OXFORD LEARNER''''S GRAMMAR 4 pptx

Modal verbs
Be/ore we
had
television, people WQuid
make
their
own
entertaiument.
Ellery
morning
my
fa
ther
would
leaue lIle house be/ore J woke.
In general it
is
safer
to
say used to. > B
B Used to
U
se
d 10 expresses the
ide
a
that
something
h
appened
regularly

or
continued
over a period
of
time in
the
past.
J used
to
come here
when
I was a child.
Bmma
used to halle a bicycle,
but
then she sold it.
Be/ore
we
had
lelel/i
si
on, people
u,<ied
to
make
their
own
entertainment.
J
ll

sed 10 come
her
e
means
that
at
one
period I
came
h
ere
regularly,
but
th~n
I
sto
pped
. Used
to
is
pronounced
I'ju:st tal.
There
is
no present-tense form.
(Nor
rUSHtt-e(Jrm?
he,
e /l8W. )
We use

did
in negatives
and
que
stions.
There
didn't
use to be so
much
crime as there
is
today.
What
kind
of
books
did
you
use to read as a child?
NUTE
We
can use never
In
fh
e negative.
There never used to
be
so
much
crim

e.
Used
lI
o t
to
IS rather formal.
71l
ere
used
n'
ol
to
be
so
much
crime.
C Used to
and
be I
get
used to
Compare used to do
and
be used to doing.
We
u
se
d to live in
the
country.

But
then
we
moved
LO
London.
(:::::
At
one time we lived in the country.)
\rV
e'
re
used
to living
in
London
now. But
at
first it was quite a shock, after 1
life in the country.
(:::::
Living in London no longer feels strange to u
s.)
;lI
We can also say get used to to talk about becoming marc familiar with
something.
I still find driving in Britain
quite
difficult. I'll neuer get
used

to
driving
i
on
the left.
Sarah
had
neuer seen herse
lf
as a manager,
but
she soon
got
used
to being I
in
c
harg
e.
83 Dare
~
11
B
Dare is a mixture of forms.
We
sometimes use
it
as
an
ordinary verb

and
sometimes as a modal verb.
It
takes an infinitive with
or
wi
rh
out
to.
NOI
many people
dare
(10)
walk
aLong
here
at
nighl.
No one
dar
es (to) protest/
dare
protesl.
Only
four
of
us
had
dared
(to) accept the challenge.

84 Modal verb + phrase
If
you dare
to
do
something, you
are
bra
ve
enough
to
do
it.
If
you daren't,
then you are
too
afraid to do
it.
Dare
is
more
common
in negatives
and
question
s
than
in
po

si
tive
statements.
The
negative forms are
don
't/doesn't/didn't dare or daren' l/dare
not
(present)
and
dared
not
(past).
This place is so expensive.
[don't
dare
(to) look!]
daren't
look
at
the bill.
The police
didn't
dare
(to)
approach
/dared
not
approach
the building

with
the
gunman
inside.
In
questions
we
can
use
do,
or
we
can
usc dare as a modal verh.
Do
you
dare
(to) say/Dare
you
say
what
you're thinking?
We
can
also use
would
with dare.
1
wouldn't
dare

(to)
take
the
risk.
Would
enough people really
dare
(to)
resist
armed
troops?
We
use
How dare .

? for an angry protest.
Just get
lose
, will you?
""
Whae.!
How
dare
you
speak to
me
like that?
NOTE
Americans normally
use

a lo-infinitive with dare.
84
Modal
verb + phrase
,
,
We
cannot
use
two modal verbs together.
(NOT l-mit;ltt-ean-gtil-lhe-d<>y-tJff)
Instead
we
use
a
phra
se like be able to, be allowed to,
or
have
La
after a
modal
verb.
I
might
be
able
10 get the
day
of!

I'll have
to
ask
my
boss.
We aren't children, are
we?
We
ought
to
be
allowed
to
decide for ourselves.
It
won't be
bu.sy,
so
we
shouldn't
have
Lo
queue.
In
the
old
days people used to
have
to
wash clothes by

hand
.
Will you be able to
find
your
way
without
a
map?
85
Overview:
the
use
of
modal
verbs
•
Verb
can
U
se
Ability >
80A
Opportunit
y>
BOA
Request>
79B
Offer
of

help>
79B
Permission
:>
75
Asking permission:>
75A
General poss
ibility>
79D
Imp
os
sibili
ty>
76B
Example
] call play the
piano
We
can
walch TV
ill
the evenings.
Can
you
help' me, please?
Call I help'you?
You
can
go now.

Can]
ask a question?
Malhs
can
be fun.
The story
can't
he true.
119
Modal ve
rbs
Verb
U
se
Example 1
.
~
could Past abilit
y>
SO
I could play lhe piano when J was
fiVe;
Possible ability>
SOC
If
(had
a camera, I could take a
photo.
S
ug

ges
ti
on>
79A
We
could meet
tar
er.
Request>
79B
Co
u
ld
you help
me
plea
se?
A
sk
ing permission> 75A
Could I ask a qu
es
tion?
Pa
st permiss
ion>
75C
You
could park he
re

years ago.
Possibility > 79
The
plan could go wrong.
must Necessity> 71
You
must
be
ca
reful.
Lo
gical certainty>
76B,
C
You
mllst
be tired.
need
When something
is
not
We
needn't hur
ry.
ne
cessa
ry >
73
should
The

right thing to
do
> 74
You
should revise before lite exam.
Probability >
77
It
should
be
fine tomorrow.
ought The rIght thing to
do
> 74
You
ought to revise b
efo
re
lh
e exam.
ma
y
Pos
sibility > 78
The
plan
may
go
wrong.
Un

ce
rtain imention > 78A We
may
mov
e house.
Permission>
75
May I ask a question?
might Possibility > 78
Th
e: plan might
go
wrong.
Uncertain inte
ntion>
78A
We
mig
ht move hou
se.
Reques
t/
criticism>
78
C
You
might help
me
.
will

The future > 54
Th
e
pO
SI will be here soon.
Assumption>
76A
The
ieller will be som
ew
here
in
thi
~
fll
e.
would
A possible situation >
OJ
A holiday would be great.
A past re
fu
sal>
62B
Til
e. doorman wouldn't let us
in.
Looking forward from
the
No pne

h,
ew
whal
would
past >
62B
happen next.
Past habit
s>
U
lA
Every
weekend
we
would go
La
th
e cinema.
,
shall
Asking
what
10
do > 54E
Wh
at shall we
do
?
The
future > 54A I

slJa
ll
be
awa
y next week.
dare
Being brave enough >
83
I didn't dare
cl
imb up.
120
r·
.
The passive
•
86
Introduction
Compare the acti
ve
a
nd
passive sente
nce
s.
Active:
My
brother
faxed
the doc

ument
.
Pass
ive:
The
document
was
faxed
by
my
brother.
We can choose
to
IiIlk
about
my
brother and what he did,
or
about
lhe
document
and
what
happen
ed to it. The two structures have
the
same
me
aning but the focus is different. The choice between ac
ti

ve
and
pa
ssive
often
depend
s
on
what
is
old
or
new informati
on
in
the co
nt
ex
t.
>
88A
And
th
e passive is sometimes more impersonal in style. >
8B
B
In
the active sentence, the person doing the ac
Lion
(

my
brother) is the
subject, and we use an active verb. In
th
e passive sent.ence, the subject is
what the action
is
directed at (the docu.me
nt
),
and
we use a passive verb. A
pa
ssi
ve
verb
ha
s a form
of
the auxiliary
verb
be (was)
and
a passive participle
(faxed). N
ote
that the do
cument
is the object of the acti
ve

se
nte
nc
e
and
the
subject of the passive sentence.
The p
er
s
on
doing the action is called the agent. In a pass
iv
e sentence, the
agent can be
added
in
a
phr
ase
wi
th by.
The
document
was [axed
by
my
brotlle
r.
We

can end a s
entenc
e
wi
th
the pass
iv
e
ve
rb
and
not mention the agent.
The do
cume
nt
was
faxed
.
The important information here
is
the
method
of
sending
the
document.
It
was faxed, not
sent
throu

gh the pos
t.
Alt
hough
the passive is morc typ
ic
al
of
an
impersonal style,
it
can al
so
occur
in
conversation.
This house muSl be really old.
""
Ye
s,
it
was
built
in 1720.
'¥f'
it
87
Passive
verb forms
~

