OXFORD LEARNER''''S GRAMMAR 9 potx

Conditional sentences
e43
Introduction
I
A
Most
conditiona
l
~entence
s
have
a s
ub-clau
se
starting
with the word If We
can
use
many
different
verb forms
in
conditional
sentences.
Here
are
some
reat example
s.
If
YOli

haven't
got television,
you
can't
watch
it.
Ifyou
go
10
one
of
the agencies, rhey halJe a
lOl
of
temporary jobs.
If
someone
else
has
requested the book,
YOIl
would
have
to give
it
bac
k.
l[
you
lived

on
the planet Mercury, yO/1.
would
have
four
birthdays
in
(1
single Earrh year.
In general
we
usc
verb forms in
conditional
scnlCnccs in
the
same
way
as
in
other
kinds
of
sentences.
If
you've
finished
work Jor today,
YOll
can

go home.
Compare: You've
finished
work for today, so
you
l:an
go home.
In
an
open
cond
ition
(w
hen
something
mayor
ma
y
not
happen)
, we usc
the
present
tens~:
tfyou
go
to
one
of
tile agencies.

When
we talk
about
something
unreal
, we
often
use
the
past
ten
se:
if
you
lived
on
the planet MerCIny. Af
te
r
an
unreal
condition,
we use
would
in
the
main
clause:
you
would

ha/Jc
.fou
r
birthdays.
B There are
some
verb
forms
which
often
go
together.
These
patterns
arc
usually
called
Types
1.
2,
and
3.
Type
I:
If
the
company
Jails, we
will
lose

our
money. > 245
T
ype
2:
lf
the
company
Jailed, we
would
lose
our
money. > 246
Ty
pe
3:
lfthe
company
hadfail
ed,
lVe
would
have
lost our
mone
y.
> 24 7
There
is
another

pattern
which we
can
call
Type
O.
Type
0:
If
the
company
fails, we lose
our
money
. > 244
C
The
if-clause usually
comes
berore
the
ma
in
clause,
but
it can
come
after it
If
you're

in
a hurry,
you
needn't
wait
for
me
.
You needn't
wait
for
me
if
yo
u Ire in a
hu
rry.
A
comma
bet
ween
the
clauses
is
more
likely
when
Ihe
if-clause
come

s first
and
less likely
when
it
comes
at
the
end.
343
Condiliona
l
sentences
o
We
can lise conditional s
entences
in
a
numh
er
of
differenl way
s:
not only
to
g
iv
e inf
orma

tion hut
al
so, for example, when wc
request
, advise, criticize,
ilnd so on.
li
se
Reque
~
ling:
Advising:
Crilicizing:
Suggesting:
Offering:
Warning:
"hreatening:
Example
-
~
-
~
~-
-
-
-



If

you're going
into
IOwn
,
could
you
pOSI cliis leller for
me
,
plea
se?
If
your
headac
he
persists, you
.<;
Iwu/r/
see
a doctor.
If
you'd
remember
ed your passpurt, we
uJ(Jlddrz
'{ be in sllch
a rush.
We can go for a
walk
if

yon
like.
If
you'd like a sandwich,
jus
/
help
yourself
If
you
don't
save
the
in[ormaliofJ
to
(Jisk,
you
risk lo
sing
il.
If
you
don'[ leave
imm
ediate
ly,
I'll
call [he
roli
ce.

244 Type 0
conditionals
A The
pattern
is
if
.

+ present . + presenr.
If
the doorbell rings, [he dog bark.,.
If
you
add
tw
elve
and
fifteen,
what
do
you
get?
The
balleries
take
over
if
the
mains
supply!aiL<;.

This
pallcrn
means
that
one
Ihing always
follow
s aUlOmaticaJly from
another.
We can use when insl
ead
of
ifwhen
the
meaning
is '
eac
h lime'.
IpM
l
hell / reverse the ca
r,
it
makes
a
funny
noise.
(=
Eac
h time I

rev
erse the car,

)
For more
abo
ut
ifand
when, >
l49A
.
B
We
can also use Type 0
for
the
automatic
r
esu
h
of
a possible future action.
If
the
leam
win tomorrow,
Th
ey
gel promotion
10

a high
er
league.
We
could also use a Type 1 conditional with
they
will
get.
245 Type 1
conditionals
A This is a very
common
ty
pe
.
The
ba
sic
pattern
is If + present

+ will.
344
If it
rains
, t
he
rece
ption
wm

take
pla
ce
indoor
s.
If
we
don
't
hurry
,
we
wo
n 't get
th
ere in cim
e.
If
we
wallt
10
ask
question
s,
will
we be
allowed
I.O?
The
milk

will go
off
if
)'011 leave
it
by tile radiator.
The if-clause expresses
an
open
condition. In the first
examp
le.
if
it rains
leaves open [he question
of
whether
it
will
rain
or
no!.
The
pr
es
ent
simple
(
rain
s) expresses future

lime
. For
more
examp
les
of
rh
e present lIsed
in
this
way,
e.g.
Let's wait
until
everyone arrives, > 59.
245 Type 1 conditionals
"'"e
do
not normally u
se
will
in the ir
-c1a
us
e.
(Nm I
ftl
-wtH-rttHt, . )
But we can
li

se
will in the if-clause
to
talk
about
something
that
is
funhcr
in
the
future
than
the
action of
the
main
clause.
If
thi
s medicine does me/will
do
me
good, I'll take
it.
For will
in
the
if-clause cxprcsslIlg willingness, > 245D.
NOTE

We
can u
se
.
~hall
inslCad
of
will aflCr
/I
we.
> 54/\
If
we
dOll
'I hurry. we willlshtlil miss
elU!
Iram
.
B
As
well
as
the
pre
sent simplc,
we
C~1I1
use
the
prescnt

conlinuous
or
perfect.
If
we're ',ailing a party,
we'll
have
to
invite the neighbours.
If
I've
finished
my
work
hy
ten, I'll probably
walch
{l
film
on
'Iv.
As
well as will, we can usc other
modal
verbs
and
similar expressions in til('
main clause.
If
someone sees

me
,
how
can
/
explain
what
I'm doing?
If
you
challge the
lime
o],your flight,
you
may
be
charged
a
fee.
I'm going to
look
silly
If
I can't
answer
any
of
the
qu
estions.

We
can
also lise the imperative in the main clause.
If
you've got a problem, ring ()ur Ilelpline.
If
you
mak
e a mistake, don't
panic
.
C A prescnr tense
in
(he if·clause can refer
to
the
present
If you
think
mod
elling
is
glamorous,
think
again.
If
iI'S
raining
already, I'm definitely
not

gOi'lg
ma.
D
We
can
use
will in
the
if~dause
for willingness
and
won
't
['or
a re
fu
sal.
If
all
of
you
will
lend
a hand, we'll soon get Ille
job
done.
If
lhe car
won
't start, I'll have to ring the garage.

For
more
about
this
meaning
of
will a
nd
won'l, >
54
O.
We
can
use will in
the
if-clause for a request.
If
you'll
take
a seal, someone will
be
with you in a moment.
If
you'll
JUSl
sign here, please.
Thank
you.
E Instead
of

a
Type
1 conditional wi{h
If
you
+ simple
present,
we
can usc this
pattern
with
and
and
Qr
in informal
speech.
Touch
me
and
I'll scream
(=
If
you
touch
me, I'll scream.)
Go
away
or I'll scream.
(=
If

you
don't
go away, J'
ll
scream.)
345
Co
ndit
io
nal sentcnccs
246 Type 2 conditionals
A
The
basic pattern is
if

+ past

+ wou
ld
.
If
I flad
lOIS
of
mOTley
, I
would
travel
round the

wo
rld
.
I'd tell you the allswer
if
I
kn
ew
what
it was.
If
we
did,,
't
think
the
plane
was
safe,
we
wou
ldn
't
fly
it.
Here the past ten
se
expresses
an
unreal condition. In the

fir
st example,
If I
had
lots
of
money
means
that really 1 haven't got lots of money; I am
only
imagining a situation where I have. For more examples
of
the
past
us
ed
in
this way, > 230.
We
do
not normally use wo
ul
d in the if-claus
e.
(NOT 1!-I-tIJ(mItH'twtHttl.,
ttf
"'_y;-
.

