OXFORD LEARNER''''S GRAMMAR 10 docx

Irregular noun plurals
281
Introduction
Most
coumable
nouns
have
a regular plural in -s/-es.
hand

hands date

dales bus
-+
buses
For details
of
spe
lling
and
pronunciation,
> 276.
For
the
plural
of
compound
nouns,
>
131
B.

For
the u
se
of plural nouns, >
L31
C.
Some
nouns
have
an
irregular plural.
maIJ
-+
mell
life
-+
lives slimulus
-+
stirnu/i
Irregular plurals
~lfe
formed in a
numher
of
different
ways,
for
example by
changing a vowel
or

consonant
sound
or
by
adding
,m
unu
sual
ending.
282
Vowel and consonant changes
A Vowel change.s
Some
plurals
arc
for
med
by cha
nging
the
vowel
so
und
.
fOOL
-+
[eel
goose
-+
geese

man
-+
men mouse

mice
tooth
-+
[eelh
womal1/'woma
nl
-+
women
I'
wlnlln
l
NOTE
We
also ll!>e
me"
and
II
lO
mell
In
wo
rd
s like Frcnclmwl1
and
spOrrSulOlIJl!lI.
B

The
ending -en
There is
an
old p
lur
al form -en which
has
survived in
these
two
nouns.
duld ItJatldl
-+
children I'tStldmnl ox
-+
oxen
C Consonant changes
With
so
me
nuun
s we
changefto
v
and
add·s
"/·cs.
calf
-+

ca
l
ves
half
-+
halves kmfe
-+
knwes
life
-+
lives
louf
-+
loaves s
helf
-+
s
helves
wife
-+
wives
wolf
-+
wolves
leaf
-+
l
ea
ves
thief

-+
lhieves
Some n
ou
ns e
nding
in
for
fe
are
regular, c
.g.
he
lief
'i,
chief'i, cliff
s,
safe
s.
1\ few
C<l1l
h
ave
e
ither
form,
e.g.
sca
rf
-+

sc
arfs/scarves.
D Voicing
Sorne
nouns
end
ing in III
have
a regular written plural,
but
there are
two
possible prollllilcianolls.
pallt,l
pa:O
I
->
palilS
Ipo:Ssl
or
I pa:<lzl
283
Nouns
which
do
not
change in
the
plural
The

la
st two
sO
Llnds
of paths
are
otten
voiced.
Other
exampl
es
arc
balh
s,
mowhs,
,r/U!-ts,
and
YOllfhs (
;;;
you
ng
peopl
e)
.
Some
plurals in
lhs
are
regular, e.g.
birlh

s, deaths,
months.
These
(Jre
pronounced
w
ith
10s/.
There
is alsl) voicing
in
the l
a5
t syllable
of
hou
.s
es.
house
Ihaosl
-+
houses /'hauzJzl
E Penny, pence,
and
pennies
When
we
arc
talking
about

an
amount
of
money,
we use pence as
the
plural
of
penny.
Seventy-Jive pence,
"lease.
Pennies
arc
individual
penny
coins.
J
joulld
an
old
lin
with
a lot
o/pennies
in
it.
F Person, persons,
and
people
Person

has
two plurals: per,wns
and
peopl
e.
Authorized
persons
only
may
enter.
nJere were lots
of
people Oil. the
SCreets.
People is
more
usual
and
less forma
l.
A people
is
a
large
group
s
li
ch
as
a

nation.
The Celts were a tall,
fair-skinned
people
.
One
day
the
peoples
of
this
world
will live
in
peace.
283 Nouns
which
do
not
change in
the
plural
Some
nouns
have the
same
form in
the
singular
and

the
plural.
Singular: I
heard
an
aircraft
passmg
low
ollerhead.
Plural: J
kept
hearing
aircraft passing
low
ov
erhead.
These nOllns
art:!
aircrafl, hovercraft,
~fJacecrafl,
etc;
some
animals, c.g. sheep,
de
e
r,
and
some
kinds
of

fish, e.g. cod,
salmon
.
Fo
r
nouns
ending
in -s in
both
s
ingular
and
plural, e.
g.
one
means
I vario
lls
m
ea
ns
of
transport, > 147C.
Some
ll(Jfionaliry
words
ending
in -ese
can
be

Singular
or
plural, e.g.
one
Chinese I several Chinese.
389
Irregular noun plurals
284 Irregular
plural
endings
390
There are a number of foreign words which have come into English, mainly
from Latin and Greek, arid these have plural endings which are less
commOn
in English.
-a lal
criterion

criteria curriculum

curricula
medium

media phenomenon

phenomena
-ae
li:1
formula
~

formulaslformulae
-is

·es
li:zl analysis

analyses
crlSlS
-+
crises hypothesis
-+
hypolheses
oasis
-+
oases synthesis

syntheses
-us

-i
lall
cactus
-+
cacti nucleus

nuclei stimulus

stimuli
The plural cactuses
is

also possible.
NOTE
a
Not
every
nOlln
ending in on, urn, or
us
has an irregular ending.
electron
-+
electrons
museum

museums
bonus

bonLUeS
b In informal speech, words wilh the plural ending -a atc sometimes
u~ed
as
if
tht!y
were singular.
r don't believe
what
the
media
is telling us.
Many people

would
consider this to be
incam
.
oct
.
c The word
dala
is
the plural of datum, which
is
little used. Data is also often used
as
an uncountable noun.
Not enough dalu iJ/are available.
Users
cun control
how
much
data
is sent ouer tl,e network.
285 Introduc
tion
Irregular verbs
285
Introduction
A
Regular v
erbs
A regular ve

rb
can
have
thes
e
endings:
-s, -ing,
and
-
ed.
Base form: look
play
s-
form
: looks plays
ing-form: looking playing
Past
ten
se: looked played
Past participle: looked played
Irreg
ul
ar verbs
An
irregular verb
ca
n also have -s
and -ing,
hut
we do not s

imply
add o
ed.
Ba
se
form: steal
find
s-form: steals finds
ing-form: stealing finding
Past tense: swle foulld
Past participle: stolen
found
The
past
tense
and
[h
e past/passi
ve
participle are
ir
regular.
Past tense: Someone stole the
card.
Past participle: Who has stolen the card?
B
Look.
at these examples.
Regular verb:
Irregular verb:

I've painted the wall.
I'v
e written the
re
port.
I'
ve repainted
th
e
wall.
I've r
ew
ritten
th
e report.
A verb form such as painted (regular)
or
written (irregular) is not changed by
a
pr
efix s
lich
as
reo,
fore-,
or
mi
s-,
For
exa

mpl
e, if tell is irregular, rhen so
is
foretell.
~
286
List
of
irregular
verbs
The
mor
e
common
ve
rhs are
in
bold
type.
Base
form
A
arise/a'ra
Izl
awake
/a'weI
kl
B
be I
bi