. A Tenses
A passive verb
ha
s a f
orm
of
be
and
a
pass
ive participle, c.g. killed, cue.
Lots
of
people are
kill
ed
on
the roads.
The
budget
fo r
the
project
has
be
en cut.
The drugs wUl
be
destroye
d.

Be
is
in the same tense as
th
e equivalcm active form.
Ac
tive:
Accident
s
killl
Ol$
of
people. (
present
sim
pl
e)
Passiv
e:
Lvts
of
peuple are killed. (pres
ent
si
mple
of
be + participle)
Activ
e:
Th

ey've
cut
the budget. (
pre
sent perfect)
Passive: The hudget
ha
./j
been c
ut
. (
pr
ese
nt
perfect of be + parriciple)
12 1
The passive
The
foll
owing ve
rb
tenses and future forms can be passive.
Active
Pre
sent simple
They play the game.
Pre
sent conti
nu
ous

They
are
playing the game.
Present perfect
They have played the game.
rast
simple
They played
til
e game.
Past continuous
They were playing the game.
rast
perfect
They
had
played the game.
Future
They will
play
the game.
They are
going to
play
the game.
We
can u
se
short forms.
Passive

The game is played.
Th
e
game
is
being
played
.
The
gam
e
has
been played.
The
gam
e was
play
ed.
The
game
was being
play
ed.
Th
e
game
had
been played.
The
game

will be played.
The
game
is going to be
played
.
Football
is
a ·very popular game. It
's
played all over the world.
The prisoners are
free.
They've been released.
B Negatives and questions
We
use
th
e auxiliary ve
rb
in
the same way as
we
do
in
active
se
ntences.
In
th

e negative not
comes
after the
fir
st auxiliary.
Motorists
are
not
killed
by
cyc
li
sts.
The money still hasn't been fOllnd.
In
a question
th
ere
is
inversion
of
the s
ubj
ect and the (
fir
st) auxiliary.
Has
th
e money been fOllnd?
When

was
the
fax
sent?
C
Modal
verbs in
the
passive
12
2
We
can use (he passive
",ith
a m odal verb
(o
r a
phra
se
li
ke u
se
d to or have
to
).
The
pattern is modal ve
rb
+ be +
pa

ss
ive pa
rticipl
e.
S
tamp
s can
be
bought
at
any
post office.
Animals should really be seen
in
th
eir natural habitat.
Many things that used to be done
by hand
ar
e now done hy machin
e.
Negat
iv
es and
que
stions are formed
in
the usu
al
way.

Anima
ls s
houldn't
be
kept
in cage
s.
Must everything always be done
at
the last
minut
e?
Do meals have
to
be prepared every day?
87
Pa
ss
i
ve
verb forms
A modal verb can also
go
with
the
perfect
and
the
passive together.
The

pattern
is modal verb + have be
en
+ passive participle.
I can't find thaI leafle
t.
It
musl
have been
throw"
away.
They've found
a play that
might
hcwe been
writlen
by
Shakespeare.
Tllis bill ought to have been
paid
weeks
ago.
For modal ve
rb
s, > 70,
o Phrasal
and
prepositional verbs
in
the

passive
Some phrasal verbs
and
prepositional verbs can
be
used in the passi
ve.
.
Th
e
bwlding
was knocked
down
last year.
Has
the doctor been sent for?
The
a
dverb
or
preposition
(e
.g.
down
, for)
comes
after
the
participle.
Note also verb

+ adverb + prepositioll,
and
verbal idioms with prepositions.
Such out-oj-date practices should be
done
away
with.
The
poor child is always being
made
fun
of
E
Was
broken: action or
state?
Was broken can be a passive verb form.
The vase
was
broken by a guest.
li
e knocked it over.
Here the vase was broken expresses an action. It
is
equiv
al
ent to Someone
broke the
vase.
We

can sometim
es
li
se
a participle
such
as broken before a noun, like an
adjecti
ve.
Th
ere was a brokell
vase
on the floor.
We
can also
put
the partic
ipl
e after b
e.
Th
e vase was broken. it lay in pieces
on
the floor.
Here the vase was broken expresses a stat
e,
not
an
action.
Compare

these two examples.
Th
e dru
gs
were
hidden
in
co
ntainers
and
then loaded
onto
the ship.
(
pa
ssi
ve
verb expressing
an
action: som
eone
hid the drugs)
Th
e drugs were hidden in tile ship,
but
the police didn't know where.
(be
+ participle expressing a state:
the
drug

s were in a secret place)
123
The passive
88 The
use
of
the
passive
A Ordering
info
rmation
One
of
these
paragraphs
is
abou
t
the
scientist J.
J.
Thomson,
and
the
other
is
about
the electron.
TIIO
MSON

, Sill
)0
5
1::111-
1
JOH
N
(I
R46-1940)
British physicist
and
mathematician
and
head
of
a group
of
researchers at
the
CavendIsh l.aboratory
in
Cambridge.
Thom
son discovered the
elecrron.
He is regarded as the
founder
of
modem
physics.

El.F
l.i
·1I0N
A
subatomic
particle
and
one
of
the basic constituents
of
malter.
The
electron. was discovered
by
J.!.
Thomson.
It
is
found
in all atoms
and
contains the smallesl
known
negative electrical charge.
Compare
the
se two
sent
ences

,
one
from each
paragraph
.
Thomson discoIJered the electron.
Ute
eleelron was discovered
by
Thomson.
The
sentences
have
the
same
meaning
. but they are
about
different things.
The
topic
of
the
first se
nt
ence
is Thomson. and rhe
new
informarion is that he
discovered the electron.

The
topic
of
the second
seme
n
ce
is the electron,
and
[he n
ew
information
is
that
its discoverer was Th
omson.
H.
ere
the
choice
of
active
or
pa
ss
ive
ve
rb
depends
on

the contex
t.
We usuaJly
struc
ture
the
sent
ence
in a way that
enah
lcs us
to
start with old i
nforma
tion
and
end
with new. > 31-32 In the
second
sentence,
we
need
to
st
art
with tile
el
ec
tron,
and

so we
use
the
passive,
B Typical
co
nt
exts
for
the
passi
ve
124
We
so
metimes u
se
the
pas
sive
in
s
peech
.
but
it is
mor
e co
mmon
in

wr
iti
ng,
especia
ll
y
in
the
impersonal
style
of
textbooks
and
factual
in
formation.
The paint is then
pump
ed
inlO
a large tahk, where it
is
thinned.
Large numbers
of
slav
es
were transported
to
the New World.