)

N
Ul
r.
a
We
Cl
m usc
S
IIOI~ld
instead of wuulrl afler IIwc.
If
Ili
ad luiS
of
mOTley,
I UlQIl/tl/.(IIOuld traw l
rout/d
th
e world.
Would IS
lII
ore usual. Should is rather
lit
er
ary
here.
b
In inrnrmul American speech woltlfl ls
~omel im
cs

u
se
d to exprcss an unreal condillon.
If
those
pt.'Op/e
WlJuld get u
nu
c
kar
bomb
,
It
UJou
ld
be
a great threat
to
u
s.
Hut
this
IS
nUl
acceptable in wrning, so you should a
vo
id
it
.
e

We
sometim
es
use were IIlstead
of
was in an if-clau
se
. > 231 C
l[
I was/were a IJlllionaire, I
would
"
'auel
round
the
wor
ld.
8 We also use
the
Type 2 pattern for a theoretical possibility
in
the future.
If
we
cau
ght
the
ea
rly
trai"

lOmorrow,
we'd
he
in
York
by
lunch
lime
.
If you lost
the
video,
you
would
Ilave
10
pay
for a
flew
one.
~
Here the past ten
se
refers
to
a possible future action such as catching the
ea
rl
y train tomorrow.
Compare Types 1 and

2.
T)'pe I: If we
stay
in
a hOlel, it
will
he
expens
il
J
e.
Type 2: If
we
s
ta
yed
in
a hOlel, it
would
be expells;'Je.
Type I expresses the action as an
open
possibility - we Illay or may not stay
in
a hotel. Type 2 expresses the action
as
a theoretical possibiliry only,
some
thing more distant from reality.
Sometimes

it
can
be more polite to
li
se
Type 2 rather than Type
I,
for
example when making a request.
Would
it be
all
rig
ht
if
I
brought
a frie
nd
? -
Ye
s,
of
cOllrs
e.
I-It:re
Type I would be more direct and less tenta
ti
ve.
C

You
might occasiona
ll
y see a mix
tur
e of Types I and 2.
346
If b'flgland win against
Ge
r
many
tonight,
il
would
be
a miracle.
Howev
er
, this is
unu
sual. Normal,ly
we
do not mix Types I
and
2.
(NOT
1[J't;e gal
OOt
.1
&/JII(hlt!')

,

fbQu
l
d-trttbd
If
:H"td-tfttHtI(tf'/d.) )
•
TIP
Do not mix Types 1
and
2.
Say
If
you break it, you will have to pay for it.
OR
If
you broke it, you would have to pay for it.
N
OT
if}fJ/4
hi
eak
it
,
}6/:t
tt!6t1.
{ti
ha
bt!

td
pa,
lar it.
and N
OT
-If-yttlr
brttlre
i
t:;-yQ
u-wifl-have-tfj-parior-it.
NUfE
247 Type 3 cond
it
ionals
a
We
can use a mixiurc
ofl
he pasl Icnse
and
will when we comb
in
e a past cot
ld
ition wIth
a fmure resu
lt
If
they l
lOsre

u file parcel
),es
t
erday
,
it
won't
get
here hefore Friday.
b A Type 2 pa
tt
ern can he Ihe past of a Type I, for example in reponed speech
Type I: lx m
'lgo
.
If
yo
II
acce
pt
the inIJitQlion,
you
will
regret it
Typ
e 2. J w id
you
fila.t If
YO
" acce

pted
tile
invitation,
you
would
regret
it,
D
As
well as the past simpl
e,
we
can use
the
past
continllolls or
co
uld
in
th
e
jf-clause.
lj
the
sun
was
shining
, everyth
ing
would be perfect.

Ij
I
could
have
my
child looked after, I would go
out
to
work.
As
well as
wou
ld,
we
can
li
se other modaJ verbs such as could or miglll in the
main clause.
If
I
had
a light, I c
ould
see
what
I'm doing.
If
we could re-starl the computer, lhaI
mighl
solve the problem.

We
can also u
se
continuo
us form
s.
If
Shakespeare was alive lOday,
he
would
be
writing
Jor wlevision.
E
We
can u
se
would
in the if-clau
se
for a request.
If
you
wouldn't
mind
holding
th
e line, J
'lll
.ry

to
put
you throu
gh.
If
you
'd just
sign
h
ere.
p{ea.~e
Thank
you.
We
can also use wo
uld
l
ik
e.
Ifyou
'd
lik
e
to
see the exhibilion, it would be nice 10
go
together .
247
Type 3 conditionals
A The

ba
sic
patt
ern is If

. + past perfect

+
WOf.
dd + perfect.
Ifyou
ha.d
taken
a taxi, you
would
have
got here in
lim
e.
I
would
have
bought
that
guitar yesterd
ay
if
I'd
had
enough money.

My
brother
would
have
been
promoted
if
he'd
stayed
in his job.
We'd
huzle gone to the talk
if
we'd
known
abo
Lll
il.
(= We wou
ld
have gone jf we h
ad
kn
ow
n
.)
-
Here the verb forms ref
er
to

some
thing
unr
eal,
to
an
imaginary past action.
In
the
fi
rst exampl
e,
if
you
had
taken a
taxi
means
that
.r
eally you didn't take
a tax
i;
I am only imagining a situation where you did. For more examples of
the past perfect used in this wa
y,
> 230C.
347
Conditional sentences
We

cannot use the past si
mple
or
rhe past perfect in the m
ai
n clause.
(NO r
if
j'Qtl-
hatl-tttkefHt
-
ltt:X
+ yott-hud-gtJt-ftere-itt-time.)
Anti
we
do not
norma
ll
y u
se
would
in the If-clause.
(NO
T
/f-yotJ
-
wotJllHtfJtJe-fOlretHl'
IttXr yolrltfOtllti
-
hove

,
~ol
-
h
ert
.
""';
n
-
time
.)
NOTe
You
lIla~
'
ocrasiona
ll
y hear a form
suc
h
as
UJOllfd
IUllle
lakell
(
OM
had
Imllt'
laA
:c

lI
) in
an
If·
clause
in
informal speech. Rut lllilny
peuple
regard it as ;nc
Oi
reet.
and
It
is
nOI
acceptable
in
writ
in!::.
so
you
should
uvoid i
t.
B
We
ca
n
use
could + perfect in

the
if-clause.
If
I
co
uld
Itave
warned
you
in lime, I
would
have
done
.
As
weli as would. we call usc
oth
er modal verbs
suc
h as could
or
might
in
the
main
clause.
If
I'd
wrillell lite address dowll. I
could

hav
e
sa
ved
myself
some
trouble.
The plan
might
not
have
worked
if
we
hadn
't
had
a piece
of
luck.
We
ca
n aJso lise
continuous
forms
.
If
he
hadn
'l been

ev
icted
by
his landlord, he
wouldn
't
have
been sleeping
on
Ih
e streets.
C
We
ca
n
mi
x Ty
pe
s 2 and
3.
If
Tom
was
ambitious, he lVould
have
found
him
se
lf
a beller

job
years
ago.
/
fyou
hadn't
woken
me
up
in
the
ni
ghl, J
wouldn't/eel
so lired now.
We
ca
n also use a Type 1 condilion
wi
th a Type 3
main
clause.
If
you knolll London. so well. y
OIl
sho
uld,,'t
hav
e got
so

hopelessly lost.
248 Should. were, had. and inversion
The following types of clause are rather formal.
A
We
can usc should in
an
if-clau
se
to
talk
i.
lbollt something
th
at m
ig
ht possIbly
happen
.
If
you
should
fall
ill
,
the
company
will
pay
yo

ur
ho
s
pital
ex
pens
es.
If
I s
hould
be
c
ho
sen as
your
represent.alilJ(!, I
wou
ld
do
my
best
for
yO
Il
.
More neutral would
be
If
you
fall

ill
,

and
If
I was c
ho
sen
We
can also u
sc
/tappen lo.
If
you
(s
hould
) iullJpen to
fall
ill
,
'he
cnmpany
will pay YOllr
ho
spital expenses.
B
Some
time." we use were instead
of
was. > 23 1 C