:1
>
65
bear
/bea(
rl
l
beat
I
bi
:tI
be
co
me
/ bI'kAml
Pa
st
tense
arose l a'rauzl
awoke/a
'w
auk
l
was
lwoz/
,
were
/W3:(r
)/
bore I bJ:(r

)1
beal I
bi:!
1
became
IbI'keIm /
Pa
stl
pa
ssi
ve
participle
arisen
la
r'Iznl
,
awoken
la
'
wao
kanl
be
en
Ib
i:n i
borne
I
bJ:nl
beaten
I'bi:tnl

become
I
bl'um
i
391
begun
Ibl'gAnl
bent
Iben(1
bet
Ibetl
bid
Ibldl
bidden
I'bldnl
bound
Ibaundl
bitten
I'bIln I
bled
Ibledl
blown Iblaunl
broken
I'broukanl
bred
Ibredl
broughtlbrJ:tI
,(I broadcast I'brJ:dka:s
built
IbIlt!

burnt
Ib.:ntl
burned Ib3:ndl
burst
lha:stl
bust
IbAstl
busted l'bAstldl
bought/bo
:t!
cast
Ika:stl
caught
Iko:tl
cbosen
l'tSauznl
clung IklAl)l
come
IkAml
cost
IkDSt/
crept
Ikreptl
cut
lutl
dealt
'Ide/II
dug
JdAgl
dived

Idarvdl
done
Idlml
drawn
I drJ:nl
dreamt
Idremt!
dre~ed
Idri:mdl
drunk
IdrAl)kl
driven
I'dnvnl
dwelt I dweltl
eaten
I'l:tnl
fallen
I'm:l.nl
fed
Ifedl
felt Ifeltl
fought
Ifni
286
List
of
irregular verbs
,
founil Ifaundl
fitted

l'hMI
fit
Ifill
fled
!fledl
flung/llAui
Down
Iflour{)
forbidden Ifa'
bIdnl
fore~ast
I'fo:ka:stl
forgotten Ifa'getnl
forgiven Ifa'grvnl
forsaken Ifa'seIlianl
frozen I'frauznl
got 19ot!
gotten
I'gotnl > Note d
give" I'grvnl
gone 19onl >
NOle
f
ground I graund I
gt;Own I groonl
hung
IhAl]1
hanged
Ih"'lJdl > Note g
had

Ih",dl
heard
Ih3:dl
hidden
I'Judnl
hit
IhItl
held Iheldl
hurt
Ih~:tl
kept Ikeptl
knelt'
Ineit!
kneeled Ini:ldl
knit
Imt!
knitt~
I'mndl
known
lo,on/
laid
/leIdl
led
Iledl
leant. -
/lentl
leaned /li:odl
leapt
lIeI'll
Maped

lieI'll
learnt
113:011
learned
II"odl
left
/leftl
lent
!lentl
let
lIell
lain
lIeml
'
393
Iii'./ht/" .
IJiIItCd
11ailldl
,jam
/lm
1