If
sulphur is heated, a
number
of
c
hange
~
can be
see
n.
Thousands
oJ
new
jobs
hav
e been created.
Here we foctls
on
the
proce
ss
of
paint
-thinning.
the
destination
of
the
slaves,
and

so
on,
rathe
r
than
on
the
p
eop
le carryii1g
ou
t
the
actions.
,
The
pa
ssive is also
some
tim
es
u
se
d in rules
and
to
de
scribe
proced
ures.

The service is provided
und
er a contract.
Your
prize
mu
st be clairned
by
31 December.
App
li
cation
should
be
made
in writing.
The
active
equ
ivalent
We
provide the service

. . You rnu
st.
cl
aim
y
our
prize

•
)'ou should
app
ly

is
more
friendly
and
less
imper
sonal.
88
The
use
of
the
passive
The passive also occurs in news reports.
A
new
health lax will be introduced
next
year.
Two people were killed in
the accident.
TIP
Do
not
overuse

the
passive. Use it only
when
it fits
the
context
and
the
style.
Remember
that
even in formal writing
most
clauses are active,
not
passive.
C Verbs which
cannot
be passive
An
intransitive verb (a verb without an object)
cannot
be passive. These
sentences
have no passive equivalent.
Somelhing
happened.
The
problem
will

become
more
urgent.
We
stayed
at
home,
The streets
seemed
empty.
There are also
some
transitive verbs which
cannot
be passive, e.g.
have
(:::
own), lack, resemble,
and
suit
(:::
be
right for). These are
all
state
verbs.
My
friend
had
a sports car,

(NOT
A sptfffs cttr~
.
h)
lit:) friend.)
The player
lacks
ability. (NOT AIHIit) is Iocked-b} .he
"ltI}".)
That
colour
suits
you.
(NOT
Ftlu're
suited b)
("'til
eaiottr.)
But
other
state
verbs
can
be passive, e.g. believe, contain, include, intend,
know.
like. love,
mean,
need,
owe
,

own,
understand, want,
The business is
owned
by
an
American
company.
These
old
postcards
are
wanted
by
collectors.
Some verbs
can
be either action verbs
or
state
verbs, e.g.
cost,
jit, measure,
weigh, >
51
B.
They
can
be
passive only

when
they are
action
verbs.
Action & active: The decorator
measured
lhe wall.
Action & passi
ve:
The wall was
measured
by the decorator.
State: The wall mea.sured three metres.
(BU r
NO
T Rtree met.
es
was
metf:5u-red-hy-lfte-wa.il )
125
The passive
o
The
passive
and
you, we, they,
etc
The
passive is
used

l
ess
in
informa
l English
than
in
formal
or
written
con
texts. In
informal
Eng
li
sh we often use
an
active
se
ntence
with a vague
subject
like you, we,
lh
ey, pe
opl
e,
or
someone.
Active: You can'

t.
do
anything
about
it.
(you =
peop
le
in
general>
17
6)
Passive:
Nothing
can be done
about
il.
Active: We/People
IJ
se electricity Jor
ail
kinds
of
purposes.
Passive: Electricity is used for
all
kinds
of
purposes.
Active: They

're
huilding
some
new
houses.
Pas
sive: Some new houses are being built.
Active:
Someone
has taken
down
the poster.
Passive: The poster has been taken down.
In
the
passive
sentences
we
do
not
need
to
mention
you, we,
etc
when
they
ha
ve (his vague
meaning.

NOTE
We
can also use one, although
it
s use
is
limited. >
176/1
One can·t do
anything
abQlI1
it
89
The
agent
in passive sentences
A
When
we
need
to
mention
the
agent
in a passive
se
ntence
, we
use
a phrase

with
by.
I-fercul
e Poirol was created
by
Agatha
Christie.
The
land has
been
boughl
by
a
property
developer.
The submarin.e is powered
by
nuclear
energy.
Here the agents - Agatha Christie, a properly developer
and
nuclear energy -
are
the new information we
are
focussing on.
B But often we do not
need
to
include

the
agent in a passive senfence. Other
126
kinds of
inf
ormation
can
corne at
the
end
of
the
sentence.
The dark s
id
e
of
the
moon
was first seen in 1
959.
The reception will
be
held
at
the
Manor
Hotel.
Plugs should be wired correctl
y.

We
mention
the
agent only if we need
to
mention
it. We do
not
mention
it
ifit
is
not
relevant.
A large
number
of
Sherlock I-folfn
es
films
have
been
made
.
The
atom was regarded as solid
unliilhe
electron was
di
scovered in /897.

The drugs were destroyed.
The people who
made
the films, discovered
the
electron
and
de
stroyed the
drugs are not releva
nt
to
the
mes
sage.
Th
e first two
example
s
are
abou
t the
numb
er
of
films
and
the
time
of

(he discovery. The last
example
is
about
what
happen
ed
10
the
drugs
,
not
when
or
where
it
happen
ed
or
who
did it.
So
metime
s we
do
not
know the identity
of
the
agent.

My
car
was
swlen.
The
phra
se
by
athie/'wou
ld
add
no information.
90 The passive w
ith
get
Sometimes we do
nOt
need
10
rn
cm
i
on
the agent because it
is
obvious.
A new government has b
ee
n elected.
The phrase

by
the voters would
add
no
information because
we
kn
ow that
governments are elected
by voters.
Sometimes
we
do
not
melllion the
agent
because
we
do
not
wa
nt
to.
Mistakes have been made.
This use
of
the
pa
ssive wilhollt
an

agent
is a way
of
not saying who
is
responsible.
Compare
the active
II
We have
made
mistakes.
90 The passive
with
get
A
We
sometimes form the passive with
ge
t rather
than
wi
th
be.
We
get
paid
monthly
.
Th

e booklet got
thrown
out
with the rubbish.
The leaves were
getting
blown
about
by
the
wind
.
We
use the pass
iv
e with get mainly in informal English,
and
it
ha
s a more
limited use th
an
b
e.
We
can use
it
to talk
about
good

or
bad things
happ
en
ing
to
someone
or
something.
Luckily
I got accepted at
art
sc
hool.
The flower display got
vandalized.
'
Bad
things' can be accidents.
Lots
of
people get killed
on
the roads, unfortunately.
Th
e vase got broken when we
moved
house.
This
pattern

with get can also refer to som
eth
ing happening incidentally, as
part of
a larger operation.
The
duslbin
gets e
mptied
once a week.
Everyone gal
nwved
lO
a
new
office during the reorganization.
But we do
not
use get for a major,
planned
action.
The railways were privatized 20
ye
ars ago.
(NOT ·
HIt;
lailwa>
s
g6t
Iffltttt~rs-ttt;6

.)
In simple tenses we use do in negatives
and
que
s
ti
ons.
I forgollO leave
the dustbin out, so
it
didn
't get emptied.
How often do
pe
opl
e get injured playing rugby?
B We also use gel +
pa
ss
ive
participle in some idiomatic expre
ss
ion
s.
We
didn't
even
ha
lle
lime

to
get washed.
(=
wash ourselves)
Simon got
married
last year.
(=
married s
omeone
)
Such expressions include
gel washed, get shaved, gel (
un
)dressed,
ge
t clianged
(= change your clothes); get engaged, gel. married, gel divorced;
ge
t slarted
(= start);
and
get
lo
st
(;:;
lose your way).