If
the pic
wre
was/were genuine, it
uJ{Jlild
be worlh a m.iIlion
pound
s.
We can also
li
SC
were
to
for a
the
oretical
po
s~
ihilit
y.
If rile
(./(!C
:
is
ion were
to
go
again
st u
s,

we
UJOuld
appeal.
343
249 More details
about
if
C In a condition with should
or
were, we can invert the
subject
and
verb
and
leave
out
if
Should you fall
ill,
the company will pay your hospital expenses.
Should we nul succeed, the consequences would he disastrous.
Were
thl!
picture genuine, it would be worth a million pounds.
Were the decisi
on
to
go
against u
s,

we would appeal.
We
c
annot
do
this with wa
s.
Tf
t
he
picwre
was genuine, it Ulould he worth a million pounds.
(Ncr! Was-tlte-piettffe-genttine, it /:t;ottlti
he;
t:.,(),
th
-a-
tllilli8Jl
)l(}Itf'ttij
.)
We
can
al
so use inversion with
the
past perfect (Type 3, > 247).
Had
you wken a t(lxi, you would hal
Je
guc

he
re
un
lime.
Had
I not car
ri
ed
(Jut
the order, I would have
iJ
een sacked.
But
an jf-c1ause
(//you
had
taken
a taXi) is
mor
e c
ommon
, especially
in
informa
l Eng
li
sh.
D Look
at
these

examples
with II
nol
for.
You sailed
my
life.
If
it
hadn
't been
for
YOll,
I'd luwe droumed.
(=
Without
you, I'd have
drowned.
)
I'd give
up
teac
hing
if
it wasn't!werell
'I
for the holidays.
We can also u
sc
bue for. >

25
1B
But for you, I'd have droume.d.
[249 More
details
about
if
A When
and
if
When
we talk
about
the
future, we
usc
when for
someth
ing that
wi
ll
ha
ppen
a
nd
if
for
someth
ing
th

at might
happ
en.
When the doctor comes, C
WI
you lei her in? (The
doctor
will come.)
If
the doctor comes,
ca
n you leI her in? (The
doctor
might
come
.)
We
use if (
not
when) for an unreal c
ondition.
If
I had a credil card, I would spend euen more money.
(I
don't
have a credit card.)
In
so
me
contexts eith

er
when
or
if
is
po
ss
ible. > 244A
I always feel guilty when/
if
I use
my
credit card.
B Then
After an if-clause
we
can
li
se then in
the
main
clause.
If the figures don't
add
up,
then
yuu
must
halJe
made

a mistake.
If
no one else has
reqllesr.ed
(h
e book,
then
you can keep
it
jar
al/Olller
three weeks.
349
Condi
ti
onal
sentences
Here
th
en
is
not
an
adverb of tim
e.
It
empha
sizes the link between the
con
dition

(e.
g.
no
one
eL<;e
has requested the book)
and
the result
of
the
co
ndition being met
(e
.
g.
you can keep
it).
We
cannot use so in t
hi
s way.
(NOT
Ifthe-Jigttres-
don
't
fldti
-
up; s
e-yott-tftt1.Sr~mt1de-tc-m
i

s
-tak
e.)
C
Short
clauses
We
can somClimes u
se
a short clause with
if
leaving
ou
t the subject
and
the
verb.
I'd like a room with a view
of
the sea
if
(that
is)
possibl
e.
If
(you are)
in
difficulty, ring this number.
We can do this when the

meaning
is still clear without the missing words.
For
if
so
and
if
not,
:;;.
28D
.
D
What
if
We
can usc
what
if
to
ask so
meone
to imagine a situation.
What
if
the tickets
don
't arrive in time?
Mlat
if
you'd h

ad
an
accident?
We can also u
se
it
to
mak
e a suggestion.
What
if
we all
meet
in London
at
the weekend?
Suppose
and
supposing are u
se
d in the
sa
me way as
what
if
> 230
Supposing
the tickets
don't
arrive in tim

e?
E
Ev
en
if
}SO
We
ll
se even
if
to
express
both
a
condition
and a contras
t.
I'm going to finish lhis report even
if
it takes all night.
(This report
mayor
may
not
take a
ll
ni
ght,
but
I'm

goi
ng to finish
it.)
We
cannot
use even on its own as a conjunc
ti
on.
NOT
Fm-goiflg
fa
jillish-lfti5
rfp(Jf-t-even it-ltik-e-aU-nighe.
Compare even
if
and even though.
Even
if
the
rumou
r
is
untrue, people will
scill
believe
it.
(The r
umour
may or
ma

y
not
be
untru
e.)
Even
though
the rum our
is
untrue, people will still believe il.
(The r
umour
is
untrue
.)
25
0 Unless
250 Unless
A Unless with a
po
siti
ve ve
rb is eq
ui
v
alent
to
if
with a negative verb.
The cluh will

go
bankru
pt
unless it finds a
new
backer soo
n.
(:::

if it
doe
s
n't
find a new
backer
soon.)
Unless I get
up
when I w
ak
e, I
feeL
tired all day.
(:::
If
I
don
't get
up
when I wake,

)
We're going to
ha
ve
a pic
ni
c - unless it rains,
of
course.
(=
if it
doe
sn
't
rain, of co
ur
se.)
In
these exa
mple
s, the main clause
is
negative.
You can't get y
uur
money
ba
ck unless you've
got

a receipt.
(:::
You
can
get
your
money back
only
if
you've
got a receipt.)
Won't
YOIl
join
u
s?
- Not unless
you
apologize first.
(=
I'll
join
you
only
if
you
apo
logi
ze
first

.)
B We do
not
normally
li
se
unl
ess me
aning
if

not
to express
an
lInreal
condition.
If
you
didn
't
talk
so much,
you'd
get
more
work
dune
.
lIthe
horse hadn't/allell, it

would
have
won
the
race.
(NOT
i+ttie.'1
5 l
lte-iICtfSe
-httd-[allertoff-
!lJ(JUitJ-
hatJe
-Wtffl;;he fftCe
.)
We
do
not
use unless to ta
lk
about
a feeling which w
ould
result from
s
omething
not
happening
.
Laura will be upset
if

you
don't
come
to
her party.
I'll be very surprised
if
you don 'I get the joh.
( NOT J'
IJ-be very-mrpr
ised
tI
fileSS
}'61l
-geHhe-jttIJ.)
251
Other
ways
of
expressing a
condition
A As
long
as,
provided, etc
As
we
ll
as if,
we

can
u
se
as long as
or
SO
l
ong
as
to
express a condition.
You
cftn s
moke
as
long
as
you
do
it o
ut
side the
building
.
I don't care
what
a car looks like so long
as
it gelS me from A to
B.

We
can also use provided (that), providing (t
hat
), a
nd
all
condition that.
The
machine
will go
on
working
for years
provided
(that) it
is
looked
af
ter properly.
We are
willing to accept
your
offer
providing
(that)
payment
is
mad
e
within seven days.

'l11
e country was given aid
on
condition
tllat
it
1signed a
tr(l(i
e agre
eme
llt.
Th
ese
co
njun
ctions are
more
formal.
351
Conditional
sentences
B
In
case
of,
with,
etc
We
can
use

the
preposition
s i'l case
of
and
in the eu(mt
of
In case
of
fire, break
gUlS
S.
(o
n a sign)
(:;:
If
there
IS a fire, . _.)
In
rite
eve"t
of
a major emergency, local hospiwls
would
be alerted.
(.;:
If
there
was
a

major
emergency
•

)
The
prepositions
with, without,
and
but
Jor
can
also express a
condition
.
With a bit more time, we could do a proper job.
(::;:
If
we
had
a
bit
more
time, .

)
Without my mobile, I would Iialle
been
in big trouble.
(~

If
1
hadn't
had
my
mobile
,

)
But for
ril
e climate, Edinburgh
would
be a
per/
ec
L place
to
live.
(::;:
If
il
wasn't
for
the
climate
,

)
In

{hal
case
means
'if
that
is
so'.
I've lost
my
tickel

In
that
case you'll have to
buy
another
one.
We
can
also
use
otherwise fo
express
a condition.
If
means
'if
that
is
not so'.

I'd better wriw the address
dOWIJ
, oilierwise I'll forget
il
.
C In
case
Compare
if
and
in case.
I'll
get
some
money
from the cash point
if
I need some.
(I'll wait until I
need
some
and
then
get il.l
I'll
ger
some
mOlley
from
the ca.'ihpoint in case I need some.