'0
made
lmeld!
me8rlt
'/metltl
mer
Imetl
m~k

.
/mq,'P*J
~n a.1
/.
~
'
vll
.
:~
~
-J
~~~
•
iio!¥I
i~ill
fipatl '
quit
I~tl
quilted I'kwIlldt
~i~edi
\idfudi
~I~'
taiIIl
mill.
nJS!l
imuzi
far(
IrllJtJJ
sa~
.Is:J:dl

aaId
IseiJJ
IBW
I"",'
.'
Soul!tit
1!ID:tl
SCiid
IJalJltlf
-'_II
~!&e1(
seweiI
'1
S<1Ui:1I
il\ool(l Jpkl
s/ied
Iredl
$hone
/Sl!n1
'
sljin\ld
.1
JaDwll
shd
t'!
JPtI
"
~d
.J
I!!UCI1

shrank
IIAI!\lkl
sbnmIr;
Ilr,,*1.
_
Illdfi
'.'"

·
, ,.IJ/
"':
'
I.tikl
@IIf/flie
f/
··
slew
.l
slml
slept Islepll
slid
Islldl
slung
Is!A1l1
slunk Is!AlIkl
slit Ishtl
smell
Ismelll
smelled
lomeldl

sowed
lsoodl
spoke Ispaukl
sped
Ispedl
speeded I'spi:dldl
spell
Ispeltl
spelled Ispcldl
spenl
Ispentl
spill
Ispdtl
spilled
Ispddl
spun IspAnl
spal
Isprell
split
Isplli
l
spoill IspOlltl
spoiled
Ispodd/
spread
Ispredl
sprang /sPraJlIl
stood
Istudl
otole Istaull

stuck
I stAkI
slung
101"11
I
stank I s""'lIkl
strode Istroudl
siruck
ISlrllkl
strung /strlllll
strove ISlrauvl
swore Iswo:(r)1
swept
Iswepll
swelled
Isweldl
swam
/SWEmJ
swung /swlITjI
look
/lukl
laught
110:11
tore Ito:(r)1
told
Itauldl
thought
100:tl
thrived 18rarvdl
throve 10rauvl

threw
19ru:1
rregular verbs
thrust
lerASt!
tr
cad
!tred!
U
thru
st lerASll
trod I
tr
odl
under
s
tand
IA
nd
a'strendl
understood
IAllda'swctl
up
set I A
p'
sctl
W
wake !wel
k!
wear Iwea:{r

)!
weave
Iw
i
:vl
w
ee
p
Iw
i:pl
wet Iwetl
win
Iwml
wind
IW3mdl
withdraw
!w
IO
'dro:!
w
ring
I rIl) I
wrile
IranI
",
mE
up
se
t I Ap
'se

tl
woke
!w
aukl
wore
!w
J:
(r)1
wove Iwaovl
wept
Iwe
pt
l
wet
Iwetl
wetted
J'wcndl
won
IWAnl
wound
Iw
aundl
withdrew
IwtO'dru
:1
wrung
IrA'fj1
wrote
I raut I
a

Co~l
is regular
when
it
means
"
esllmalc
the cosl'.
We
'ue
eosted"
,h
e project
thru
st l erAS
II
trodd
en
J'
trodn
l
understood
I A
nd
a'studl
up
se
t I Ap
'se
ll

woken
I'
w
au
kanl
worn
Iwo
:n!
woven
J'wauvnl
wept
!wepI!
wei
!wetl
wetted
l'we
tHl1
won
IWA
n!
wound
Iwaundl
withdrawn
!
wIO
'dro:n!
wnmg
I rA'fj1
written
!'rltnl

b
The
third
person
singular
of
the
Simple
pr
esent
of
do is does /dfl
7./.
c Fil h usua
ll
y n

'g
ular
In
Bntain
but
Irregular in
\h~
U~
.
d
Collell
IS
lI~ed

III
som
!.!
contexts
In
Amc
rl
can
f.
ngh
!:>
h
J-Ia
uc
ga
rt
e" means 'have
bee.
II
lie'
1111:
pain's
goftell rI
IfJt
/Uorse
c
Th
e third person
1:o
inglilar of th e slIllJlle

pr
ese
nt 01
b'l1I
S goes I g3uz/.
For gone
to
and
ll
eell 1
0,
>
650
g
We
u
se
Iwn
ged only to talk
about
hanging a person.
h
The
third p
er
son s
in
gu
lar of the present tense of
halJc

is h
as
/hanl
.
Lay
(
pil
st tense
la
id)
me:1ll1:o
'put
so
meth
mg
so
mewhere'.
T}u'Y
laid
t
he
plans
all
Ow
dilling
-
roo
m ruble
Ue (pa
st

tcnse lay) mcans
'he
horizontal'
or
'be in a certalll
place
'.
1'lwy
la
y
in
bed
half
tile mornilJg.
/.
11.'
Int!aning 'tell
an
untru
th' is reguhtr
He lied
10
til
e
pol
I
ce
about I
us
mOlJeme

lJlS.
I The third pers
on
s.ing
li
lar of the pn!scnt tense
of
say
.S .
<;{IYS
Isp z/
k SIIined usually m
ea
ns 'polis
hl.'d
'. We say r
ue
sl
'i
ned
my
shoes,
hUI
111e
sun shone.
S
ped
ll
sua
ll

y ex
pr
csses movement.
rile
drilJCr
jllmpl:d
in tile enr
and
s
ped
off.
But
we say
s
peedj~
Ill'
(=
went faMer)
Ollce
0
11
rIle
m()f
o
ru
K
~
y.
we soon
sl>et.oded

IIp
.
III
Alt
erna
ti
ve
form
1:o
such us
burned
l
bumr
and
teamed
/h a
nll
:arc
both
pos
sible
In
Bnu
~
h
English. But
the
Irregular forms such as
I}/Imi
and h:

oml
arc l
ess
usual in Amcnca.
287 SpeGal participle forms
287
Special participle
forms
Compare
these
sentences.
Have
+ participle: A ship
had
sunk
off
lhe coast a century before.
Participle +
noun:
We
heard stories
of
sunken
ships
and
hidden treasure.
Sink
has
a
past

participle
sunk, which
is
used to form perfect tenses (had
sunk).
It
also
ha
s a
special
form sunken
that
is
mostly lJsed before a
noun
(a
sunken ship, a sunken garden)
or
to talk about a person's appearance.
He ht«1
sunken
eyes.! His eyes were
sunken.
Here
are
some
more
examples
of
verbs which have two different participle

forms.
bless Fortunately the event was blessed with good weather. I blestl
When the rain came, it
was
a blessed relief
l'b
leSIdl
drink
The
men
had
drunk
too much.
There was a
drunken
argument.
learn I've learned something useful
from
the lecture. /I3:mll
The king loved the
co
mpany
of
wise
and
learned
men
1'I3:mdl
melt
The ice

had
melted.
The molten meUli
is
poured into a mould.
prove The technology has proved
to he reliabl
e.
We
are using proven technology. I'pr;)uv,ml
or
!'pru:vanl
397
Weak
forms and short forms
288 I
ntrodu
c
tion
Wh
en
we
are sp
ea
king slowly
and
deliberately, or
when
we give extra
emphasis to a word, then we use

the
strong form
of
the word.
I
AM
sorry.
/\,'\t ,;:
lreml
In writing we use the
full
form am to represent this pronunciation.
In
speech
we
often join I and am together a
nd
use
the
weak form.
I'm sorry.
'm = I
ml
In
wriring we can use the short fo
rm
' m to represent this pronunciation.
Strong Weak
Spoken liEm l I m l
Full Short

Written
am
'm
A number
of
grammatical words have weak forms. such as aux
ili
ary
ve
rb
s,
pronouns,
and
prepositions, e.g. have, you,
of
Words with short forms are
auxiliary verbs
and
1I0t.
For
li
sts
of
the forms, > 289-290.
289 Weak
for
ms -+Audio
A Some grammatical words have we
ak
fmms in unstressed sy

ll
ables.
39H
We
'fIe
firzislied
for
th
e
mom
ent.
Here
've
=
Ivl
and
for
=
Ifa(r)/
.
But when such words are stressed, we use strong forms.
Ha
ve
you
fini
shed? -
