drinks.
"-'
I'll
do
TfiAT
if
you
like.
J
might
tell
th
e boss exactly what J
think
oj
her.
-Oh,

J
wouldn
't
do
THAT
if
1
were you.
In
this last example,
that
is stressed to express surprise or shock at the kind of
action that
is
mentioned.
B
So
in short answers
A short answer with
so
can express agreement. The structure is
so
+
pronoun
+ auxiliary or be. . .
You can't go this way. This is a
one-wayslreet Oh,
so
it
is.

So it
is
means
that
the speaker agrees
that
it is a one-way street. H
e/She
is
noticing
or
re
membering
it.
Compare
these
t\vo structure
s.
You '
ve
made
a
mistake

So
J hall
e.
(I agree that I have made a mistake.)
I've
made

a mistake.
'"
So
have
I.
(I have
made
a mistake, too.)
c
So
and
that
way
So
can
replace
an
adjective after become
and
remain.
The situation
is
not yet $eriotts,
but
it
may
become so.
(:::
It
may

become
serious.)
30
Special styles
So
is
rather
formal here. In informal English we use get/stay That way.
The situation isn't serious yel,
but
it
may
gel
that
way.
We
can
also use so after more or l
ess.
Il's usually quite busy here - more so in summer,
of
cou
rse.
o
The
same
The
same can repl
ace
words just

mentioned,
such as a
complement
or
an
object.
Monday was beautiful,
and
Tuesday was
the
same.
What are you having?

Steak
and
chips.
, "
I
think
I'll have
the
same.
We
can
lise do the
same
(thing)
to
refer
to

an
action
just
mentioned.
The actorfargot his lines
at
a vilal
moment.
The nexc night he
did
the
same
(thing). (= The next night
he
forgot
his
lines
again.)
We
can
also
usc
say the same (th ing) or
think
the
same
to
reporl words
or
thoughts that have just been

mentioned.
The first person I asked said they disagreed with the idea, and everyone else
said
the
same
(thing). (= Everypne else said
they
disagreed
with
the
idea
.)
The others
think
we should take part,
and
I
think
the
same.
(= J think we
should
take parL)
Note
the
express
ion
feel
the
sa

me
or
feel the
same
way.
The
ot
hers
think
we should take part,
and
J feel
the
sa
me
(way).
We
can
use The
same
is true
of

or
The
same
goes for .

to
show that

information
about
one
thing also applies
to
another.
Tile Labour Party
is
divided on the issue,
and
the
same
is
true
of
the
Conservativ
es.
(
::::
The Conservatives
are
also
divided
on
the issue.)
There is a shortage
of
cheap housing here,
but

the
same
goes
for
other
places.
(:::
There
is
also
a
shortage
of
cheap
housing
in other places.)
NOTE
We
can use (The) same to you
to
return
go
od wishes.
Ilappy New Year!- Thank you. (The)
same
to
YO".
30 Special styles
In some special styles
of

English, words are le
ft
out
to save space.
A Signs
and
labels
A sign
or
label usually gives
the
nec
essary information in as
few
words
as
pO
SS
ible, e.g. Office, No entry, Airmail, Sold.
Leaving
oul
and replacing words
B Newspaper headlines
Alan, the,
and
the verb be arc often left
oui
of
headlines.
Stone circle discovery

(:::
The
discover)' of a
stone
circle)
PM
on
holiday
(;:
The
Prime Minister is,
on
holiday
.)
The
simple
present
is
often used to refer to recent event
s,
where
norm
a
ll
y
the
present perfect would
be
used.
Actor dies

(;:
An
actor
has
died.)
Bomb
kills boy. (= A
bomb
has
killed a boy.)
A passive participle
on
its
own
is
often
used instead
of
the
present
perfect
passive.
Six arrested in raid
(:;
Six
people
have
been
arrested
in a raid.)