(I'U get it
now
b
eca
use
[
might
need it later
.)
Here
are
some
more
eX(lInples
with
ill
case.
You should insure
your
belongings
in
case they get stolen
(:::

because
they
might
get stolen.>
Ilefl
a glass

of
umter
by
my
bed
in
case I woke
up
thirsty
lfl
the night.
(:::

.
because
I
might
wake
up
thirsty
in the night.)
We
can
also u
se
should
or
mighl
in a clause with in case.
J'II

take
my
mobile
in
case
you
should/might
need to contact me.
We
can
lise in case
as
an
adverbial.
/'Ii get some money
from
the cashpoi'lt UUSl) in case.
But for in case of, >
13.
NOn:
352
In I\l1lelican English
III
calC ciln m
ea
n the same as
if
1/),011
'wed J
In

rose you
l/(!f
~
d
any
help.
let
mc
know.
Noun
clauses
252
Introduction
A A nOLln clause begins with tl1m, a question word.
or
'f
l whether.
J expected
tllar
there would be difficulties.
The price
depends
on
where
you
want
to sit.
We
'
ll

have to
d
L~
ide
ifiwhelher we c
an
afford
iI
,
A that-clause relates
10
a statement.
Tlwre
would
be difficulties.
-+

that
there
would
be
diffiwllies
A wh-clause relates
to
a wh-qucstion.
Where
do
you
wanf
to

sit?
-+

where
you
warll
lo
sit
A clause w
ith
if
or
I,v
ll
e/h
er
relates
to
a
yes
/
no
queslioll.
C
an.
we
afford
it?
-+

iJ7whetlter
we
can
afford
it
B
In
informal English we can often Icave out that.
I
k"ew
(
that
)
you
weren't listening
It)
me.
In a clause relating
10
a question, we normally use the
sa
me
word order as in
a s«Itcmcnt.
W
e'
ll
have
to
deci

de
lflwhether
we
ca
n afford it.
(NOT
We
'
H
~
have-ffHIeeitk-tfltttltelher
,a"
WI
.
"jfof
{J-iJ.
)
i
We
can
sometime
s u
sc
a to-infinitive with a question wo
rd
or
wl1
ether.
> 108
The problem

wa
s
where
to
plug
in
all
the electric
al
e
qUipmelll
.
C
We
li
se
the term '
noun
clause' because these clauses generally function
ill
the sa
me
way as
noun
phrases: they
can
be the subject, the object,
or
the
comp

l
eme
nt,
or
they can
co
me
after a preposition.
As
s
ub
ject:
As Object:
As
comple
ment
:
That he c
ould
be
mistakeu
wasn', po
ss
ibl
e.
> 254A
1 noticed that the door was open. > 253
The result is
that
no

Olle
knows
what
to do.
>
254C
Af
ter a
pr
eposition: We
had
a
talk
about
who
should
be
invited
. > 255
We
can
<l
lso use
noun
clauses in
othe
r
pattern
s.
W

ith
it:
It
wam
'
lpo
ssible
Uwt
he co
uld
be
mistaken. >2:'4 B.
Afler
an
adjective:
I'rn
disappointed
that
I
didn't
gellhe
job. > 256A
After a n
ou
n: J he
ard
a
rumour
that
lite professor

has
been
kidtlapp
ed. > 2561l
No
un
clauses
are
us
ed
in
indirect speech after verbs like sa)' and ask. > 2
59
You
said
you
I-4.
I
ant
ed
to
c
ome
wilh
u
s,
Someon.e
asked
what
tlte matter wa

s.
353
Noun
cla
u
ses
253
Noun
clause
as
object
A A noun clause
can
be
the object of a vcrb.
We
regret
th
ai
you
did
not find
our
product
sat
is
fac
to
ry.
[can't

believe anyolle wo
ul
d be so st
upi
d.
The figures
show
how
muc
h
th
e populatio
ll
h
as
increased.
I wonder
whethe
r
th
at
's
a good idea.
There are
m.my different
ve
rbs t
hat
we
com

usc before a
noun
clause. Here
are some
of
the
1110st
common
ones.
agree
consider
mean
see
suspect
ask
reel
point
out
show
think
assume find realize suggest
unde
rst
and
belie
ve
know
say
suppose
wonder

NOTE
Sometimes we pllt
flOI
in the
m<:lin
clause
when
you might expect it in
the
noull clause.
I don't
think
we'IJe
got rime J dOll't exf
H!c
t it'll take uery
long.
TIllS
is
more \lsual
than'
thmk
we
hallen'l
got
(Jt/le
or
J expect
it
won

't (ake very
{allg.
We prefer to
put
not in the
main
clause
w1th
believe, expect, imagme, suppose,
llnd
think.
B Sometimes
there
is
an
indirect object.
We
told Ilu! driver we were
ill
a hurry.
1 persuaded La
ur
a that she ought to give
up
smoking.
The
wuman
asked t
he
policem

an
what was happening.
T
he
indirect object is
usua
ll
y a person. >
6A
The verbs we can use in this
pattern
include
the
fo
ll
ow
ing.
advise convince
persuade remind
tell
ask
inform promise
show
warn
assure
notify reassure teach
write>
No
te
bet

With some
of
these
verbs we
cannot
leave out the indirect object. > 259C
NOTE
An
ilHJircct object with write in Ihis
palrern
is used
main
ly
III
America
n English.
He
wrote
me
th
at
he
couldn't
cume.
In British English wrote
CO
me
is
more
usua

l.
C With certain verbs
we
can
use a ph
rase
'Ni
th 10.
354
We
explained to t
il
e driver fILal we were in a hurry.
[ mentioned
to
Ka
ren that you would be here.
The
ve
rbs that we
can
use in th
is
pattern
include
the
fo
ll
owing.
admi

t
announce
complain
declare
explain
indicate
mention
point
out
propose
We
can
always leave out the
phrase
\o\rith
to.
r
ecommend
remark
report
say
suggest
write
254
Noun
clause
as
subject and
as
complement

D
We
can use a n
ou
n
cl
a
use
after a passive verb.
It was ass
um
ed
that
the stock market would continue
to
rise.
For
mo
re
de
tail
s,
> 921\.
254
Noun
clause
as
subject
and
as

complement
A We so
metime
s use a
nou
n clau
se
as the subject of a sentence.
That
you
lVant to be
independent
IS only natura
l.
How they're going to enforce
th
e
la
w isn't clear.
But
it
is m
ore
usual
10
put
the noun
cl
au
se

l
ater
in the sentence. > B
We c
annot
lea
ve
out t
ha
t when the clause is the s
ubje
ct.
(NO'
1'
ffltt
wtt
ttH
e-be-iltdepentiett+-is-ottiy-natttffti
.)
We can use whelher (bur
no
t
ifJ
wh
en
th
e
cl
ause is the s
ub

jec
t.
Wh.ether I'll be able to come depends
UTI
a
number
of
things.
B We of
te
n
li
se
it and
put
the noun
cl
ause
at t
he
end
of
the s
ent
ence
.
It's only narural
that
you
want

to
be
ind
ependent.
It
isn't cle
ar
how
they'
re
going to enforce
lh
e law.
Il
's
hard
to
say iftwhether it's going to rain
or
not
.
Il
was easy to see
how
it could
ha
ve
happ
ened.
We do this b

eca
u
se
the
cl
ause is
lo
ng
an
d co
mes
morc na
tur
a
ll
y at the end.
NOTE
a For it
wi
th seem, happen etc, > 36C.
If
seems that I've
made
a mlSlake.
b
ror
it with a passive verb, >
92A.
It is
fea

red lhal
many
lives have been lost in the earthquake.
c
We
can lise the
foll
owing
pauern
wi
th
it
as the object. > 36B
They
haven't
made
it
dear
huw
they're going to enforce
{he
law.
C A noun
cl
au
se
ca
n be a compl
emen
t

of
be.
Th
e truth is
that
1
don
't get
on
wi
th
my
flal
~
mate.
The advantage
of
DVD
is
that
it
gives
you
much
better picture
quality
.
B
ef
ore he

we
often use nouns like
the
se:
adv
a
nt
a
ge,
answer, effect,
explanation, fear, idea, point, problem, reason, result, situalion, truth.
~
55
Noun
clause
after
a
preposition
, ,
A A wh-cJa
use
or
whether can
come
after a pr
epos
ition.
Th
e government
is