Yes,
we
h
ave

.
He
re
have::
I h
re
v/. A verb in a
short
answer is stressed.
JI1
this example
for
is
stressed.
What are
YOIl
looking
fo
r?
Here lor =
If~:I.
A
pr
eposition at the end of a qucstion is oftcn s
tr
essed.
We
al
so
use strong forms when speaking slowly, de

li
berately,
or
emphatically. >
2BB
290
Short
forms
B These are the
main
weak forms
and
their pronunciation.
alaI
am
laml
or
Iml
an
lanl
and
landi,
lan/,
or
I
nl
are la(r)1
as
lazl
at

fat!
be
Ibi!
heen
Ibml
can
IkJ
nl
or
Iknl
could
Ikadl
do
Idul
or
Ictal
for
I fair) I
from
Iframl
had
Ihadl,
ladl,
or
Idl
has Ihaz/, laz/, or
17.1
have Ihav/,
lav/,
or

Ivl
he
I
hil
or
Ii!
her
Ihal
r) 1 or la(r)1
him
I
lInl
his
IIzl
is
Izi
NOTE
me
Imil
must
Imastl
or
Imasl
not
Inti
of
lavl
or
Ivl
shall

IIall
or
IIII
she
I
Iii
should
IIodl
or
IIdl
sume
Isaml
or
Ism!>
]72D
Ihan
100
ni
that
IOatl >
Note
the
1001
or
loil
>
lSI
them l(Jaml
or
laml

Ihere 10a(r)1 > 35A
Note
10
ltol
or
Itol
was
Iwazl
we
Iwi!
were
IWOl(r)1
will
/II
would
Iwad/,
lodl,
or
Idl
you
Ijvl
or I
ja
(r)1
your
Ija(r) I
That can have a weak form when II
is
a
conjunction

or
relative pronoun.
I
know
that
I
0;)(
I u's lrue.
As
a demonstrative,
iI
docs
nOl have a weak form.
I'll
e read
that
I "ret I I
)Ook.
290 Short
forms
A
We
often usc short forms
in
informal writing,
such
as in this advertisement.
Fit
a
gas

wall
heater
and
you'll
stop
sh
ivering
.
fr
'
ll
warm
up
your
bathroom
so quickly
you
won't
need
a.
lowel. It fits snugly a.nd
safeLy
on the wall. And,
because it's gas, it's ew.y
to
control
and
very economical.
When writing a
short

form,
we
miss
out
part
of
a word and use
an
apostrophe
instead.
We
say it's instead of
it
is.
We
do
not leave a space before the
apostrophe.
The short form corresponds to
the
spoken weak form:' IHZI
in
stead
of
In
Iz/.
We
use short forms in informal writing
and
to

represent speech -
in
a
filmscript
or
play, for example. Full forms are used in more formal writing.
399
Weak forms and sh
ort
forms
B
400
We
cannul
usc
i:I
sho
rt form
of
a
ve
rb when it would
be
stressed in sp
eec
h.
Is
gas easy
ro
use?""OjcoIJrse

it
is
.
But we can usc
un
stressed /'I't
at
the e
nd
of a
se
ntence
.
Is gas
expensiver-No,
it
isn't.
These
are the
main
sho
rt
forms.
Sh
ort
form
Lo
ng
form
aren'

t are
not
she's s
he
i
s/she
ha
s
CfJ
ll't
c
an
not
sh
ouldn't
s
hou
ld nol
co
ul
dn
't
co
uld
no
t
that
's
that
islthat

ha
s
daren'l
dare
not >
83
there'd
the
re had /
th
ere would > 35
didn',
did
n01
there'll there w
ill
>
35
doesn't
does
nO[
th
ere's th
ere
is
llh
ere
has
> 35
don

't
do
n
ot
Illey'd
Ihey
had
/
lhe
y would
h
adn't
h
ad
not
Ill
ey'
/l
I
he
y will
ha
sn't
has
not
th
ey
'r
e
they

are
haven't have nol
'hey've
they have
he
'd
he
had/
he would
wasn't
was
not
he'll
he will
we'd
we
h
ad/w
e would
he's he
ls/he
has
we'll
we will/we s
ha
ll
here's
her
e
is

> 34C
we
're
we
arc
how's h
ow
is
/ how has
we've we have
I'd
I
h
adll
would
wenm',
we
re
not
I'll
I
will
II
sha
ll
what'll
wha!
wi
ll
I'm

I am
what
's
wha
t is/what has
I've
I
have
when
's
when
is
isn't
is
not
where's
wher
e
is/wh
ere has
il'll
it
w
ill
who'd
who
had
/w
ho
wou

ld
ie
's
it i
s/
it
ha
s
who
'
/I
w
ho
will
let's
le
tu
s>
IIF
who's who i
s/who
has
mi
g
hCIl
'I
might
not
won',
w

ill
not
mustn't
mu
st nol wouldn't
wou
ld
no
t
needn't n
eed
not
you'd
you
had
/yo
u
wou
ld
oughtn'
t ou
ght
not
you 'll
you
will
shan'
t
sha
ll

not
you
'
re
you are
sh
e'd
she
had
/s
he
wou
ld
you've you
have
sfie'
ll
she
will
We
ca
n also use ri short fOfm with a
noun.
If
YO
ll
r
balhroom's
co
ill,

a gas heater'lI
soo
n
warm
it tip.
But this
is
less
co
mm
on
than
with a
pronou
n.
TIP
Do
no
t
co
nfuse
the
short form
it'
s with the possessive
it
s,
> 16
48
It

's
now
that
the tree starts
to
lose i
ts
leaves.
290
Short
forms
NOTE
ThelC is a non-s
tandard
short fonn am',.
That
ain't right,
(=
That
isn't right.)
Am',
can mean 'am not', 'is not', 'arc not', 'hns
nOl',
or
'
hClvc
not'.
C The form 's can mean
is
or has.

It's
a big house. It's got five bedrooms.
(::;
It is a big house.
It
has
got five bedrooms.)
And the form
'd
can mean had or would.
If
you'd thought
about
it,
you'd have realized.
(=
If
you
had
thought
about
it,
you
would
have realized.)
There are two different
ways
we
can shorten is not and are not.
It

is not working. =
It
isn't working. lIt's
not
working,
We
are
not
ready. =
We
aTen't ready.! We're
not
ready.
Both short forms are possible, although it's
not
and we're
not
are
more frequent.
There are also two possibilities with will, have, has, and had.
It will
not
take long. =
It
won't take long.llt'll not take
long.
You
have
not
signed

it.
=
You
haven't
signed it.lYou'lle not signed it.
Won't, haven'
t,
hasn't, and hadn't are more usual
than
'll
not
, 've not, etc.
NOn
!.
In Standard
Engli
sh I
am
nOl has only one
short
form:
I'm
nOl.
40]
Glossary
abstract
noun
An
ab
stract

noun
refers to
an
id
ea
or
a
qualit
y,
so
mething
th
at we
c
annot
se
e or
lOu
ch, e g. science, excil.e
mem
. streng
th
.
The
o
pp
os
it
e is a
co

ncret
e
n
oun
.
action
verb
a verb
thai
refers
to
s
om
e
thing
ha
ppenin
g. e.g.
do
, wal
le,
eal, speak .

5
1A
The opposite is a
state
v
erb
.

active An
active sentence has a
ve
rb like stole or
ar
e clea
ning
. S
om
eo
ne
s
tol
e ,rty
co
al
and
W
e'
re
cleaning
th
e
windows
arc
active
.
but
My co
at

was
sw lell a
nd
The
windo
ws
are
being cleaned
are
passive .

86
active
participle
(or
present