A to-infinitive is
sometimes
used
with a
future
meaning.
Factory to close
(;:
A factory is
going
to close.)
C Instructions
lh
e
is
sometimes
left
out
of
instructions.
Open
bauery
compartment
cover
by
pushing
in direction
of
arrow.
(;:

the
battery
compartment
cover.,.
the
direction

the
arrow)
When
an
instruction
is
on
the
thing it refers to,
there
is often no
need
for
the
verb
to
ha
ve
an
object.
Handle with care. (on a parcel)
Do

not
cover. (on a
heat
er)
D
Note
style
English c
an
be
written in note style
when
information
needs
to be given as
brieny as
po
ss
ible, for
example
on
a postcard.
Arrived safely Saturday. Hotel OK, weather marvellous,
sun
shining. Lots to
do
here. Going
on
excursion
tomorrow

.
However, this style would
not
be
polite
in
a letter,
where
there
is
space
for
full sentences.
This example
is
from
i'I
guidebook.
French-style cafe
on
two /loors,
just
off
Bridge
St.
Nice paslries a.nd delicious
coffee downstairs.
Some
hot
food served upsta

irs.
Trendy law-night
hangout; office crowd during the day.
.
The
wo
rds left
out
include
J
and
we,
alan
and
the, auxiliary verbs,
the
verb
be
and
there isl are.
,
Text messages
often
usc
n
ote
style
and
abbre
viations.

Arrive in 30 mins. CU soon.
(:;
1 will
arnve
in thirty minutes. See you soon
.)
Word order and emphasis
31
Introduction
A
Imagine
y
ou
are
sitting
in
<l
cafe
\<\
'i(h a friend
drinking
a
cup
of coffee
wh
en
one
of
you
makes

this
comm
ent.
This coffee
ta
stes awful.
This s
tatement
begins
with
the s
ubj
ect
(This coffee)
and
the
verb (lastes
).
Thi
s
is the
normal
word
or
der
in a s
tatem
en
t.
Her

e a co
mpl
e
ment
(
awful
)
follO\-\
's
the
ve
rb
. For
details
of
w
hat
can
follow t
he
verb, > 4.
We
can
also look
at
the
sentence
from
the
poim

of
v
iew
of
the inform<1tion
it
co
mmuni
c
ate
s.
The
first
phra
se
(1
l1i
s
coHee)
is
the
IOpic,
whut
~he
se
nte
nce
is
about.
The

lasl
phrase
(awful) is the i
mp
ortant
informmion
nbout
{
he
topic
.
This coffee
is
'
old
informat
i
on
'
hecause
it
is
natu
rally in
our
thoughts
in
th
e
situation.

Awful
is
'new
inform
a
tion'
,
the
point
of
the
message. The
sentenc
e
Slarts w
ith
old
informat
i
on
and
then
{ells
us
so
mething
ne
w
about
it.

This
is a
ty
pi
cal way
of
com
mun
icating in
fo
r
malion,
although
it
is
certainly
not
an
absolute
rule.
B
Some
time
s
there
are
different
ways
of
sa

yi
ng
the
s
ame
tiling
.
Compar
e
the
st'
pairs
of
senten
ces.
-


The Studio
Cafe
does better coffee
than this.
A group
of
Wi
/Ven
t
to
the SlItdio
Caf

e last week.
I like
the
atmosph
e
re
In
this pla
ce.


·
lhis
coffee isn't as
good
as
Ul
LIIe
S
iudio
Caf
e.
tast
week 0
grollp
oI
us we
nt
10
tile

StudIO C
aR
.
What
J like
abollt
this place is lhe
atmosp
here.