looking into
what
needs to be done.
'/hen there's the quest
io
n
of
who
pa
ys
for
all
thi
s.
The Singer made nu comment
on
wh
e
the
r he
had
sold his s
tor
y
to a
ne
wspaper
.
We
ca

nno
t
us
e
if
in this pattern.
355
NOLIn
clauses
We
cannot use a
that~cJau
se
after a preposition.
Co
mpar
e these examples.
No
one lold
me
that
Nicola
was
ill.
No one told
me
about
Nicola's illll
ess.
No olle fOld

me
about
Nicola
being
ill. > 115B.
(HUI
NUT
No-tme tttld-me-abom Nieoltt ttlttHll)
B
Many
verbs, nouns,
and
adjectives
can
be followed by a
particulm
preposition: wonder
about,
an
effect on, s
urpri
sed
at, illterested
in
. Some
combinations
of lhis kind can be followed by a wh
-c1a
u
se

or
whether.
'1he
elections will
have
an
effect all
whether
the
Preside
nt
call
push
ahead
with reforms.
I'm interested ill
ho
w business decisions are made.
Sometimes
we
can
leave out
the
prepo
sition.
I was
wondering
(about) who's
going
to

be
in
lhi
s
band
.
We were
all
su
r
prised
(at)
how
cold it was.
Ilere arc s
ome
expressions with verbs and adjectives where
we
can
leave out
the
preposition before a
wh
-
c1a
use.
to agree (aboUl/as
t%n)
10 ask (about)
aware

(of)
t.o
care (about)
certain (about/as
t%j)
10
decide (aboulloll)
to
report (about/on)
sure (about/as
t%fJ
surprised
(at)
10
Ihink
(aboullof)
to
wonder
(about)
to
worry
(about)
(Jut in these expressions we
do
not leave
out
the preposition.
anxious
about
a belief aboullas to

confused abou.t/as to
a difficulty about/as
t%ver
a discussion
about/opon
an
effect
on
an
inquiry
about/as
to/into
interested
in
a report
about/on
some
research inLO/on
256 Noun clause
after
an adjective
or
noun
A We can use a that· clause after so
me
adjectives.
/l's essential t
lr
al
you

fit
smoke
alarms.
I'm
hopefu
l we
call
reach
all
agreement.
The
girl was sure site
would
be
able
to recognize
her
attacker.
I was as certain.
as
I could
ue
that
my
calcula
t
ions
were
cor
rect.

The
adjectives that we
ca
n use in this
pattern
include the following.
afraid certain
co
nvinced
hopeful
sorry
amazed
clear disappointed nice
sure
annoyed
concerned
glad
pleased
surprised
aware confident
graleful satisfied worried
356
257
Nominalization
\lVe
can also lise a
wh-dau
se a
ft
er

some
adject
ives.
I wasn
'(
Sllre
what
the
lime
wa
s.
J\re
Y
OIl
aw
are
who
is c
ausing
{lil/his
trouble
?
For dctatls
about
the use of a prepos
iti
on before
th
e wh-c1ause,
:>

255B.
8
We can u
se
a that -clau
se
after
so
me
noun
s.
TIle n
ews
lhm
th
e plane h
ad
eras/red c
am
e
as
a terrible sIwek.
You can't gel
around
the
fact
that
his
fingerprints
were on

the
gun
.
Whatever gave
you
the
id
ea tlral J C
Ull
s
ing
?
11LCrc
's
a
rumour
going round
that
th
e
exam
papers have been
.'ito
ten.
We
do
not
normally
leave
ou

t thaL except
occasio
nally
in
inf
orma
l speec
h.
The
noun
s
th
at
we
ca
n u
sc
in this pattern
are
mainl
y
to
do with
thou
ghts
or
speec
h.
They
include

the following.
ass
umption
belief
c
laim
concern
dange
r
evidence
257
Nominalization
A
Compa
re
th
ese
three
examples.
fa
ct
hope
id
ea
news
report
rumour
sca
l
eme

n'
sugges
tion
view
Main
clau
se
: The
ca
mpaign
succeeded,
ami
this
meant
tl
ua
lives
were
sl1ve
d.
No
un
c1i1
use:
Thefacl
tlU11
th
e c
ampuign
succee

ded
meunt
LhaL
lives were
saved.
Noun phrase: The
su
ccess
of
the
campaign
meam
that liv
es
were saved.
A st
atement
like The
camp
aign s
u.cc
eeded
ca
n
be
a main clause.
or
we
can
turn

it
into
a that-clau
se
and
u
se
it
as
part
of
a larger s
ente
nce. S
ometim
es
we
can also
turn
a clau
se
in
to
a
noun
ph
rase
sllch
as
I.he success ofllIe c

ampaign
.
H
ere
this involves ch
ang
ing a verb (succeeded)
into
a
noun
(s
u
ccess).
Using a
nOlln
phra
se
rather
than
a
c1all
se
is ca
ll
ed
'nornina
li
zat
ion
'. EspecialJy in

written Eng
li
sh, it is often n
ea
t
er
to
u
sc
a
phra
se.
Here aru
so
me more examples.
Cln
ll
se P
hra
se

- -
The r
es
id
ents protested.
Tile
doc:
w nelll
was

publi
shed.
Th
e
land
sc
ape
is
beautiful.
The res
id
elll
s'
prot
esls were ignored.
The
publi
ca
tion
of
tlte
documenl
wa
s
delayed.
" ,
We were
allra
c:
ted

hy
th
e
beaut
y
of
the
lands
cape.
The last
eX
<.IIllpl
c involves ch
ang
in
g an
ad
j
ec
ti
ve (beauti/ul) into a
noun
(be
auty
).
Noun
clauses
B When we change a clause into a
noun
phrase. the suhject of a clause either

has the possessive form or
comeS in an of . phrase.
Clause Phrase
I
was
happy. Noching could spoil
my
happiness.
Our visitor departed. Our visitor's deparlure I The
departure
of
ou.r visitor
was
a great
reUef
The film ended. I missed
the
elld
of
the
film.
With people we lise a possessive form, and
sometimes
we
can
use
the
of·structure. With things we use
of
ror

more details
about
the
choice of
the
possessive form
or
0[. > l33.
C A verb + object becomes a
noun
+ preposition + object.
Clause Phrase
, :-
~-
-
-: : "
They will open the
new
skateboard The opening
of
the
new
skateboard
park
. park
is
eagerly awaited.
Someone attacked the army
post.
The attack

on
the
army
post took
They've changed the law.
I've
requC?sted
a transfer.

-
~-
-
place yesterday.
there's been a change in the law.
rue
made several requests
for
a transfer.
The most
common
preposition after a noun
is
of
For
more
details. > 226.
D
An
adverb
in

a clause
is
equivalent
to
an adjective in a
noun
phrase.
358
Adverb
The residents protested angrily.
The landscape
is
amazingly
beautiful.
Adjective
The residents'
angry
protests were ignored.
Discouer rhe
amazing
beauty
of
tlte
landscape.
Indirect speech
258
Introduction
A
We
u

sc
direct speech when we report someon
c's
words
by
quoting them.
'I'll go
and
Ileal
some
milk,' said
Ag
n
es.
(f
rom
a s
tory
)
Gould was tile first
to
admit
, 'We were
simply
fJealen
by
a better side.'
(from a newspaper report)
'Made
me

laugh
more
than
any
comedy
J
ha
ve
seen in the West End th
is
year' - E/Jening
Standard
(from
an
advertisement for a pla
y)
B In
stead
of
quoting
the
exact words
we
ca
n report
the
meaning
in
our
own

words a
nd
from
our
own point
of
vicw.
This
is ca
ll
ed
'
indir
ect speech'
or
'reported
s
pe
ech'.
Agnes said s
he
would
go
and
hea
l
some
milk
.
Gould

adm
itted
lhat
his
team
were
beat
en by a better side.
One of the crilics claims
it'
s
lhe
funniest
play
ill
the
West End.
I-Iere the indirect speech is the object of said,
admitted,
or
claims. These arc
verbs
of
reporting. > 259
NO
'
IE
a When we
li
SP

indirect speech,
we
no
rma
l
ly
cxpress lllc
I1ICaning
of
whal was said
rnt
l
lt
~
r
Lhan the
t'!xaci
words that were spoken,
'f
had
a really gmal tune,' S
lI
e said she
had
enjoyed lIerself
b
We
can report thoughts as
well
as speech