participle
)
the
ing
·fo
nn
of
a verb u
se
d after
be
in
the
continuou

s, c.g. I
wa
s
working
,
and
in o
th
er struc
ture
s,
e.g
. [-Ie lay on the bed
re
ading
.

121
adding
relative clause (
or
non-defining
/
non-identifying
relative
clause) a relati
ve
clause with co
mm
as around

it
that adds extra information. e.g. Be
rnar
d.
who
was
feeling
umv
e,
ll,
left e
a.rly,
but
which
doe
s not
id
en tify which one is meant.

269
adjective An
adjectiv
e is a
word
like big,
ne
w, specit
ll,
or
fam

ou
s,
often
lI
s
ed
to
describe
so
me
thing
.

181 It can come before a n
ou
n,
e.
g. a nice day, or after be, e.g. That's
ni
ce .

182
adjective phra5e An adjective
phra
se
is either
an
adject
i
ve

011
iI'
S
own
, c.g. tall, llOpejl
J.i
,
or
an
adject
iv
e with
an
adve
rb
of
degr
ee
, e.g. quite tall, lIery
hop
eful.
adverb
In
th
e s
entence
The t
ime
p
as

sed slowly,
th
e word
slowly
i
!\
an
adverb. Adverbs
are
wo
rds
lik
e easily,
th
e
re
,
some
tim
es,
quit
e,
an
d ()msihiy. They express id
eas
such
as
how. when or where s
ome
thin

g
happ
ens, or how true
so
methin
g i
s.
adverbial The ad
ve
rb lare, the
phra
se in a
hun
y , and the clause because I WclS
co
ld
all
function as
<l
dverbials in these sentence
s:
111e
sh
ow
s
tarf
ed
lal
e; We did
ev

eryth
ing
in
a hurry. I
put
a
coolon
because I
was
cold
. Ad
ve
rhials
ex
press
id
eas such as whcn,
how, or
wh
y something ha
ppen
s .

189
adverbial
clause In
the
sentence
I'll
ph.on

e YOIL when I get home,
th
e clause when I
get
home functions as an adve
rbi
a
l.

237 C
ompa
re I'll pl/otle y
ou
Illt
er.
adverb
particle
sce
particle
adverb
phra5e An adverb phrase
is
e
ither
an
ad
ve
rb
on
its own, e.g.

Cll
r
ef
ully,
of
ten. or
an
adverb
which
is modified by an adverb of degree. e.g. very
car
e
fully
,
mor
e often.
affirmative see positive
agent
The agent is
who
or
what is
doin
g the act
io
n.
In
an ac
ti
ve

senten
ce
it
is usua
ll
y
th
e subject, e.g. T
om
UlOII
th
e g
am
e.
In a passi
ve
sentence th
ere
is sometimes an
agent in a phrase with
by
, e.
g.
Th
e
game
was
won
by
Tom

.
agreement
(
or
concord) the choi
ce
of the correct singular or plural
ve
rb
fo
rm after a
subj
ec
t, e.g.
My
ear
hurl
S,
but
My
ears
hurt
.
apostrophe
In
the
phr
ase
my
frie

nd
's
flat, there is an apostro
phe
bet
ween
friend
an
d
-so
Frie
nd's
is the possessive form
of
the
nou
ll
friend .

132
We
al
so use an
apo
s
trophe
in a short
fo
rm. e.g.
I'

m,
you
'
re
.
appo5ition
In
se
nt
e
nc
es
such as The n
ex
t
da
y,
Thursday
, was f
ine
and
(by a
nd
My
cousin Maria. gave
it
to
me
, the
1\\

10 n
OU
ll
ph
rases are
in
a
ppo
sition; they
bot
h hnvc
the s
ame
grammatic
al
function and
both
m
ea
n the
fla
me
thing.
article N
an
and til
e.
N
o"
is the indefinite

art
icle, and lhe is the definite un
ic
lc .

150
a5pect Aspects
are
elements
in
the ten
se
system which can combine with the
pr
esent
or the pas
t.
A
ve
rb can ha
ve
continuous
as
p
ect
(e
.g.
is
wal
king

,
was
look
in
g
).
perfect
aspect (e.g.
has
w
alked
,
had
lo
oked)
or
both (e.g.
hav
e be
en
wail
i'l
g ).
attributive
An
adj
ec
live in
attributi
ve posi

ti
on
is
before a noun, e.g. a co
ld
day.
But
in
the senten
ce
The
da
y
wa.~
c
old
. the adjecl.ive is
in
pr
edicative pos
iti
on.
40
2
Glossary
auxiliary
verb
The
auxiliary verbs are be, have,
and

do
(
~
64)
and
[he modal verbs, also
calJed
'modal
aux.iliary verbs', such as
can.,
must,
and
should (

70),
An
auxili<.IIY
verb
ca
n
combine
\'1
!irh
an
ordinary
verb, e.g.
Jam
uying, we have finished, did
you
remember

?,
he
can
swim,
we
must
hurry.
bare
infini
tive
an
infinitive without
10,
e.g. I
might
go out, rhey
made
us
wail
.

110
ba
se
form
The
base
form
of
a verb is

the
form without
an
ending.
We use
it
in
the
imperative,
e.g. Please st
op
it, in
the
present
simple, e.g. I get
off
here, or
(IS
a bare
infinitive, e.g. I heard
you
come ill.
capital
letter
A
cap
ital I
cner
is
a big lette

r,
e.g. A, B,
C,
u
sed
at
the
be
gi
nning
of a
sen
ten
ce
or
a
name
.
cardinal
numbe
r a
number
such
as
Olle,
two, three;
compa
re
ordina
l number

causative
The
sentence
J
had
my
hair
cut
s
how
s
the
cau
sa
tive use
of
have
because
it
mean
s 'I
ca
u
se
d s
om
eo
ne
to
cut

my hair.'
classify
When
we classify
somet
hing
, we
say
what
kind it is, e.g. a l'I
JOrts
car (a kind
of
car), a
machine
thai
washes
bo
ttl
es (a
kmd
of
mnchine).
classifying
relative
clause
a relative
c1:lUse
that
tells us what kind is m

ean
t,
e.g.
software
Ihal
prot
ects
YO
llr
compuler
against
viruses .

267 8
clause
A clau
se
usually has a subject
and
a verb. The se
nten
ce
We
stayed
at
h
ome
is a
sing
le

main
clause.
The
s
entence
We
stayed
at
home
because it rained
ha
s (wo
clauses.
We s
tay
ed
at
home
is the
main
clause, a
nd
because it rai"ed is the
su
b·
clause. A
su
b-
clau
se

with
an
infinitive
or
mg-form often
hu:-;
no s
ub
ject, e.
g.
I
went
out
to get
some
fr
esh air; J can'l help
worrying
.

227
cleft
sentence
a
st
ructur
e
Wi
th
it

or what u
se
d to e
mpha
size part
of
the
sen
tence, e.g
It
was yesterday I phol/ed you; What I
saw
was definitely a gllost.

38D-
E
collective
noun
see
group
no
un
colon
We
can
use a
co
l
on
before an

explanation,
e.g. I
came
by
coach: it's
much
cheaper
l/tim lhe Irain.
comma
We u
se
co
mmas
in a
li
st, e.g. tall, dark.
and
handsome
, or to separate o
ff
a
clause
or
ph
rase,
e.g.
The following weekend,
something
strange happened.
comment

adverbial
an