,
We

can also use some
of
these verbs in the active
w.
ithoul
an
object.
Th
e
re
wasn't
much
lime
to wash
and
c
hange
.
Here wash
means
the
same as gel washed. Verbs that
occur
in both patterns
are wash, shave,
(
IIn
)dre
ss,
chang

e;
marry
, div
orce;
and start.
127
The pa
ss
ive
NOTE
a Gel can be
ro
ll
owed by a pa
ni
clple used as Ull .
ld
Jet:livc.
After {.I while / got interested in tlte film,
!J
ut Ihen
flU!
duorbell rang.
(=
/\flCf a willie I
became
intere
sted
in
the film

.)
Oth
er
words
in
lhis
pallem
ate
bored, COflfld{l
dl
fed
up
, IrIvoived,
.~
IIICk,
and
/ir
ed.
b With engaged, we can use
either
get or becomf.
We
'
/JC
jUl
I
gal/
become engaged
91
The passive

with
give, send, etc
A
In
the active. give can have two objects, > 6
The
nur
se gives the
patien
t a sl
eeping
pill.
Either
of
th
ese
objt:cts
ca
n
be
the
subject
of a passive
sente
nce.
A sleeping pill
is
given to the p
ac
ie

nt
.
The patielU
is
g
il
len a sleeping pill.
We
can use oth
er
ve
rbs in these pattern
s,
e.
g. se
nd
, offer,
award
, > C
B C
ompar
e these rwo sentences.
£5 million
damage
s were
award
ed co a recent accident uiccim,
A rece
nt
accidem viclim

was
awa
rded
£5
million
dama
ges.
The choice
or
structure
dep
e
nd
s
on
Ihe context - for example. whether
we
are talking
abo
ut a s
um
of
damages
and who received it, or about
an
accident
victim and how he/she was compensated. > 88/\
C
It
is quite usual

111
Eng
li
sh ror
the
person receiving
something
to be
the
subject. Here are
some
more
exa
mpl
es.
The
chairman
was
/l
a
nd
ed
a
'lO
le
. I'
ve
been
offered a jub.
We

were lold all the det.ails, Tlte r
es
idents will
be
found
new
Itomes.
H
ere
are s
ome
verbs that we can u
se
in this
pa
ttern.
allow feed leave pay
s
how
ask find
(i
n a will)
promise ceach
award
give lend refuse
tell
charge
grant offer
se
ll

deny hand owe se
nd
92
The passive
with
verbs of
reporting
128
Wilh ve
rb
s
of
r
eponing
th
ere
are
IW
O special
pas
sive
paltern
s,
Active: Pe
ofJ
le s
ay
I
They
s

ay
tllal
elephants haue good memories.
Passive with
it:
II
is
said
that
elep
Jw
flrs
have
good memories.
Passh'c with
to-infiniriv
e:
Elephants are
said
to h
ave
good me
mori
es.
92
The
pa
ss
ive
wIth

verbs
of
reporting
A
It
is
said .

B
Some verbs can occur in the paltcrn
tl
+ passive verb + that-clause.
It
is th
ought
rhatthe
slOne /louses
are
5,000 years old.
It
was
r
epo
r
te
d
that
the
army
was crossing the frontier.

Ill1as
been sh
ow
n
that
lhe theory
is
correc!.
It
is pr
oposed
that
the industry
should
be
privatized.
We
often use these verbs:
accept believe
estimate
imply
propose
agree
claim
expect
intend
realize
aUege
conclude
feel

know
recognize
announce
consider fear
note
recommend
anticipate decide
find
notice report
argue discover
hold
observe
reveal
say
see
show
state
suggest
t
hink
assu
me
envisage hope predict
mmour
understand

sa
id
to
be

.

We
can also use (he pattern: subject + passive verb + to-infinitive.
The
stone
houses are th
ought
to
be
5.000 years old.
United
were
ex
pected to
win
easily,
but
they
lost.
The
film
was felt
to
lack excitement.
We
can use these verbs:
aUege
declare find
presume

say
assume
discover
intend
prove see
believe
estimate
know
report
show
claim expect
mean
reveal
state
consider feel observe
rumou
r
suppose
think
understand
The to-infinitive can also be continuous, perfect,
or
passive.
The
army
was reported
lO
be
crossing
the

frontier.
The prisoner
is
known
10 h
ave
behaved
violently in the past.
The disease
was
thought
to
be
spread
by
mosqUito
es.
It
can be both perfect and passive.
Twelve people are believed
to
h
ave
been
ki
ll
ed
in
the
accident

We
can use the subject th
ere
with
to
he
.
There is
COILfO
i
de
r
ed
to
he
no
c
hanc
e
of
the
bill
becoming
law.
The passive verb can have a modlil verb, e.g. can,
must.
The
company
ca
ll

hardly
be
saic/w
be
prospering.
The
rumour
m u
st
be
assu
med
to
he
false.
NOTE
Agree,
d
eCide
. :md propose can come in paltern A
WIth
If
and a thaI-clause.
II
Wl/.S
agrc('d that
111(>
committee s
i,
o/

lid appomc a
press
secrecary.
A typical use is to report what was sa
id
in a meeling.
We
can also usc the
same
thr
ee
verbs in the pattcm it
~
passive verb + m-infillltive.
It
was
agreed
10
al}IJuint
a
fJrcs.~
secretary
.
We
can use this pallern only with
agree
. de
cIde.
and propose
129

The passive
C The
agent
with
verbs
of
reporting
In
both
the
pattern
s A a
nd
B, we can include the agent in a phrase
wi
th
by.
11
was reported by CNN
that
lhe
army
was crossing the frontier.
The film was felt by
audiences
to
la
ck excirement.
Here the agent comes next
to

the verb
it
relates to (reported
by
CNN, felt
by
audiences).
93
Passive
verb +
to-infinitive
or
active
participle
A
Infinitive
130
So
me
patterns
wi
th a verb + object + (Q·infinitive have a passive equi
va
lent.
Active: Police advise drivers
CO
use
an
alternative rO
Ul

e.
Passive: Drillers
ar
e advised to use an alternative route.
We
ca
n usc this passive
pattern
w
ith
verbs like tell, ask, persuade, warn, and
advise,
:>
105B;
and
verbs like force
and
allow.
:>
10
5C.
Now look at th
is
pair
of
se
nt
e
nc
es.

Ac
tiv
e:
The terrorists
made
the
ho
stages lie down.
Passive: The hostages were ma.d£ to lie down.
In the passive we always
use
a
to
-infinitive
(to
li
e)
even
if
in
th
e ac
ti
ve the
infiniti
ve
is without to.
This
h
appe

ns after
make
and
after verbs of perception
suc
h as
see.
Active: The detective
saw
the
woman
p
ut
the
jewellery
in
her
bag.
Passi
ve:
The
woman
was
seen to
put
the jewellery in
her
ba
g.
We

can
use lel in the active
pattern
but
not
in
the
pa
ssive,
whe
re we use allow
instead.
Ac
ti
ve
: They let the hostages rest.lTh
ey
allowed
rh
e hostages to rest.
Pass
iv
e: The hostages were
allowed
to
rest.
We
can
also use a finite clause a
ft

er is
lO
ld, was
asked
, etc.
but
not
after make
or a
ft
er
verbs
lik
e force or allo
w.
Dril
Je
rS
are
advi
sed
that
an
alternative route
should
be
used.
BUT Drivers are forced to use
an
altern

at
ive rO
Ul
e.
(NOT 9Nver.'HI jvreed-iila+-a
ll
-<the_uld-btHlSeti.)
NOTE
for
t
he
pass
i
ve
lo·
infinitiv
e,
>
95
Tllere
is
an
al
lemalive route
10
be Il
SC
lJ
by
goods uehicles.