-

-




Each
pair
of
se
nt
ences
or
der
s
the
inf
ormation
ill a

different
way.
Th
e
choice
of
one
or
the
other
will
depend
on
the
c
ontext
and
what
information
is ol
el
or
new. The rest
of
this
chapt
er
is
about
how

we
make
suc
h choices.
32
Linking
the
information
In
a
text
Olll(,
li\
or
TI
JF
tlNI\
·
EHSE
lylrmy scientists think. t
hat
(he
ullilJer
se
was
bom
in
a
co
lossal explos

io1l
called the Big
Bal1g
. [II thi$ explosioll, 15,
{JOO
J'llilliofl
years a
go,
a{/
maller
,
en
ergy, space
anti
rime were created.
Of
COline
110
Olle
was
There
to
wU
us
what happened. But
discoIJ
e
rie$
in
pl'l

ys
i
cs
and
ast
ro
nomy
hav
e
cll{1hJed
scientists
to
[race
IILe
Universe's
Ili
story
to
its firsl fraction
of
Cl
second They
believe fiT Ihm time' the Universe loas squashed illlo a
lin
y
/Jo
ll/flle,
alld
il
ha

s
been
expanding
ever since. The Big
Bong
"l1-ieofy
was
put
forward
in
1933.
Anolher
idea, called the Steady Stare Theory, was suggesled in 1948. '1his said
45
Word
order
and emphasis
cltal Ilew
mat
erial was continuously being created,
alld
so overali
lh
e
Univer
se
would
not change. The Stea
dy
Slate Theory

ha
s
now
been
discounted. More recemly,
scientists
ha
ve
been
looking
into
Ih
e f
wur
e
of
the
Universe.
YVhal
happens next?
(from
Tile
Dorling
KUidetslt.ry
Scien
ce
En
cyclo
pt.'CiUl
)

When
we are writing a text
we
usua
ll
y
try
to stan e
ach
sente
n
ce
with
something
known
or
expected in
the
context.
Us
ua
ll
y
it
relates
to
so
mething
just
mentioned.

The
new
information
comes
later in
the
se
nt
ence.
For
example,
in
the
sentence
The
Steady Slate Theory
ha
s
now
been
discou
nt
ed,
the
theory
is
already in
our
thoughts
because

it
has
just
been
mentioned. The
new
and
important
information
is
that
scien
ti
sts no
longer
believe
it.
Here
are
some
ways in which
th
e
startillg~pojllt
of a
sente
nc
e can link to
something
mentioned

in
the
previous sentence.
Type
of
link
lust
mention
ed in
the
Star
ting~poilll
of
the
previous
sen
te
nce
n
ew
se
nten
ce
Repearing a word
in
a colossal
exp
losion

In

this explosion,

Using a
pronoun
have enabled scientists

They bel ieue .
Expressing
something
lhe
Universe
was
+-
The Hig Hang Theory
in different words
squashed
into
a tiny
was
'"
volume
,
and
il
has
been
expanding
ever since
Making a co
ntra

st
has
now
been
+-
More recently,
discounted
sc
iemi
sts

Most of the
se
ntence
s in O
RI
GIN
or
TIlE U
NIVERSE
take as their starting-
point
an
idea which
is
already familiar or which links
to
something
earlier in the text.
This helps

the
reader
to see h
ow
one
se
ntence
follows
on
from
anoth
er.
TIP
When
writing a
composition,
try
to
link your
sentences
by
starting
each
one
with known information
and
then
sayi
ng
something

new
about
it.
33
Linking
the
subject
46
We often use
the
subject
to
link
with
what
has
gone
before.
The men
ar
e in prison. They raided five banks.
There was a series
of
mbberies. Five
banks
were raided.
The girls
did
well. Celia won
th

e firs! prize.
There
were
lOI
S
of
prizes. Ti,e first
prize
went
to
Celia.
We
can 'I
ge
l
all
thefurnirure
in. The sofa
is
too big to
go
through
the
door.
There
's
a ,,,oblem. The door
isll
'l
wid

e enough
to
get the
so
fa
through.
34
Front positIon
We
can
often
express
an
idea in differe
l1l
ways, e,g, They raidedjilJe
bank
s. I
Five banks were raided. In
these
examples
the
sub
ject relates 10
the
previolls
sentence
and
the
new information

comes
at the
end
of
the sentence.
In
th
ese examples, the garage
and
Se
plemb
er wou
ld
typically co
me
after a
preposition
(i
n). Here
they
are
the subject
of
the
second
clause
or
sentence
.
111e