adverbial that m
akes
a
co
mmcnt
on
w
hat
we
say, e.g.
In
cred
ibl
y,
we slept through
the
noise .

201
common
noun
sec
proper
noun
comparative
a form w
ith
-er

or
more
used
to make a
compa
rison. e.g. older, more
famous,
more
effiCiently .

203-
204
comparison
Compari
son
involves forms lIsed
to
compare
one
thing
wi
th
another
, e.g.
older,
more
u.
mfu.l, longest, most easily,
as
s

afe
as .

203-207
complement
A
com
pl
e
ment
is a no
un
phra
se, e.g.
the
boss, or
an
adject
iv
e phrase, e.g.
u"/lappy,
in
a
sen
t
ence
suc
h as You're
the
boss

or
He looked
unhapp
y.
Th
ese
are
'subject
complem
en
ts'; they
fo
ll
ow
a linking verb
such
as
be
and
Lh
ey relate to
thc
subject
of
t
he
sentence
(yOIt,
hel.
See aJ

so
object
complement.
compound
a
word
made
up
of other words, e.g. bookshop (
book
+ shop), good-looking
(good + l
ook
ing), some
thing
(some
+
thin
g).
concession
A
clause
of
concession
(or
concessive
clause
) h
as
a conjunction, e.g.

although, despite,
or
even
tll
ougn: Alth
oug
h
it
was
warm, J was s
hi
ve
ring.
concord
see
agreement
concrete
noun
A
co
ncr
ete
no
un
refers
to
somet
hing
we
ca

n
see
or
touch, e.
g.
boule
,
grass,
man,
shop.
The
opposite
is
an
absl
ra
ci
noun.
conditional
clause
a
clau
se
ex
pr
essing a
conditio
n, e.g.
If
you

need
a lift, 1 can give
you
one. We'd
have
WOn
if
we'd kept Ollr c
ool
.

243;
see
al
so
type
1
/21
3
condIt
ional
conditional
form
/
tense
A
ve
rb
form wil h
would

su
ch
as would go
or
wo
uld lake is
some
times
ca
ll
ed a
condi
tional form
or
cond
itional
tense
.
403
Glos
sa
ry
condition
al sen
ten
ce a
sentence
with a condiliorli.lJ clall::'C, usually a c1all!)c with if, e.g.
If
we're

IlIfe,
we
'll
be
i"
trouble .

243 .
conjunction
a word stich as
and
,
hw
, because, when,
or
chal, which links two clauses,
c.g.
I br/i('IIt'
{1
1lI1
ii
's
lruC
.
connective
clause
a type
of
relative clause thm says
what

happens
next, e.g. 1 bumped
into a
young
woman,
who
swore
at me .

267E
c
onnector
A
connecto
r
is
a word used to link [wo clauses
or
sen
tences.
It
can
be a
conjunc
tion. e.g. You're crazy,
but
I like
you
,
or

a linking adverbial, e.g. l can't find
the
map. An
j'
w
ay,
}
know
the
way
.
consonant
sec vowel
conte
xt The context
of
a sent
ence
is the
words
that come before
it
or
the situation
in
which it
occ
urs.
continuous
(or

progressive
) a verb
fo
rm with
be
and
an
ac
tive participle, e.g. Th
efi
l
rn
is starting now; We've bee" waiting for you; 1 expect
CO
be
wo
rkin
g.
continuous
infinitive A co
ntinuous
to-infinitive is
to
be
+ jng-form. e.g. I'm supposed
to be reulXing. The infinitive
is
sometimes
without
w,

e.g.
1 s
hould
be
rel
axi
n
g.
contraction
sec short f
or
m
co*
ordinate
clause
Two clauses linked by a conjuncti
on
s
uch
as
and. bue,
or
or
are
co·
ordinate
clauses,
e.g.
II
was

ten
pas
t nine
and
I
was
I
ale
.

227
A
A co-ordin3le
clause
is
nOt
part
of
an
other
clause. See also
main
clause.
copular
verb
see
li
n
ki
ng

verb
countable
noun
A co
un
table
noun
can be either
Si
ngular or plural
and
can
be used
with
alan, e.
g.
a ba
g,
three h
ou
rs,
some
trees .

137 See also un
countable
noun
.
dangling
parti

ci
ple
see
'
hanging
participle
dash
We
ca
n use a
da
sh 10
se
parate off
part
of
a sentence. e.g. /
almost
decided W quit -
bw
! did,,'
c,
declarative
A declarative
se
nte
n
ce
has the form
or

a statement, with the subject be
fore
the verb.
defining
relat
ive
clause
see
id
ent
ifyi
ng
r
elat
ive clause
definite
My
friend
Ja
ck is a definite
per
son: 1 know exaclly who I mean. Someone
is
indefinite
becau
se it
doe
sn't say which person
is
mennl.

definite
article
the
word
the
'" 150 .
degree
An
adverb
of
degree
is
a word like very,
quiLC,
or hardly .

1
96
demon
s
trative
Th
i
S,
t
hat,
these,
and
lhose
arc

de
mon
strative
de
te
rminer
s or pronoun
s.
~
165
dependent
clause
sa
me
as sub*c!ause; sec ma
in
clause
determ
iner a word
that
can
come
before a
noun
to form a
noun
phrase
, e.g. a photo,
the result,
myoid

friend,
th
is week.
direct
object
see o b
ject
direct
speech
We use direct
speech
when
we
report
someone's
words by
quoting
them,
e.
g.
She
said, '/ neller want
to
see
yo
u
agai"
. '

258 See also indirect

speech
.
echo
que
s
tion
a
question
which asks for inrormation
to
he repeated, e.g. She's gone w
VladilJOslock .

l¥he
re h
as
she gone?
'"
21A
echo
tag
(
or
reply
question
) a
shon
que
stion form expressing Interest, e.g. I play chess .

Oh,
do
yo
u?

218
ellipsis leaving
ou
t
words
when
the
meaning
is clear without them, e.g. I haven't
seen
the film, but Kate has,
mean
i
ng
but
Kate has seen
Ih
e
film
.
empha
sis/
emph
asize /
emphatic

Empha
sis is drawing special allenUon to a word or
p
hr
ase
and
making it more
important.

38 We
can
use extra stress. special word
order.
or
a special structure, e.g. Wl1al
he
did
waS r
WI
away
.
emphatic
form We use
the
empha
ti
c form
of
a verb
1'0

emp
hasize a
po
sitive or a
negative. e.g. }
DID
remind
you. We
CANT
go
flack
flOW
. 38C
404
G
lo
ssary
emph
atic
pron
oun a p
ro
noun such as mysel
for
themselves used
to
e
mph
asize a noun
ph

rase.
c.g.
The Queen herseLf visi
te
d {he
sce
n
e.
" 17
7E
emphatic
stres
s speaking a w
ord
wilh
ex
tra force in order to draw
atte
nti
on
to il. c.g. /
said
LJ:.
·
V
J ~
I)ot
rig
l/I
.

388
empty
s
ub
j
ect
In the
se
nten
ce
It
was
ra
inin
g.
it
is an empty sub
ject
In the sentence
There
was
an
ar
gume
nt
.
th
ere is an e
mp

ty subj
ec
t.
It