94
Some
patterns
with
have
and
get
, B Participle
Some
pattern
s with a verb + object + active participle have a passive
equivalent.
Act
i
ve:
The detective saw the
woman
putting the jewellery in her bag.
Passive:
111e
woman was seen pUlling the jewel/ery in her
bag.
Active: The officials kept us waiting for
half
an
hou
r.
Passive:
We
were kept waiting for

half
an hour.
Active:
We
spend too
much
lime
arguing over little details.
Passi
ve:
Too
much
time
is
spellt arguing over little details.
We
can use the passive pattern with verbs of perception (e.g.
see)
and
with
catch, discover, find, keep, leave, lose, spend,
and
waste.
NOTE
For
I saw the jewellery being
put
in the bag, > 125C.
94
Some

patterns
with
have
and
get
A The active: have/
get
+ object +
infinitive
This
pattern
means
'calise
someone
to
do
something'.
I had. the garage service my
ca
r.
I got the garage to service
my
ca
r.
After have
we
use an infinitive
wi
tho
ut

to,
and
after get we use a to·infinlti
ve.
This
aC
li
ve pattern with have
is
more
common
in the
US
than
in
13ritain,
where it is rather formal. Get
is
informal.
B The passive: have/get something done
This
pattern
means
'c
ause
something
to
be
done'.
I

had
my
car serviced.
I got
my
car serviced.
This
means
that I arranged for
someone,
for
examp
le a garage, to service my
car; I did not service it mysel
f.
We
use
this
pattern
mainly
to
ta
lk
ab
out
professional services to a customer. Both forms
are
used in Brilajn
and
in

the
US.
Have
is
neutral, and get
is
a little informal.
You
should halle/get the job done professionally.
1 had/
got
the machine repaired only last week.
We're having/We're getting a
new
kitchen
fitted
.
Where did you
have
/ge
t your hair cut?
Both
have
and
get are ordinary verbs which can
be
continuous
(are havingl
are
getting). In simple-ten

se
negatives
and
qu
est
ions we use
do
(did",
have/gel",
n,
Compare the two
patterns
with
had
.
Ha
ve somet
hing
done:
We
IJad
a burglar alarm fitted (by a security
company) last year.
Past perfect:
We
had
fitt
ed a burglar alarm
(ou.rselues)
some

lime previously.
J31
The
passive
We
can
also lise gel informally
when
we are talking
about
a job we
do
ourselves.
[ mu.st
get
my
homework
dOlle.
(::::;
J
must
do
my
homework.)
We finally
got
e/lerylhing
packed
into suitcases.
(:::

We packed
the
suitcases.)

C Have something happen
This
patrern
has
the
same
form as have something done
in
B.
We
use
il
to say
that
we experie
nc
e
somet
hing
,
often
someth
ing unpleasant.
We
had
a

window
broken
in the
SlOrm.
My sister
has
had
some
money
stolen.
95
The passive
to-infinitive
and
gerund
132
Look
at
these
forms
of
the
verb play.
Active
Passive
To-infinitive:
to play
10
be played
Perfect to-infinitive: to lIave played

playing
having
played
to
ha/Je
been played
being played
Ge
rund
:
Perfect gerund:
having
be
en
played
Each passive form
ends
with
a passive participle (played) .
Here are some examples
of
the passive forrils.
To-infinitive: J expect to
be
invited
CO
the wedding.
It's
awful
to

be
criticized 'in public.
I
wanl
this place
to
be tidied
up
by the
time
I get back.
Perfect The fire seems to
have
be~n
caused
by
an
electrical fault.
to-infinitive: I
want
this place to
have
b~en
tidied
up
by the
time
I get back.
Gerund:
Being

searched by customs officers is unpleasant.
Let's
not
risk
being
arrested for spying.
Perfect gerund: I'm
annoyed
at
having
bffen
made
a fool
of
There is no record
of
any
message ha/Jing
been
sent.
Af
ter a
pr
eposition
we
can
usc
a
gerund
but not

an
infinitive.
:>
114
NOT
E
We
can sometimes use get instead
of
be
wilh the passive form s.
1 don
'£
expect to gel invited
to
the weddillg.
Let
's
not risk gelling arrested for spying
96
Active forms with a passive
meaning
96
Active
forms
with
a passive meaning
A Gerund
The active
gerund

can
sometimes have a
pa
ssive meaning. This
happens
after
need
or
want
(:::
need).
The room needed decorating.
(:::
The
room
needed
to
be
decorated.)
This bike wants cleaning.
(:::
This bike needs
to
be cleaned.)
Wane in this
sense
of
'need
' is informal.
We

cannot
use
the
passive gerund here.
(NOT .J:he-roofl'Hleeded hej,/.g dfOOfflLeri:. )
B
To-infinitive
We
so
metim
es usc
an
active to-infinitive
when
we arc talking
about
jobs we
ha
ve to do.
We
had
the living-room to decorate.
I've got some
homework
to
do.
When the subject
of
the
sentence (We,

I)
is
the agent (the person doing the
job),
then
we use the active infinitive,
not
the passive.
If
the suhject of the
sentence
is
NOT the agent, we
use
the passive infinilive.
The
living-mom
had
to
be decorated.
The
homework
lS
to
be
done by
lOmorrOUJ,
After the subject there, we can use
either
an

active ur a pass
ive
infi niti
ve.
There were selleral rooms to decorate /
to
be
decorated.
There
's
quite a lot
of
homework
to
do / to
be
done.
But when we talk
about
leisure actjvities, we normally use the active.
There are lots
of
exciting things
to
do here.
After an a
dj
ective. the infinit.ive
is
u

sua
ll
y active.
This
machine
isn't safe to use.
The piano
is
lOa
heavy
to move.
That box isn't
strong
enough to
sit
on.
If we use a
phrase
with
by
and the
agent
,
then
till
" infinitive
is
passive.
The piano
is

too heavy to be
mOlJ
ed
by
one
person.
(=The piano
is
too heavy for
onc
person
to
move.)
C
Main
verbs
A few verbs can
be
used in the active form wilh a passi
ve
meaning.
Her
Jatest
record is selling in huge numbers.
(:::
It
is
being sold . )
This sefllence doesn't re
ad

quite ';ghl.
(:::
When
it
is
read,
it
isn't right.)
This sweater washes all right in
warm
water.
(::::
It
can
be
washed ,

)
l33
The infinitive
97
Introduction
A
There
are
(WO
kinds
of
infinitive - wirh to
and

without
to.
Infinitive with to: I'd prefer to sit
at
the
back.
Infinitive without to: I'd rather
sit
at
the bac
k.
\o\fhcther we u
se
to
or
not
depends
on
the
grammatical
Siructure. F
or
examp
le, we use
to
after prefer
but
not
after
would

rather.
The
most
common
use
of
an
infinitive
without
to
is
after a modal verb,
e.g.
ca
n.
> 70B
I can sit
at
the back.
For
more
on
the
infinitive
without
to, > 110.
The
re
st
of

thi
s
chapter
is
about
infinitives with to, often referred to
as
to-infinitives.
B
A to-infinitive can have a perfect
or
continuous
form.
134
Simple:
to
play
Perfect:
lO
hav
e
play
ed
C
ontinuou
s:
to
be playing
Perfect and co
ntinuous