house was empty,
but
the
garage
contained
some
old chairs
and
tahles.
(;;:
There
were
some
old
chaits
and
tables in
the
garage.)
This
has
been
an
eventful
year
for
the
company,
September
saw

our
move
to
new
offices.
(=
V,le
moved
to
new
offices in
September
,)
Garage links
10
house
becau
se
it
is
n
ex
t to
the
hou
se,
and
SeptemiJer links 10
year
becaus

e
it
is
pan
of
the year. Note
that
ill
the
second example the
structure
Seplember
saw
.

is
rather
formal.
Sometimes we
can
use
an
abstract
nOlln to refer back
to
the
idea
in
the
previous

sentence.
Someone
threw
a
stone
through the
window.
This
incident
upset. evelyurle.
Lucy
had
jinally
made
up
her
mind
.
But
the
decision
had
nOl
been easy.
The people he
re
have
nothing. Tlleir {JOuerty
is
extreme

.
34
Front
position
The
su
bject often
comes
in front position (a t the beginning of a
sente
nce).
But it does not always
do
so. We c

to
put
another
phrase
in
front position
before the subject.
We
sometimes
do
this
to
emphasize
a
phra

se or
\0
contrast
it
with
phrases
in
other
sentences.
Putting
a
phrase
in
fron!
position
can
make
it
more
prominent
than
in its
normal
position.
A An adverbial in
front
position
Most kinds
of
adverbial can go

in
front
po
sition, for
example
truth
adver
bs,
comment
adverbs,
and
linking
adverbs>
200-202.
I'm flot
su
re
why
we're in
chis
traffic
jam.
Maybe
there
's
been
an
ac
cident
.

I left the car unlocked. Luckily
it
was still there
when
I got back.
The weather wasn't
velY good.
Despite
that
,
we
had
a good day oul.
Adverbials
of
time oflCn go in front pOSition. Look at
these
in
struction
s.
First
of
all
Sift the
flour
wld
salt
into
a large.
roomy

bowl. Then pill a grater
in the
bowl
and
coarsely grate
the
par
s
nip
s
into
the
flour.
then
to
ss
Ihem
around.
After
that,
add
the cubes
of
Parmesan an.d c
hopped
sage
and
toss
lhat
;11

.
Now
lightly beat the eggs
and
milk
togelher.
(from D. Smith Delia
's
Huw
(0
Cook)
Here the position of the adverbials
of
time
make
s it easier for
th
e reader
[0
see
the
seq
uence
of
eVents.
4,
Word
order
and
emphasis

48
Adverbs
of
place
and
frequency
can
COllle
in
front
position for c
ontrast
or
emphasis.
11
. was
warm
and
comfortable
in
the little
cOflagf?
Outside, it was geTting
dark. (Outside
contrasts
with in the cottag
e.)
Everyone shops
at
, the big

supermarket
now.
Quite
often
th
e little s
hop
IS
completely
em
pty. (emphasis on
quite
of
len)
An
adverb
of
manner
can
also
come
in front position.
Slowly the sun
sank
inlo the Pacific.
This can be
rather
literary.
B Inversion
after

an adverbial
This sentence
has
the normal word order:
subject
+ verb
+-
ad
verbial.
A
furniture
van
was
ou.t
side the house.
Now
lo
ok
at this
same
information
in
a written context
\-\There
the
adverbial
of
place (outside the house)
is
in

front positiofl to link with the information
(
number
sixteen) in the previous sentence.
Alan
walked
along
Elmdale Ave
nue
and
found
number
si
xteen
without
difficulty. Outside the
house
was
a
furniture
van.
After the adverbial
of
place
there
is inversion
of
the
subject (a
furniture

van)
and
the ordinary verb be.
(Nor
9tttsit1e-#te h(tt;tSe-a-fHfftftttre-tJa1't-ttffls.)
A
furniture
van
is tlie new information
and
comes
at the
end
of
the
sentence
.
We
can
do the
same
with
other
verbs
of
place
and
movement
, c.g. come, go,
lie,