has no real meanin
g.
but
we use
it because the se
nt
en
ce
n
ee
ds
il
subjec
t.

35-
36
end
ing T
he
word dogs
ha
s the plural
en
di
ng O

s;
the word walking
has
the ending
-ing.
end
position
Wh
en an adverbial
co
mes at
th
e end of a clause, after a
ve
rb or a verb +
ob
ject. it is
in
end
po
sition. e.g. He
re
pe
at
ed
th
e words sl
ow
ly. " 1
90F

exception see rule
exclama
tion
a speci
al
struc
tur
e with h
ow
or
what, e.g.
Wh
at a waste! or
an
y sentence
spoken
with
emp
hasis
and
f
ee
lin
g, e.g. Q
ui
ck!

12
ex
cl

amati
on
m
ar
k We wr
it
e an exclama
ti
on mark
al
the end of an exclamation,
e.
g.
H
aUl
awfu
l!
Lo
ok
o
w!
finite A finite
ve
rb is onc that is in the
pr
es
ent
or
past tense,
e.

g. goes, waited, l
vas
c
oming
,
ha
ve seen, or one that has a modal verb,
e.
g. will be, can carry.
II
ca
n be the
verb in a simple
on
e-
cl
au
se
sentence, e.g. She goes to colle
ge,
called a finite claus
e.
A
non
-fin ite verh is an infinit
iv
e.
gerund or J-lilrticipl
e.
e.g. She wants

to
go
[0
co
ll
ege
. /
s
aw
her going
co
colleg
e;
The clauses to
go
to co
ll
ege and going to college are non·
fi
n
it
e
cl
ause
s.
first
condit
i
onal
see

type
1 conditional
first
person
see p
er
s
on
formal We sp
ea
k in a
mor
e formal style to strangers
than
we
do
to our friends.
We
use
formal language to be polite,
or
on offici
al
occasions. A
bu
siness letter is more formaJ
than a letter
10
a friend. / am afraid J have
no

information is
mo
re fo
nn
al than Sor
ry,
1 don't
know
.
frequency
An
adve
rb
ial
of
fre
qu
e
ll
cy te
ll
s us
how
often,
e.
g. alway
s,
usuall
y,
so

m
et
im
es.
~
195
front
ing putting a
wo
rd
or
phr
as
e at the
be
g
inning
of a clause to make it
mor
e
prominent
, e.g. Very carefu.
lI
y tlley laid the
pa
tie
nt
O
Ti
a stretcher .

34
front
pos
iti
on
When an adverbial comes at
th
e be
gi
nning of a
cl
ause, it is in front
p
OS
it
ion, e.g. Luckily
we
were
jll
sl in ti
me
.

1908
full
form
se
e
short

form
full
stop
We
put a
full
sto
p at lhe end of a written sentenc
e.
future
con
t
inuous
a ve
rb
fo
rm with will be + ing-form, e
.g.
/ will be leav
ing
soon .

60
future
perf
ec
t a verb form with will have +
past
part
iciple,

e.
g. We w
ill
have saved
enough
mo
n
ey
soon .

61A
futu
re perf
ec
t
cont
i
nuous
a
ve
rb f
or
m with will have b
ee
n + ing-form,
e.
g.
li
e
will

h
av
e
been working here for twenty years .

61 B
futu
re
tense
The use
of
will + ve
rb
in a sen
ten
ce such as
Tom
or
ro
w will be
we
I and
wi
nd
y is sometimes
ca
ll
ed the future
tense
.

gender
So
me words show dif
fe
rences between male/
ma
sculin
e.
female/feminine, and
non·pers
on
al/neuter, e.
g.
h
e,
she,
and it.
Wa
iter
is
masculine, and waitr
ess
is
femini
ne
.
generalization
The statement CatS are nice is a genera
li
zation;

it
is about a
ll
cats and
not a speci
fi
c on
e.
ge
ni
t
iv
e see possessive f
orm
gerund
the
in
g-
fo
rm
of
a verb used
li
ke a noun. e.g. Sailing is
fun
;
I'
ve
given up
sm

oki
ng.

111
405
Glossary
gerund
clause
a
clau
se
\v
irh a ge
rund
as irs verb, e.g.
[(willing
a business lSl'll eas
y;
I
like
silt
ing o
ut
s
ide
. II- 112
gradable
A
gradable
adjective expresses a quality

whi
ch
can
exist in differenr degrees.
Busy, soft,
and
dirty
are
gradab
l
~
because
something c
an
be a bit dirty, rather diny,
very
dirty,
and
so on. An
un
gradable adjective s
uch
as brilliant, impossible.
or
enormous
docs not
go
with a bit,
rath
er,

or
I/ery
. II- 1
86
group
noun
(
or
collective
noun
) a noun referring to a
group
, c.g.
audience
, cla
ss,
gang,
learn.
II'-
1
49
hanging
participle
(
or
dangling
participle
)
In
the

sentence
Looking
out
of
the
window,
my
friend
wa
s cycling past.
the
verb looking
is
a h
anging
particip
le.
The
under
stoOd
subject
of
looking (myseLf)
is
not the
sam
e as the
subject
of
the

main
clau
se (my
friend) .
~
1228
Note
hyphen
In
the
number
twenty
-five
th
ere
is
a
hyphen
between
twenty
and
fil/e. A
hyphen
joins two words.
identifying
relative
clause
(o
r
defining

relative
clause
) a relative
clause
that
sa
ys
whi
ch
one
is m
ean
t, c.g. That's
the
man
who
lives
next
door
, w
he
re
who
lives next
door
te
ll
s
us
which

man
is
meant.
II-
267A
idiom/
idiomatic
An idiom is a
group
of
words which
together
have
a
meanin
g that
is
dif
ferent from
the
meaning
s
of
the
individual wo
rd
s, e.g.
come
off
(:::

succeed), !nake
up
yoltr
mind
(
:::
decide
).
imperative
the
base
fo
rm
of
the verb
lI
se
d to give
orders
, express good wis
he
s,
and
so
on, e.g. Wait the
re.
Have a good time. II-
11
indefinite
sec

definite
indefinite
article
the
word a
or
an II- 150
indirect
object
see
object
indirect
question
H
ow
much does this COSl?
is
a direct
question
. In
an
indirect
que
st
ion
we
pu
r
the
question

in a sub-clause, e.g. Could
YOII
tell
me
ho
w
much
'.h
is
costs?"
17
indirect
speech
(or
reported
s
pe
ech) We use indir
ect
speech
when
we
report
in
our
own
words
what
someone
sai

d,
e.g. She told me s
he
never
want
ed to see me again,
rather
than
quoting
the words 'J never want
to
s
ee
yo
u again.' II-
2588
infinitive T
he
infinitive is the
ba
se form
of
the
verb, e.g. They let us
stu
)1
the
nigll1.
We
often

use it
wi
th to, e.g. They invited us
to
s
tay
the
night
.

97 We
often
u
se
a to-
infinitive
after
a
verb
or
ad
jective. e
g.
J
hope
to get a job; It's good
to
lalk
. A ro-
infinitive

can
al
so
express
purpose,
e.g. I came he
re
to see you.
infinitive
clause
a clause