: to have been playing
We
use
a perfect infinitive for
som
e
thing
that
happened
(
or
po
ss
ibly
happened)
ea
rlier.
f seem
to
have
left
my
umbrella
behind
.
The
man
was relieved to
have
survived

the accide
nt
.
In this last
example
{h
e
man
's survival
happ
e
ned
before his feeling
of
re
li
e
f.
We
cannot use a
pa
st form.
(NOT f-st:eft'HQ-ie/t-
it
behmtl.)
We
use a continuous
infinitiv
e for s
om

ething
happ
e
ning
over a period.
You.
'
re
lu
cky to be living in such a nice place.
We
were
happy to
be
sta
rting
on
a new adventure.
The man was unsteady on his feet.
/-I
e appeared
lO
have
bee"
drinking
.
In
the
negative.
not

comes before (he infinitiv
e.
I'd prefer
not
to
sit
at
the front.
The two lovers prete
nded
not
to
hav
e met before.
NOTE
a
In
some
CO
nlexts we can use a simple !o-mfinitive
as
we
ll
CIS
a perfect or continu
ous
form.
We
expect
/0

complete/to
lIa
ve completed
rhe
worK by the s
ummer
.
We
hope to
make
/
to
be
making
a starl $
00
11
.
b With
SQ
me
ex.pressions such
as
would
like,
WQuid
liate, a
nd
would
be

"i
ce/a
wf
u/
,
we
c
an
also usc the perfect in either
or
both clauses when talking about
the
pas
t.
I'd like to
have
seen the s
ho
Ul
last
week
.
J'd
halle liked to see the shoUi last week.
I'd haue liked to
hau
e seen the sl
lOw
last week.
c For [he passive infimtive, c.g.

to
be played, > 95.
98
Infini
ti
ve
clauses
98
Infinitive
clauses
A
An
infinitive can be
fo
ll
owed by
an
object
or
comp
l
emen
t and/
or
by one or
more adverbials. The infi
ni
tive together with such phrases
is
ca

ll
ed an
infinitive clause,
A sig
ht
seeing
LOur
is the best way to see the city. (infinitive + objec
t)
I'd prefer to
sit
at
the
back. (infinitive + adverbial)
All
infinitive clause can be just
an
infinitive wit
hout
an
object or adverbial.
We
decided to leave.
NOTE
An
adverhial usually goes after the infinitive
or
afler the object if there
is
one.

I didn't expecr you
to
change your milld s
udd
ellly.
Often a one-word adverb
can
al
so
go
before Ole to-infillltlvc or between
10
and
the verb.
I didn't expect you s
udd
enly 10 c!la"ge
your
mind
.
I didn't expect you to suddenly challge
your
mmd
This last exa
mple
is
sometimes called a 'split infini
ti
ve' because the infinitive to change
is

split by the word sudde
llly
. A
ff'w
people think this is Illcorrect, but in fact
it
has
become
co
mm
on
usage,
and
there
is
no need to avoid i
t.
At last we've gal a cllance
to
really re
la
x
Remember
to
alway
s keep your d
esi
gn Simple.
B
In

an infinitive clause, a preposition comes in its normal pla
ce,
often after a
verb or adjec
ti
ve.
It isn't enough
money
to live on.
There's nothing to get excited
about
.
I need a vase
to
put
these flowers in.
NOTE
In
mor
e formal Eoglish we can
so
metime
s begin a clause with a prepusltion nnd relative
pronoun.
It
IS
hardly
enOlJ.g/l
money on W/lich to live.
~

99
The
to-infinitive
with
it,
as
subject, and
as
complement
A
We
often use a pattern
wi
th it as the subject and an i
nfi
nitive clause at or neM
the e
nd
of
the
sen
ten
ce_
It
seems rude to
turn
down the
invitation
.
It

is
a great
mistake
not to
tak
e a holiday
ILOW
aILd
then.
It
takes ages to defrost this fridg
e.
We
can so
metime
s u
se
a to-infinitive clause as a subject,
bw
this
is
less
fr
e
quent
than
the pattern
wi
th
it.

To
turn
down
th
e invitati
on
seems rude.
N
ot
to
take
a
holiday
now
and
then
is
a great mistake.
NO
TE
A ge
ru
nd as subject is
mor
e usu
al
than
an
infiniti
ve

.
Defrosting this fridge
ta
kes age
s.
135
The infinitive
B A (O·inftnitivc clause
can
be a
comp
l
ement
after
be.
My
great
ambit
ion
is
t.o
emigra.te to Australia.
1he
importunt thing
is
not to panic.
The
idea was to give everyone a nice surprise.
100 The
to-infinitive

used
as
an
adverbial
A to·inftnitive clause can funcrion as
an
adverbia
l.
It
can express
ideas
such
as purpose or outcome.
A Purpose
A to·infinitive clause can express
purpo
se.
My
friend has gone to town to
do
some shopping.
/ am writing to enquire about activity holidnys.
To
get
a good seat you need
to
arrive
early.
For other ways
of

expressing purpose, > 240.
In the Ilcgalive \·

e
cannot
use a simple to·infinitive.
(NOT
+'Ie Mlllt'
ill
quietl)
mH
t6
tiis{UI
b »61t.)
Instead we use
so
as
or
so
chm.
We
came in quietly so as
flOt
to disturb you
We came
in
quielly so that
we
wouldn't disturb you.
Afler

so
thac
we
use a finite clause.
NOTE
In
informal British English we u
sc
go
alldlcome and rctther than go
to
/c
ome
to
before a verb.
Let
's
go
and haue a
Clip
of
coJJ(,'e
.
Come
and
take a look
at
chis.
Americans say Let's
go

l!au
e a
wp
of
coffee
.
B Outcome
We
can s
ometim
es use a to·infiniti
vc
clause
to
express the olltcome
of
an
action
or
process.
Laura
came
home to
find
her
hOllse
on fire.
The
prince grew up
to

be a handsome young
man
.
We
can
put
onl)
1 before
the
to·infinitive
to
express the idea
that
effort has
b
een
wasted.
We
all arrived for lhe concen only to find.ichad been cancelled.
Smith beat
[he
goalkeeper only to see his shot
hit
the
post.
C Comment
136
An
infinitive clause can also express a
comment

on
the
speaker's
honesty.
To
be
frank. you didn't make a ve
ry
good impression.
I'm
a.
bit lired
of
sightsee
in
g,
to
tell you
the
truth.
We can also use to be (perfectly) hOliest and
to
pur it bluntly.
,.
101
Verb + to-
infiniti
ve
or
verb +

gerund?
D
To
hear
. . . I To see

We
ca
n use a
clau
se
wi
th
to
hear
or
to see
10
ex
plain
why
so
me
thing
could
give
you
th
e wrong idea.
To

hear
him
talk
, you'd
think
he
was
God's gift
to
women.
To see
her
walking
around
in
her
old clothes,
you'd
never guess she
owned
a
multi
-million
pound
business.
n
Ol
Ve
rb +
to