Sil,
stand.
The room co
ntained
a table
and
four
chairs.
On
the
table lay a newspaper.
Detectives were
watching
the hause
when
oul
afthefront
duor
came
a
man
in a black coal.
The
important
information (a newspaper, a
man
in
a black coat)
comes
at the

end
of
the clause
or
sentence.
There is no inversi
on
with other verbs,
Outside the
hou
se
two
women
were talking.
(NOT
Gttt
$i~
~re
,'olking t-WtTwt.tmef!.)
NOTE
We
c<ln
also usc the
St
ructure
lliere
+
be
. >
35

There was (.I furniture van ourslrie the house.
C Inversion
after
here and there
We
can
use here
and
there
in
front position to draw attention
fo
something
in
the situation.
Here
is
em
announcem
ent
for
pa
ssengers
on
flight
lW513
to
Miami
.
(an airport

announcement)
And
there goes Wiiliams! Into the lead! (a
sports
commentary
)
In this structure we
can
use
b
e,
come,
or
go in the pre
se
nt
simple.
There
is
inversion
of
the
subject
and
verb. The subject,
th
e
new
information,
goes at

the
end.
Here
is
an
announcement.
35 T
he
empty subject there
But
when
the
subject is a prono
un
. t
here
is no inversion.
And
(h
ere go
es
Willi
ams!
Th
ere he go
es
, look!
lVhere
ar
c

my
ke.r.~?

Here
th
ey
an
!.
D An
object
or
comp
l
ement
in
front
position
We can somelimes put an o
bj
ect in
fr
om
po
si
ti
on, csp
t!
cially when it IS in
contrast with something
else, or when it makes a link with what h

as
gone
before.
Do y
ou
prefer cats or do
gs?-
Dogs
Il
o
lJ
e,
bur
cats
I
call
'I S
land
.
Hi
s possessions
from
hi
s pr
eu
io
ll
s
addr
ess

had
been delivered
to
her door
that
sarna
morning
:
tu
)(} hox
es
of personal e
Jf
ec
ls find
all
(I"Clem
iroll
bi
qcle.
The
bicycle she wheel
ed
ill
to the hack y
ard
. The boxes s
iz
e carried
upstair

s.
If
rom R
Ham
s l;
mgma
)
We
can
also s
om
etlm
es
puc a
co
mpl
ement in front pos
iti
on.
T
hey
enjo
yed
ril
e holid
ay.
Best
of
all
was

the
cons
la
nl sunshine.
Th
e scheme
ha
s
man
y good poin
ts,
One
advallilige
is
rh
e IO
llJ
cost.
There IS inversion. The subj
ec
t Uhe l
ow
cost) is the i
mport
ant new
information
and
comes a
ft
er the

ve
rb
he
.
35
The
empty
subject there
,.
A The
use
of
there
Imagine that two people are
di
sc
li
ssing \'vhere to CHI,
and
one
of them w
ant
c,
to
mention
a Chint'se res
tam
ant wh
ic
h is just

round
the
cor
n
er
. In this
situatIOn
a sentence
lik
e A C
hil1
ese r
es
ta
urant
is
round
'he
c
o"
wr would be
possi
bl
e but
Ullu
SU
ll
1.
A
ph

mse
wi
th
alan is usua
ll
y new information. and so
would not
usu
ii
ll
y come at
th
e bt'gi
nnin
g of such a s
enten
ce. I
ns
tead we u
se
a
structure with t!tere + he.
Where
can we e
at
?-
There's n Chin
ese
rest
aura

nt
round the corner.
Th
ere + be expresses rhe
Id
ea that
some
th
ing
ex
ists.
TIP
To
point
out
the
existence of
so
mething, u
sc
th
ere.
A-ffle5
~
u
.
~
Th
ere's a message
fo

r you.
"'-big'
ptff
u
de;w
S"-yeS
lerdu
y.
-+
There was a big parade yesterda
y.
NOT
l:.
The subject fll('n' IS nOI lm l
'!!>'i
cd
i
Uld
IS
n
orm
a
ll
y s
poken
Ul
it
s weak fo
rm
10al,

li
ke the. The
su
hje<'
t
then
' IS nut ti
ll'
s
ame.l
s t
he
adverb there
mean
ing '
in
that
pl
a
ce
' TIll' advt'rb IS
pr
onounce
d I Oeil (
r)
f .
There
I(
)
~