or
writing
1
thought
I
had
plenty
oj
lime,
but
in
fact I onl),
just
made
il
The speaker thought 'I'
ve
gO!
plenty
of
time',
bu
t
the
thought
s were not necessanly
ex
pre
ssed in speech.
orten

think
is used
to
report expressi
on
s of opinion,
My
ca
reers adlllsur
think
s I sl/Ould
do
business studIes.
In
Ihe context
of
a dis
Clls
sion between
the
careers advisor
and
lhe student,
it
is
dea
r
that the
opinio
n was

ex
pressed in speech.
C
Vve
often use that in indirect speech,
but
in informal English we ca n leave it
ou
t,
espec
ially after a
co
mm
on
ve
rb like say.
Tom says (
that)
he'
ll
only be flve minutes.
We
can
so
met
i
me
s use a gerund clau
se
or

a
to~infiniti
vc
clause.
Could
admitted
having
lo
st to a better side. >
265F.
I warned you tn
tak
e
care.
>
2650
NOTE
a
Somet
imes
the
indirect s
pt"e
ch
comes
first (in a tlnire fclausc
),
anu
the infurmation
abou

t who said it comes
at
the end, as a kind
of
af
terthought.
H
IS
team were
lx
~
a/
el1
by
(l
hetter Side, G
ould
admiued.
There wtll be
110
trains on Nelli Year's Day. the rail compal/ies wlllOUllced yeslerday.
We
do
not begin
wi
th '/1ull

when the indirect speech
come
s

nr
st
h
We
can usc a
phr
ase with accordillg to
10
show
who said something.
According to
Go
uld.
hi
s team were bealen by a beller side,
359
Indirect speech
o With direct speech, we can som
etimes
invert the ve
rb
of
reporling
and
the
suhject. This
happ
ens
mainly in lit
era

ry English, for cxn
mpl
c in SlOrie
s.
,/,11
see
yo
u Illler,'
said
Sam
.
'Bill that's
1I0t
tru
e,'
replietlll
le
"liUl
.
We
can
do
th
is
with
mo
st verbs
of
rep
or

ting,
but
not
with a verb like tell
which has an indirect object.
We
do not usunlly put a personal pro
noun
after
the verb.
'N1t:c
to meel you,' lie
said
.
E
You
may
see a mixture of direct
and
indirect speech. This is from a
news
paper
report ahoLlt a
man
staying al
home
10
l
uok
after

h
is
children.
Bllt Briall beliel
teS
wClfc:hing
the kids grow
up
and
lC'arn
new lilin
gs
is lhe
bigg
es
t j
oy
a
dad
ca
ll
eX
I
Je
rien
ce.
'Some
people th
ink
il

'S
a
wom
an
's
joh
, but
J
don'T
think
thal'S releva
nl
an
y
mor
e.'
F
\¥h
en
someone
says
so
mething
that
goes
on
for
more
than
a single se

ntenc
e,
we
do
not n
eed
to
li
se a verb
of
reporting in every
se
ntence. This
is
from H
news
pap
er report
abou
t a court case.
Prosecufor
David
A.ndrews
said
Wilson
had
stolen (.l gold
wedding
ring
and

credit card
and
had
used the card to artempt
to
wilhdraw
money
from
a
bank.
In
the sec
ond
offence Wils
un.
had
burgled pr
em
ises
and
tak
en a
briefcase
co
ntaining
taking
s from
(J
s
hop

. Police
had
later recover
ed
the
bank n
Ole.\·
from
hi
s
home.
II is clear
that
the whole
paragr
a
ph
is reporting
wha
t the
prosecutor
said. It
is
not
ne
cessary
to
say, for
example
. th

at
Mr
Andrews
added
thaI
police
had
later recoller
ed
tile
bank
nOl
es
from
his
hO
ll
w.
259 Verbs
of
reporting
A We
ca
n use a verb
of
re
portin
g with a
that·clause
or

a wh
-c1a
use.
36
0
Poily says
(t
hat)
she
isn'
t feeling
lJery
well.
He wontleretl why elJeryone was smilin
g.
Most verbs
of
re
porting
ca
n also be u
sed
wi
th
dir
ec
t
speec
h.
Poll

y says, 'I'm
IIOf
feeling vel)' well. '
'Why
is
elleryulle s
miling
?'
he
wondered
.
We
al!)o
use verbs
of
rcporting
with
ot
her
pattern
s such
as
a to-infinitive
clause or a ger
und
clause. > 265
We
asked
lit
e waiTer

to
bring
anoth
er bottle.
ril
e fllJologized
for
keeping
ever
yo
ne
waitillg.
NOTI:
So
me
Vl'rbs
express
h
ow
a sent
en
ce
is s
poken
.
'Oil,
11(1/
. ng(lln, , she g((uuwd
Such
ve

rb
s m
d
u"t
~
groall, laugh,
m/l
rmur
, m
llf
ler,
.
~(
,
I
"f'(lm,
~
/IO UI.
Sigfl, sob. and
IIJJ
I/\fJer.
rh
ey
<lrc
IY
P1
CU
lt
y u
se

d
wit
h direct sp
eec
h
in
s
lOri
ci>
allli
novel
s
259 Verbs
of
re
porting
B The
re
art!
many
different verbs
of
reporting. Here arc
some
that we c
an
usc
before
a Ihat·c1ause
or

a wh·clause.
tUlmit
ask
hear
point out
suppose
agree
belie
ve
inquire read chink
announce
consider
insist
say understand
argue
feel
know
suggest wonder
With
many
of
these verbs we can use

I
pa
ssive pattern with
it
. > 92A
At that
time

it was already
known
that the earth orbited lhe sun.
N
or
E
In inforrlwl
l\
pecch be like
is
somelllnes u
<;e
d, es
pl
.'
dally
by youngCI speakers. when qUOllng
somcnnc's word!
We /w
/'
c ma
ki
ng
a I
Ji
t
of
a /loi
se,
an

d my
dild
U'W'lS
/ike
, '
What
's
smllg
0
11
her
e?'
C Sometimes there
is
,.111
indirect object after the verb
of
reporting.
No
one told
me
you were leaving.
The police have warned tire pllblic that the
man
Lli
dangerous.
The verbs we can use in this
pattern
include
the

following.
advise
assure
inform
nocify
promise remind.
reassure
tell
warn
With
some
of
these verbs we
cannolleave
out
the indirect object.
We informed everyone
chat
lhe lime
had
been changed.
(
NOT
We
i.tfol mf!tf

tltttt
-the
tilllt!
.'I(;I:d

!J~1l
dw"ged
)
These verbs arc assur
e,
inform,
notif
y, reassure, re
mind
,
and
,ell
(>
260
).
We
can use the verb
of
reporting
in
the
passive.
/;'l
le
lyolle
was informed that the
lime
had
been changed.
NOTl:.

For
wnl
e
with
an
indir
ec
t object,
,.
25
311
N
otc
.
D Sometimes we use a phrase with to after a verb
of
reporting.
C.an
someone explain to
me
what's happening?
I
sIlggested to the others
t/tat
we
s
hould
meet them
here.
The verbs that we can lise in this

pattern
include the following.
admit
announce
complain
declare
explain
indicate
mention
point
out
propose
recommend
say
remark
reporl
sllggest
write
We
can always leave
out
the phrase with to.
361
Indirect specch
E
As we
ll
as verhs
of
reporting

,
we
can
al
so usc an adjective su
ch
as SlIre
or
ce
rtain
.
I'm s
ur
e someone's been looking
111rollgll
my
paper
s.
260
Tell,
say,
and
ask
A
We
normally usc
an
indirect object after tell.
You
told

me
YO
ll
didn't like Chine.'ie food.
SinuJIl
told
us
he
was going
to
Au
stralill.
(NO'I
Sim(~wld-he-wa.'rgttill;g
ttl
Auslralif1
.)
nut after say we do
not
usc
an
indire
ct object.
You
slIid you
didn't
like Chinese food.
Simo
n
said

he was going
to
Australia.
(Nur
5i
"wfHlttid
ter-he was-gmng
-ttrAtlSfMlia
)
B
We
can use
either
a that-clause
or
a wh-clause
af
ter say
or
te
ll.
Kale
told
me
(
lhal
) she's
fed
up
.