-
infinitive
or verb + gerund?
,
,
'.
A
We
can
use
a to-infinitive after
certain
verbs.
I
decided
to
take
a
bu
s.
People
will
refuse
to
pay
th
e fl
ew
tax.
I'm plan

ning
to
vi.~it
India next year.
We
hope
to
be
moving
il1lo
our
new
flat soon.
We
expect
to
have
completed
the
work
by
rh
e s
umm
er.
Other
verbs
take
a ge
rund,

I suggested
taking
a
bus.
People will resent
paying
the
new
tax.
I'm
considering Ilis
iting
India next year.
There
are s
ome
verbs which
take
both
form
s:
th
ey
ca
n be followed by ei
the
r a
ro-infinitive
or
a

gerund,
>
10
3.
But
man
y verbs
ca
n be
fo
llowed by
on
ly
one
of
the
forms.
It
is
difficult
or
impossible
to
give rules
about
which
verbs
take
a
to-infinitive and

which
take
a
ge
r
und
;
they
all
ha
ve
to
be l
earne
d individua
ll
y.
B We
ca
n u
se
marc
than
one
to-infinitive
or
gerund
toge
lh
er,

or
a
combinatioll
of
the
two.
YOll
need to prepare to
answer
some
awkward
questions.
J refuse 10 risk losing so
mu
ch money.
jan
e was considering offeri
ng
to
he
lp the refugees.
For
more
informal'ion
about
infinitiv
es
a
nd
ge

rund
s with
other
clau
ses. > 229.
C Here is a list
of
so
me
common
verbs
+ lO-infinitive.
afford>
102G consent
(:;:;
agree)
hesitate
prove>
102A
agree> 102E
dare>
83
hope
refuse
aim
decide l
earn
seek
(~
try

)
appear
> 102A decline
(:;:;
refuse)
long>
1028
seem; l
02A
arrange
demand
look > 10
2e
tend>
I0
2A
ask>
10
2F
desire> 10
28
mana
ge
thr
ea
ten
attempt
(~
try)
be

dying>
10
28
need>
10M
turn
out
>
10
2A
be>
58A-B
expect offer
used>
82
beg
fail
ought>
74A volwlleer
c
ar
e
(~
lik
e)
>102H
be
going>
55
plan

vote
choose
happ
en >
10
2A
pr
epare can't
wait
claim
hav
e>
71
pretend
want>
)0
2B
come>
lO2A
help
>
!02D
promi
se
wish>
10
28
1]7
Th
e

infinitiv
e
Here is a list
of
so
me
co
mmon
verbs +
gerund
.
admit
enjoy justify
r
esis
t
allow >
102
1 c
an
't face keep
report > lO2F
avoid fancy > 1028
keep on
resent
consider
finish m i
nd>
102H resume
delay give

up
miss ri
sk
deny
c
an
't help
po
stpone suggest
det
es
t
(;
hate) imagine practi
se
dislike
involve
quit
NOTE
So
metimes a to-
infiniti
ve
comes
arter a
pa
ssi
ve
verb.
You

were warned
co
take
care.
The equivalent active
patlern
is verb + object +
to
-infinitive.
/ warned you to take care.
For more details
abou
t
the
se
patterns, >
10
5.
102
Verb +
to-
i
nfinit
ive or ger
und
:
more
deta
ils
A A

specia
l gro
qp
of
verbs
which
take a to-infinitive are appear, c
om
e,
happ
en
,
138
prove,
see
m,
te
n
d,
and
lurn out.
The plane seemed to be losing height.
(T
he plane was
apparen
tl
y l
os
ing
height.)

We
happened
to
meet in
th
e street.
(
We
me
l
by
ch
ance
in
the
streer.)
Tile
co
uple
came
to accept the de
ath
of
their
so
n.
(The couple
fina
ll
y

accepted
the
dea
lh
of
their son
.)
Wch p
eo
ple tend to live longer.
(
Ri
ch people u
sually
live
longer
.)
Here
th
e to-infinitive
expresses
what
happ
ened,
and
the verb before it says
something
abo
ut
the

truth
of
the
statement
(e.g. how sure we are that the
plane
is
lO
Sing height)
or
about
the
maim
er
or
time
of
(he
action
(e.g. how
quickly
the
co
uple
accepted
the
dealh
of their son).
The
o

bj
ect
of
th
e (Q·infinitive
can
be the subject of a passive
se
nten
ce.
Ac
ti
v
e:
So
meone
se
ems
to
have stolen
my
compuler.
Pa
ss
iv
e:
My
c
omputer
see

ms
to have
been
stolen.
We can u
se
an e
mpty
s
ubject
it
before
appe
ar,
happen,
see
m, turn out. > 36C
II
seemed chat
(h
e plane was losing height.
We
use a
that
-clause after it + verb.
102
Verb +
to
-
infinitive

or
gerund: more details
B Want + to-infinitive is a
common
pattern.
Wi
sh
and
desire are more formal.
Does
anyone
walll
to say anything?
Does
anyone
wish to
make
a
comment
?
Be
dying to
and
long to
are
more
emphatic
,
I'm
dying

to open this parcel. I can't wait.
Fancy + gerund
is
informal
.
Do
you
fancy
going
out
somewhere?
CLo
ak
+ to-infinitive can
mean
the
same
as 'see
m'
or
'appea
r'.
With profits sharply down,
the
company
looks to be in trouble.
In
the
continuous form it can
mean

'aim
to'.
United are
looking
to return to
th
e top
of
th
e table.
o After help we
can
leave out
10.
We
all
helped
(to)
put
up the tent.
E We can
use
agree
with
a
to
-i
nfiniti
ve
but

not
accept.
My
friend agreed to
pay
half
the cost.
My
friend accepted
that
he
should
pay
half
the cost.
(NOT
My-frieifd aeeel'tM
ffJ
"fl,
,lftt/f
flte-efm. )
F We can u
se
a to-infinitive after ask.
The customer
asked
to see the manager.
Usually there
is
an

object between
ask
and
the
to-infinitive.
;.
lOSB
The customer
asked
lire
manager
to
sort
the
problem oue.
We use a
gerund
after report.
Witnesses
reported seei,Jg the aircraft burst
into
flam
es.
G
We
use
afford (=
ha
ve en
oug

h
money
or
time forl after canlcould
or
be able to,
often in a negative sentence
or
a Question.
1 cm,',
afford
lo
buy
a hous
e.
Will
we
be
able
lo
afford
to
go
to Peru?
H We use
mind
+ gerund
and
care + to-infiniti
ve

mainly
in
a negative
se
nlen
ce
or a Question.
I don't
mind
walking
if
it's fine.
Would you care to come along with u
s?
Would
you
care to . ? is a formal way
of
saying
Wou
ld
you like
to
.