I
was a
res/C
w
mn
r tilere l(lcal. lJhrm
sl
ludtl
en
fr
um
view
Word order and emphasis
50
B
Ad
verbia
ls
w
ith
there +
be
In
struc
t
ures
with the
emp
ty
subjec

t there,
we
o
ft
en
li
se
an
ad
verbial in
end
po
sition.
There was a roof over the s
tadium
.
There
's
a concert next we
ek
.
There are some letters for y
ou
.
But we can use there + be
wi
th
o
ut
an

adverbial. This
can
h
appen
espec
ially
with
nouns
expressing a situati
on
or
an
event.
"m afraid there's a problem.
(:::
A probh:m exist
s.
)
There's been an accident.
(:::
An acci
dent
ha
s ha
pp
ened
.)
C
Noun
phrases

aft
er there +
be
We
norma
ll
y
use
there +
be
before a
noun
phrase
which
is
new in
fo
r
ma
tion.
The n
oun
phrase
has an indefinite
meaning
- it
can
have
a/an,
some, any, no,

or
a
num
ber, or it
can
be a noun on its own or
wi
th
an
adjective. It
can
also
have
a
qu~
tn
tifie
r
suc
h as a lot of, many, much, or several
or
a
pro
n
ou
n
such
as
something.
111ere's

a c
al
culator in the drawer.
There was
no lime
to
look round properly.
There
must
have been
twenty
pe
opl
e
at
least in the queue.
There's hal water I[you'd like a bach.
There can't be much m
emory
in this computer.
There's something J ought to tell you.
We
do
not
usua
ll
y use a noun
phrase
with
tha

,
this/lhat
etc
or
my
/
your
et
c,
except
when
we remind someone
of
t
he
exist
ence
of
something
spec
i
fi.c.
We
haven't
got.
anything we
could
sell.
-
Yes,

we have. There's
your
jew
ellery.
The
ve
rb be agrees with the no
un
ph
rase
th
at
comes
a
ft
er
it.
There is a le
tt
er for you. There
ar
e s
om
e letters for
YOlt.
Bu
t in inform
al
speec
h yo u

may
hear
there
's
before a
plura
l.
There's s
om
e letters fiH you.
D
Negat
ives,
qu
estions,
and
tags
We form negatives a
nd
questions with there in the
norma
l way.
There wasn't/There was
not
a single thing
to
. eat in lhe
hou
se.
Are there

any
leuers for me?
Wf
iat
is
th
ere
to
do in (his place?
We often use
no
+ noun
to
f
or
m a negative.
There was
11
0 food in the house.
We can use lhere in a questi
on
tag.
There
's
a concert next week, isn't
th
er
e?
35
The empty subject there

E There +
infinitive
or
ing-form
There
can
also
be
the
su
bj
ect
of
an
infinitive (
to
b
e)
or an ing·form (being).
J
didn
't expect there
to
be
such a big crowd.
The village is very isolated. there being no bus
se
rvice.
But this struc
tur

e is ra
ther
literary. A finite clause is more usual.
J
didn
'l
expect there
would
be
such a crowd.
The
village is very isolated because there's no bus service I there
is"
't
a
bus servi
ce.
F There + be
with
relative clauses
We
can
put
an active
or
a passive participle after the
noun
phras
e.
There's s