Kale
said
(tImt
) s
he
's fed up.
Kale
told
me
what
the
man
er
was.
Say + wh -clau
se
is us
ed
in a negative sta
tement
or
a qllestion where the
inrormation is
not
actually
report
ed.
Kat
e
didn't

say
what
the
tn
f
Jll
er was.
Did
your
brother
say
how
long he
would
be?
Say + \Vh-c1ause
is
less usual in a positive
sta
te
ment.
NO
TE
We con usc
leU

imlin
!cl
Ubjl!t:
1

abmu.
Kale
wid
us
about
lhe figiJt she
iJad
Willi
IIer boyfriend
We
use
my
w
uh
abottl only If
the
inrorma
ll
on
is
nOI
aClUally re
poned
Wluu
did
Kale say
about
lIer boyfrie
nd

?
TIl
e
compa
lly
won',
say
(myth;"g
about
it
s plans.
C There arc a few expressions
where
we
can use f
eU
without
an
indirect object.
I'm
not
very goo(/
at
teilillg stories.
Paul told a very
funny
joke
.
You
mu

s
tll
't tell lies.
You
should
always tell
th
e truth.
The
pupils
have lea
rn
ed to tell
the
time.
Can you tell tile difference between lap water
and
bauled
waler?
(=
dislinguis
h)
NOTE
YO
li
l1l<t
y
some
llm
es

sec
/ell
Wll
h
out
an
in
direct
ohjec
i before
li
olV
or
of
Tile COUflie
told
how
tlu:y
had
lX
.'
'e
Tl
held
IlOswge.
I n:memlwI'
r.
:
ryillg
when the radio told

of
tile death
of
the Kmg.
D After
say
we c
an
u
se
a pilmse with
(0.
J
said
to
him
, 'I've heen mugged.'
362
261
C
hang
es In indirect
speech
Hut this is tess usual in indirect
speech.
I
said
I'd
been.
mugged.

I told
him
I'd heen mugged.
We
prefer
either
of
these
to I said
to
him
I'd been mugged.
Bur
we
ca
n use a
phrase
with to if
the
inform<Jtion
is
not
reported.
The mayor
will
say a few words to the guests,
What
did
the boss say 1.0
YOII?

E
We
use
talk
and
speak
to
say "vho was
speak
in
g,
to \.vhom,
for
hm ,
lon
g.
or
what
about.
Daniel
was
talking
to a /leI)! attractive
young
woman.
T
he
President spoke for an flour.
We
don't

talk
about politi
cs.
We
do
not use
them
as verbs
of
r
eport
ing.
Ule announcer
said
{flal
he
had a surprise for
us.
(NO'1 -
'FIte
a,
1Ii
B U,
leer
lftiketllstx#re·thttt-
-he httd
tt-Sttrpt'ise ft'r-tt.~
.
)
F

We
can
li
se ask with
or
withollt
all
indirect object.
Kale looked a bit
up
se
t,
so
f
asked
(
her
)
if
the
re
was aflYlhing wrong.
I
,'or
tell
and
ask in indirect orders
and
requests, > 264.
We

told/asked Kate
to
17ul'lY
up.
Compare
ask
and
say in direct
and
indirect
spe
ec
h.
Direct
speec
h Indirect s
peech
'What
lim
e
is
it?' he asked/said_
-+
He
asked
what
time
it
was.
The

time
is

,'
he said.
-+
} Ie
said
what
time
it
was.
261
Changes in indirect speech
A People, place, and
time
Imagine a situation
where
Andrew
and
Tina are
at
home
one
a
ft
ernoon
. Tina
wa
nts

to
go out in
the
car,
but
it rcfuses
to
start. She rings
thc
garage
and
asks
a
mechanic
if
he
can
come
and
sec
to it. I-Ie
is
loo busy
to
comc
right away,
but
he
agree
s to

come
the
next
morning.
Mechanic: I'll be at your house
at
eight LOmorrow morning.
A
moment
lat
er
Tina reports this to Martin.
Tina: The mechanic says
he
'll
be here
at
eighl tomorrow morning.
Nowa
different
speaker
is
giving
the
me
ssa
ge, so
where
the mechanic said
I'll

he . ,
Tina
says he'll be

And
the
s
peaker
is
in a different place,
so
al
your
house for the m
ec
hanic
become
s here for
Tina
.
Next
da
y
the
mechanic
has
not
arrived even
by
nine o'clock, so Tiua rings

him
again.
3
63
IndireCI sp
eec
h
Tina:
~ '
o"
sa
id you
wOIlld
be here
(Jf
eig
JIl
tllis
momi"8-
Now the time has changed.
It
is a
da
y
Im
er,
so
instead
of
tomorrow

morning,
Tina s
ay
s
tll
is
morning. And the
promise
is now out of
date
,
so
will becomes
wo
ul
d.
For changes
to
verb forms, > 262.
When
we
report something, we have to take acco
unt
of
changes in the
situation -
a diffe
rent
speaker, a different place,
or

a differ
ent
time.
B Pronouns and
possessives
\"'hen
you
report what
someo
ne else
ha
s said, both
pr
onouns
and
po
ssessives
can change.
'I'm
reully enjoying
my
se
lf
'
-+
Ka
le said sire was enjoying herself
'I /ike
your
new

hairstyle.'
-+
Marlin said
li
e
liked
my fl
eUJ
hair
style.
C Adverbials
of
time
ll
ere are so
me
typical
cha
nges from direct to indir
ec
t
speec
h.
D
ir
ect speech Indirect speech
.
~
-
-

now then/at that tim
eli
mm
ediately
today
yesterdaY/lli
at
daylon
Tu
es
day, elc
)I
es
t
er
day the
day
before!
clle
previous day/
on
Monday, etc
IOmo"ow
Ih
e nexl day/the/allowing day/on Thursday, etc
tl,is
week
last weeki that week

la
st
year
the year beJore/the previous yearl in 1990, etc
next month the month afcerlthe following
month
li
n August,
etc
an f
lOur
ago an hour before/an hour
ea
rlier/at two o'clock, etc
.


D Re
porting
this and
that
When
we
are
talking aho
U(
things oth
er
than time,
chi

s
or
th
at
usually
changes to the in indirect speech, or the phrase
is
r
eplaced
by
it.
'This steak is nice.'
~
Ki
r
sry
said tile steak was ni
ce.
'I'd like
to
bU)1 c/ral guitar.
-+
Tom 5flW a
guilar.
He
said
he
wallled
to
buy

it
262
Verb
tenses in
indirect
speech
A Ve
rbs
of
report
i
ng
3fl4
A
ve
rb
of reporting can
he
in a pre
se
nt
tense.
The
Jor
ec
ast says it's
goi
ng 10 rain.
I've heard lIwy
might

close rhis
pl
ace down.
Here the
present
simple
or
present perfect t
ense
suggests
that
the
reporled
statements were maue not l
ong
ago a
nd
that
the
y
are
st
ill
releva
nt
.
Fo
r
written stateme
nt

s such as
Th
e article says
Jast
foud
is
had fur you, > 42G.
262
Verb
tenses In Indtrect speech
After a prc
!>cnt
-ten
se
verb of reportlllg,
we
do
not c
hang
e
the
ten
se
In
indirect
spe
ec
h.
'I'm
hun

gry.'
-+
Haberl says Ite's
hungry
.
'I
look
drugs
when
1
was
youllger.'
-+
'
111e
sillger says
he
look
drugs
when
li
e
WlIS
yO
llnger.
A
velb
of
reporting
is

often in a past
tens
e.
TI,e forecast
said
it
was
going
La
rain.
Robert. saitl
he
's hungry.
We
can
always use
the
pa
st tense, even if the words were spoken a very short
time
ago, After a past-tense verb
of
reporting
we often
change
the
tense in
indirect
speech.
11.

's
going lo raill,
-t
The forecast
said
it
was
going
10
rain.
For
details>
A-
Co
NOTE
COlllinlluliS forms arc
some
ttmes llsed inforrmtlly
10
repon
what was satd. especIally
when
summariz
ing
the
main point of a message.
1'11('
authorities are
saying
{hut the school will have to close.