?
Allow takes a gerund.
They
don't
allow

s
unbathing
here.
But
when
it
has
an object, allow takes a to-infinitive.
Tl
wy
don
't
allow
you
to
sunbathe
here.
And
be allowed takes a to-infinitive,
YOIl
aren't
allowed
to
sunbal
he here.
139
The infiniljve
103
Verbs
taking

either
a
to-infinitive
or
a
gerund
A Sometimes
th
e choice
of
to-infinitive
or
gerund afler a ve
rb
depends
on
the
mean
i
ng,
> 104, But so
me
ve
rb
s
ca
n take ei
ther
a to-infin
it

ive
or
a
gerund
with almost no di
ff
ere
nce in m
ean
ing,
I
hat
e to lealie/
hat
e leaving ellery thing to the last
minut
e,
We
intend
to
tak
e/
int
e
nd
taking
imme
diate action.
It
s

udd
enly started to rain/
started
raining
.
The
se
verbs ar
e:
begin, bother, can't
bea.r,
cease, commence, con
tinu
e,
hale,
intend, like,
lo
ve,
prefer, propose, c
an
'I stand,
and
start.
BU(
with
these
verbs we
no
rmally
avoid using two

ing-forms
l
oge
lher.
'l
he
spectatorS were already beginni'lg to arri
ve.
(NOT The sptehllON were a{rt:atJ, bt8itttting-artWittg.)
Afler begin,
cO
lllinu
e,
and start, a state verb usua
ll
y
has
the
to-infinitive form.
I soon be
gan
to
understand
what
th
e problems were.
NO
TE
a Cease (
0.:

stop) and commence
(:::
be
J::in
) are
fo
rmal
b We normally use
bother in a neg.
Hive
sente
nce or a ques
ti
on.
Don'I'beliler to wash up. I Don't
bo
tlrer was
hing
up.
Wily s
hould
we
bolher
to call i
buthcr
callillg a meetmg i
f'lO
on
e
IUIIl

come
to it?
B Like, love,
and
haee take either a to-infinitive
or
a
gerund
.
1
40
I like W c
ook
. I I
lik
e coo
king
.
Kale
hate
s to trallel l
hates
travelling
011
bus
es
.
The
gerund is
more

usual when we are talking
about
the
pl
eas
ur
e
or
displeasure we f
ee
l
when
doing something.
Like
takes a to-infinitive when it m
ea
ns
thai
\'\Ie
do
something
be
ca
u
se
it is a'
good
id
ea rather (han a pleasure.
I

lik
e
10
keep all these
pap
ers in order.
Would like, would love,
and
would
hale
normally take a to-infinitive.
Our guest
would
lik
e to say a few words '
to
you.
We'd love to
go
on
a crui
se.
TIP
Use like t
gerund
to talk
abo
ut
the
things

people
enjo
y.
Do you like playing t
enn
i
s?
,
Y
es,
/
do
. I really enjo)'
it
.
Use would like + to-infinitive
(0
say what you
wan
t
to
do
or to
make
suggestions
or
invitations. t
Would you
lik
e to

play
tennis?
'"
Yes,
OK
Let's have a
game
.
104
Verb + t
o-
Inf
ini
tive/gerund
with
a change in me
aning
~
104
Verb +
to-infinitive/gerund
with
a change
'"
"

'-
in meaning
The to-infinitive
<Ind

gerund have differe
nt
m
ea
nings after the
se
verb
s:
rem
em
ber, forget (> A), regret (> B
).
dread
(> C), try
(>
0),
SLO
p
(>
E
),
mean (> F), get (>
G),
go on (> H
).
nee
d,
want,
and
deserve (>

1)
.
A We
use
remember
Clnd
forget with a to-infinitive to talk
about
necessary
actions a
nd
whether we do them
or
not.
Did
you
remember
to turn
off
the computer?
You
forgot
(0
sign the
ch
e
qu
e.
, "
Oh, sorr)'.

We
use a
gerund
with remember
and
forget
to
talk a
bout
m
em
ories.
[ c
an
remember
waking
up
in
the
middle
of
the night.
tU
never forget
breaking
down
on
the rnowrway.
It
was awful.

8
We
use
regret + to-infinitive
when
we
are
giving bad
ne
ws.
We regret to
inform
you
that
your
application has been
un
successful.
We
use
a
gerund
to express regret
ab
out
the
past.
I regret
wasting
I J regret

having
wasted
so
much
time
last year.
C
We
use
dread + la-infinitive
ma
inly in [ dread w thin.k / f
dr
ead to
im
agin
e.
I
dread
to
think
what
might
happen
to you
a.ll
alone
in
the hig
ci

t
y.
We
use
a
gerund
for s
om
elhing that ma
kes
us afra id.
I always
dreaded
being
kissed by
my
aunt
s.
D Try + to-infinitive me
an
s
to
do your
be
st to achieve something.
I'm trying to light a fire,
but.
the wood won't hum .
Try
+

gerund
m
ea
ns to do s
omethin
g to see
if
it
wi
ll
solve the
prob
lem.
You could try
pouring
so
me petrol
on
LO
make
it
burn.
NOTE
In informal English
we
can use try
and
ins lead
of
try

10
Let's try
and
moue
cll
e
ClIp
board
away
from the wall.
E After stop we
can
use a to-infinitive
of
purpo
se. >
IOO
A
At
the
services the driver
stopped
to
buy
a
new
s
pap
e
r.

Stop + g
erund
means to
en
d
an
action.
You.
'd beller stop
dream
i
ng
and
gee on with
some
work.
Mean + ro-infinitive has the
sense
of
'
intend
'
or
'p
lan
'.
I'm sorry. [ didn't m
ean
to
s

tep
on
you.r fuul.
He
re
mean
has
a per
son
al
subj
ect
(f).
M
ea
n + gerund
mean
s 'involve'. It
exp
r
esses
the
idea
that
a situa
ti
on
crea
te
s

the ne
ed
for a particular action.
I
ha
ve
to be
al
the airport by eight
o·dock
.
It
me
ans
getting
lip
early.
H
ere
mean
ha
s an
imp
ers
ona
l subjec{
(i
t).
J41
The

infinitive
G Get + to-
infiniti
ve
means
to
gel
an
opportunity
to
do
s
omething
or
to SUC
CE
in doing it.
J hope I c
an
get to speak to the Pr
es
ident.
Th
e kids got to ride
on
a steam engine.
But gel + ge
rund
means
'start'

.
It's
half
past seven. We'd belter
get
going.
On
ce
you
two
get talking, no one else c
an
get a word in.
G
el
is
rath~r
informa1.
H
Go
Or! to-inHnitive
means
to
do
som
ething different,
to
do
th
e next thit

After
re
ce
iving the award, lhe actor went
on
to
thank
all the people
wh
had helped
him
in
his career. .
Go
on
+
gerund
means
to
continue
doing
s
omething.
The band went
on
playing even after everyone
had
left.
We
can also say The

band
kept on pillying.
We
can u
se
need, want,
and
deserve with a (Q-infinitive.
We need
to
leave at eight.
Am
y
wants
to use the computer.
A/ter all your hard work
you
deserve
to
succeed.
A gerund after these verbs h
as
a passive me
aning
. > 96A
All
th
ese figures need/want checking.
105
Verb

+
object
+
to-infinitive
A
Introduction
142
Some verbs
can
take
an
object
and
a to-infinitive.
S
imon
wants
you
to ring
him
on
his mobil
e.
We asked the teacher
not
to
give us
any
homework
.

I expected Tim to
meet
me
at the airport.
The
ob
je
ct
of
the
verb (you, the teacher,
Tim)
also
function
s as the subject
the to-infinitive. For example,
Tim is
the
subje
ct
of
to mee
t.
NOTE
Co
mpare t
he
infinitive
with
and without a s

ubj
ec
t.
I expected Tim
10
meet
me. (= I expected that
Ti
m would meet me.)
J expected to meet Tim. (= I expected that I wouJd m
ee
t Tim.)
In
the sentence J expecled
10
meet
Ti
m,
the
subject
of
the lo-infinitive is
und
erstood to
the sa
me
as
the subj
ec
t

of
th
e s
entenc
e (I).