omeone
waiting
for
you
.
(::::
Som
eone
is waiting for
yo
u
.)
There was a
!Jan
parked
outside the
hou
se.
(=
A van was
parked
outside the
hou
se.)
But we do
nOi
use a participle for a single
comp
lete action.
There

was a noise
that
woke me up.
(= A noise
woke
me
up
.)
(NOT
1=itere-t:tffls tHtOtse
ltJald,Ig
me-ttp. )
In the following example the relative
pronoun
(
whi
ch)
is
the o
bj
ec
t of the
relative clause.
There's
a small
matter
which
we
need
to

di
scu
ss
.
When the relative p
ro
noun is
nOl
the subject, we
cannot
replace
it
with a
participle.
N
or
fhere~-sfflft/l-m
attel
"eedittg-co
ti
isellS5.
G There
with
other
verbs
We u
se
the subject there mos
tl
y with

the
ve
rb b
e.
Some ot
he
r verbs are
possible
but
o
nl
y
in
a formal or literary style.
On
lOp
of
the hill there stands
an
ancient tower.
There now follows a party political broadcast.
The
nex
t day there occllrred a strange inc
id
e
nt
.
Verbs
in

this strucrurc include: appear,
ar
ise,
arrive, come. emerge. enler,
exiSl,
follow,
lie,
live, occur, r
ema
in, resulr, sit, s
tand
,
tak
e place.
We
can
so
metimes use
ano
ther verb ben.v
een
t.h
ere a
nd
be
.
There dOll't seem to be enough chair
s.
Th ere
proved

to be
no
tru
t.h
in the rumour.
There
appears
to have b
ee
n an accident.
Verbs in this structure are: appear, chan
ce.
happ
en. prov
e,
seem,
lend
,
tum
out, u
se.
NOTE
We
ca
ll
sometimes l
ei1Ve
out
to
be

a
ft
er
see
m, cspccla
ll
}'
bef
ore a phrase with Jilt Ie
01
'10
.
1'here
seemed
(to
be)
lillie differ
ence",
the pr
ices.
Th
ere
seems
(lO
be
) no r
eaSflfj
f()
r
al

a
rm.
SI
Word order and emphasis
36 The
empty
subject
it
52
A
It
for
t ime,
di
stance, etc
We
can use
it
to
refer
to
the time, distance,
the
environment, or
the
weather.
It's quarter past ten. How
far
is
it

to
th
e beach?
It
'll
be gelling dark soon. It was cold yesterday.
B It referring
to
a clause
Look at
the
se
sentences. Each has a clause as its subjec
t.
To
make
new
friends
is
difficult.
That
so
few
peop
le
came
to
the
meeting
was a pity.

Huw
much
money
some
people
earn
amazes me.
This word order is possible but not very usual. Instead, we normally use it
as
the
su
bject,
and
the clause comes l
ater
in
the
sentence.
It's difficult to
make
new
friend
s.
It
was
a pity
so
few peop
le
ca

me to the meeting.
It
amazes
me
how
much
money
so
me
people earn.
Because the clause is long, it comes more naturally at
the
end
of the sentence
than
at the beginning.
With a gerund
·clause we usc both structures.
Making
new
friends is difficult.
It's difficult
making
new
fTiends.
We
can also use
it
as the object.
subject

+
ve
rb
it
complement
I
find
it.
difficult
We
all thought it a pity
Th
e Board has
made
it
clear
clause
to make new friends.
so
few people came
to
the meeting.
that no
money
will be available.
This structure is the most natural way of expressing
the
meanings in
the
se

examples.
It
would be a little awkward to say J
find
making
new
friends
difficult
and impossible
to
say
We-aIHlH>ugItHIl'tH"-frw-~.
mee/llte a pirr.
C
It
seems,
etc
It
can also be
an
empty
subject before appear, happen, seem,
and
turn out.
II
seems the
phone
is
out
of

order.
(= The
phone
seems to be
out
of
order.)
II
just so h
appened
that J
had
my
camera with me.
(= I happen
ed
to
have my
camera
with mc.)