11Ji.\
· pollt/drlll
Otl
TV last /light was
saying
Ihl!re~~
l/Urdly any rainforesl
1(11
.
B The tense change and
when
we
use
it
When the verb
of
reporting is in a
PH
st
tense,
we
often
change
the
tense
in
indirect
speech
from present to
pa

s
t.
In general we are
more
likely to
change
the te
nse
if
we are
unsure
whether
the
s
tatement
is still
true
and
still relevant.
When a
statement
IS
untrue
or
out
of
date
,
then
we

change
the tense.
Oh,
they
Ijue
in
BrislO/, do (heyr ,
thought
they
Ulled
in
Balh.
(They
don
't live in l3ath
,)
The forecast
said
it.
was
gmng
to
rain
and
it
did.
(The forecast
is
now
out

of
dale,)
We also
use
the
past
ten
se
when
we
arc
reporting
in a neutral way
and
we do
not
\vant
to
suggest
that
th
e
state
ment
is
neces
sar
ily
true,
'Ollr policies are

the
righl ones. '
-t
11ze
Minister
said
thaI
the
party
's
policies
were the right ones,
This
use
of
the
past
ten
se gIves an objective
tone
10
the reporting of people's
views in
the
news
media
.
Sometimes
we
can

usc
the
same
tense
in
reported
speech
as
in direct
speec
h.
This
happens
when
the
state
ment
is still relevant.
'I
know
[he way.'
~
Karen
wId
me
she
knows
!k
new ale
UJfJY

, so I.here·s
no
need
to
take a map.
'It's going
to
rain.'
-+
Theforecasl
said
it's
going
to
raill ! ;t was go;ns 10
raill
today. l ,
Using
the
present
tense makes the
speaker
so
und
more
confident that Karen
really
does
know
the

way
and
that
it
really is going to rain. However,
it
is
always possible to
change
the tense, even
when
the
s
tatem
ent
is
still relevant.
365
Indire
ct
speech
TIP
Aft
er said and told
it
is safest to cha
ng
e the ten
se
from present to pas

t.
'I'm tired
.'
-+
She said s
he
was
tire
d.
C The form of
the
tense
change
The tense chilngc
in
indirect speech
is
a change from prese
nt
to pus
t.
'J feel
awf
u
l.
'

l,ouise sa
id
,

l,
e le
lt
a
wf
ul.
'You're crazy.'
-+
Sim
on
t
hou
ght I
was
crazy.
'I've got a he
ada
che. '
-+
I la
id
th
em I
had
a he
ad
ache.
If
the verb phrase is more than one word, then the first word
of

the
ve
rb
phwse changes from prescm to pas
t.
Wr'
re goi
ll
g tile wrong
way

-+
I
kr
ww
we
were goi
ng
lhe wrong
way
'1 haven't fi
ni
shed.'
-+
IL
wm
s
ai
d she had,,"
fini

shed.
'
]1IC
kids
hav
e b
ee
n s
wimming.
'
-+
Steve s
aid
tile
kid
s
had
heen s
wimming
.
'
11
1C
matt
er is being
in
ves
ti
g
at

ed
.'
-+
They
wld
me
th
e
ma
ller
was
being
iz
llles
tigm c
ci
.
So the present cont
in
uous cha
ng
t!s
to the past c
ontinuou
s. the
pr
esem
pe
rf
e

ct
to
(h
e past pe
rf
ec
t,
and so
on
.
o Past and past perfect
in
indirect speech
366
If the
ve
rb in direct speech is pas
t,
then
it
usua
lly
changes 10 the p
as
t perfec
t.
'J passed my driving l
es
t yesterday.'
-+

Palll lold me h
e'
d
passed
hi
s
driu
ill
g t
es
t.
'
We
were sailing on lite
lak
e last weeken
d.
'
-+
Th
ey
told me th
ey'
d been
sailing
011
tile lake.
Th
e use of the past perfect makes
it

clear thnt the sailing is further in the past
Ih
an
wh
en they told me about it. If we don't change the tense - Th
ey
I.
old
me
they were sailillg - this could
mean
that the sailing holiday was not yet over.
Look at
th
ese
ex
amples.
'I feel ve
ry
stressed.'
-+
Lucy s
aid
she felt
flC
ry stressed. She certain.ly
di
d
/I
't

lo
ok ",ell,
'/ felt vc
'y
stressed
.'
-+
I.
ll
ey
s
aid
,dw 'd felt very s
tr
essed,
but
she seems
to
ha
ve
g
ot
ov
er it n
ow
.
Here
we
ha
ve

to use the past perfect in indirect speech
to
show that the
feeling
was
in
the past when it was
re
pon
ed.
But
when
it
is cle
ar
that some
th
ing
happ
ened long be
fo
re
it
was repo
rt
ed, we
do not need to
li
se the past perfec
t.

'J once lilled in a palace.'

Jo
sh
ua.
told me t
hal
he once
lived
ill a
pal
ace.
'Rome
Wf,SII '1
built
in a
day
,
you
kllo
w.
'
-+
The teacher re
minded
us
aw
.l
Rome
UltlSn

"
buil,
in
a
da
y.
We do not change a past· tense
ve
rb when
it
refers to something
unr
ea
l.
'/ wish
Iliad
a dog
.'
-+
My sister used to say she wished she
lIad
a dog.
'
If
/
kn
ew, I'd t.e
ll
y
ou

.'
-+
Am
y s
aid
thm
if s
it
e
knew
, s
iz
e would tell U
.t
262 Verb tens
es
in
i
ndirect
speech
If the verb in
direct
speech
is
in
the
past
perfect
,
Lhen

it
does
nOl
change
.
'I
was annoyed because
J'd
left
my
coat on the train. '
~
Jack said he'd been
anno
yed because he'd left his coat
on
l
he
I.rain.
NOTE
The past
p
erft
~
c
t
In
I[)dir
ec
! speech can rel

ale
[0
Ihr('t~
differ
ent verb forms.
'l'
I!e
seen lhe jilm.'
~
She
sa
ul she'd seen llie
ji/m
.
'l
saw
the jilm last week. '
~
She said she'd seen t
he
fiLm
the week
iJejil{(!
'I
didn
't watch
It
because I'd seell it before
'
~

Site $aid she'd seen
il
before.
E
Modal
verbs
in
indirect
speech
Some
modal
verbs
change
in indirect
speech.
'You'll regret it.'
~
J told them they'd regret
il.
"
can
drive.' -+ I said f
could
drive.
'Il
may
snow.'
-+
They thought it
might

SllO/J.!.
The
changes
are will
-+
would, can
~
couid,
and
may
-+
might.
Other
modal verbs do
not
change
.
'A
walk
would
be nice. '
-+
We
thought a walk
would
be nice.
'You
should
come hack lomorrow. '
-+

They told
me
I
should
go
hack the
next day.
There
15
no
change
with would, could, should, might, ought to, had belter,
and
used
to.
Must can stay
the
s
ame
or change
to
had
to.
'I
must
go now. '
-+
Sarah said she
must
go / she

had
to
go.
When
it
refers to
the
future,
it
can
change
to would have
lO.
']
must
go soon.
'~
Sarah said she
must
go /
size
had
to
go
/ site would
have
to go soon.
Bw
when
must

expresses certainty, it usually
SlaYs
the
same,
but
it
can
c
hange
to
had
to.
'There
must
be some mistake
.'
-+
J l.
hought
there
must
be Ilhere
had
to
be
some mistake.
Mustn't
and
needn't
can

stay
the
same,
or
they
ca
n
change.
'You
mustn't
lose the
key.
'
-+
I told
Matthew
he
mustn't
lose
/ he
wasn't
to
lose the
key.
'You needn't
wait
for us.'
-+
We said they
needn't

wail/
didn't
need to
wail
/
didn
't
have
to
wail
Jor
us.
NOTE
u
Shall
for
the
future
ch<lllges
10
would.
b
'I
.
\hall
be
making
a
co
mplain/.

'
-+
lIe
said lie
would
be
making
a camplaillt.
Shall meaning '
OUghl
10·
chang
es
to
shuilld.
'What shall
I
wriw
abuut?'
,.
She wondered
what
she
should
write
a/Will
For She wondered
what
to write ahoUl,
:>

108.
l ,
There
arc
some
time
s
other
ways we
can
report a
sente
nce
wiLh
a modal verb.
:>
lG5
'Would you like
10
come for lea?'
-+
They
invited
me
[or
rea.
36
7