wi
th
an
infinitive as its ver
b,
e.g. They
ask
ed
me
to
open
both
my
suitcases;
You'U
need to
wo
rk
hard

.

98
i
nformal
We use
an
informal style
in
everyday conversation
and
when
we e-mail
or
text a friend. Can
you
do it right away? is
more
info
rmal
[han
I
would
be
gratefuL if
you could
attend
lO
the matter immediately.
See

also
formal.
ing-form
An
ing-form is the form
of
a ve
rb
ending
in -ing, c.g. seeing,
making,
flying.
It
can
be
a
gerund,
e
.g
.
Moving
house
is
quite
s t
res
~ll1l,
or
an
ac

tive participle, e.
g.
I'll be
m
Olli
ng house 011
lilaC
day
.
intensifier
a word
that
s
trengthens
the
mea
ning
of
another,
e.g. so stupid, very cold
~
196
interrogative
An interrogative
sentence
has
the
form
of
a

question,
e.g. Nave
you
fini
shed? I
nterrogative
words
are
question
words, e.g.
what
, how.
intonation
the ri
se
and
fall
of
the
voice in s
pee
ch
intr
a
nsitive
verb
An
intra
nsitive verb
cannot

have
an
object,
e.
g.
Th
e parcel has
arrived.
It
can
have
an adverbial
after
ii, e.g. Let's go
to
the
park
;
Til
e police
appeared
elJelllu
all
y.
406
Glossary
inversion
/
invert
Inversi

on
means
chang
i
ng
the
order
of
twO
things. To
fo
rm
the
questio
n
Hm
i the pla
ys/arled?
from
the
stat
eme
nt
71
w
play
h
as
started, we invert
the

s
ub
ject (the play)
and
the aux
ili
ary verb (has).
inverted
commas
s
ee
qu
otes
irregular
see re
gular
linking
adverbial
an
ad
verbial such as also, otlierwise, or nevertheless that relates 10
lhe
previoLls
clause
or
sen
tence,
e.g
. She felt furi
OUS

. Neve
rth
eless,
size
managed
'WI
10
show
il.
II>
202
linking
verb
(or
copular
verb
) a verb such
as
be
, seem , become. or look that
can
ha
ve a
complement,
e.g. It
was
a great part
y;
Everything seems fine.
literary A lit

era
ry
sty
le
is
a formal
wr
itten st
yle
typic
al
of
li
ter
at
ure.
It
ma
y
contain
some
unusual
or
old-fashioned
words
and
st
ru
ctures
.

main
clause
A
main
clau
se
h
as
a suhject
and
a verb, e.g. J
phoned
yesterday. A s
entence
ha
s at l
eas
t one
main
clause
.
It
can al
so
have
mor
e than one, e.g. I phoned yesterday,
bur
you
didn

'l answer. A malO clau
se
ca
n also h
<lve
a
sub·
cl
ause.
In
the
sen
t
ence
1
woke
up
when
the
alarm
went
off,
the
m
ain
clau
se is I woke up,
and
the sub-clause
is

when rile al
arm
went
off. In
the
se
ntenc
e
To
be
on time, I
had
t.o
get
up
early,
the
main
clau
se
is
J
had
to gel up early,
and
to
be
on lime is a s
ub
·cJause. A main clau

se
can
stand
on its
own
,
but
a sub-clau
se
c
annot.
A s
ub
-clau
se
func
ti
ons as
part
of
the
main
clause. For exa
mpl
e, it can
be
the
object
of the main claus!;!, e
.g.

I kn
ew
that
YOIl
wer
e
away
,
or
it
ca
n
be
an
adverbial, e.g. 1 pllOfled
you
yesterday because 1
wamed
a c
hat
.
II>
227 A- 8
main
verb
The
mai
n
verb
is

the
verb
which
fo
ll
ows
the subject in a main clause, e.g.
lik
e classical
musi
c;
Hearing a knock,
he
jump
ed
up
; T
il
ey will expect Il S to be on time.
Th
e
main
verb is in
th
e
pr
ese
nt
or
pa

st ten
se
or
has a modal verb.
manner
An adverbial of ma
nn
er says
how
so
me
thin
g h
appe
ns, e.g. He looked
at
me
sadly.
II>
193
mid
position
An ildverbial is in mid posi
tion
when
it
comes
in
the
middle

of
a
sentence,
usually after an auxiliary verb, e.g. I was
just
writing a
not
e,
but
before
an
ordinary
verb, e.g. I
just
wrote everyt
hin
g
do
wn.
II>
190C- E
mixed
conditional
a conditional sentence which is a
comb
ination
of
t
wO
different

ty
pe
s, e.g. If
YOIl
hadn
't
lo
st tlw
fIIap,
we
would
know
where we are. (type 3
con
dit
iO
Il
an
d type 2 main clause)

24
7C
modal
verb
(or
modal
auxiliary
verb
)
The

modal
verbs
are
c
an,
could. must, need,
s
hould
,
ought
, may, might, will, would,
and
shall, e.g. I c
an
dri
ve;
Wes
lrould
support
the ide
a.
A modal verb always has
the
sa
me
fo
rm.
II>
70
modifier

/
modify
In
the
phra
se
a
na
rrow street,
the
ad
jec
ti
ve
narrow
is
a modifie
r.
It
modifies
th
e nOtln street.
It
changes
our
id
ea
of
the
street by giving

more
informalion
abollt it.
Oth
er kinds
of
modifiers
are
noun
s, e.g. a gOlf ball, adverbials, c.g.
11ley
stopped
sudd
e
nl
y,
and
prepos
idonal
phr
ases, e.g. a
man
in
uniform
.
nationality
word
a word
formed
frol11

the
namc
of a
country
which can
bc
u
sed
as
\In
adjec
ti
ve,
e.g. the Ge
rm
an
economy,
or
to
refer
{Q
people, e.g.
the
Am
ericans in ou/'
group.
ne
gative
A
neg

ative se
nt
ence h
<l
S
11
0t
or
n'
e, e.g.
I'm
nol
reatfy, or a
ne
ga
ti
ve
word s
ll
ch
as
never
or
nothing .

10 •
neutral
A
ne
utr

al style is ne
ith
er formal
nor
informal;
it
is
betwee
n the two extrem es.
nominalization
ex
pre
ssing the
meaning
of
a
clause
in a
noun
phr
ase
, e.g. lltey
ar
e
ent
hu
siastic
-+
Ihe
ir

e
mhu
sinsm
II>
257
nominal
relative
clause
a relati
ve
clause
beginning
with Illhm. e.g. This is !Vllat I
bou
g
ht
II>
272, or
wi
th whoever, whatever, etc, e.g. J'll e
at
whatever
there
is
in
th
e
fridg
e.
II>

273 a
nd
fu
nc
tionmg
li
ke
a n
oun
phra
se
40
7
Glossary
non-finite sec
finite
non-defining
relative
clause
se
e
add
ing
relative
clause
non-identifying
relative
clause
see
adding

r
elat
ive
clause
noun
a word s
uch
as desk, apple,
or
inJormation
which
can
follow the wo
rd
lfle
.

130
noun
clause
A
noun
clau
se
is a
clause
that functions like a
noun
phr
ase. It

c;'I
n
be
the
subject, e,g, lNhat
actually
happ
ened carne as a
complete
sur
pris
e,
the
object. e.g. We
suspecred
that
it
was
a trick,
the
complement,
e.
g.
The
problem
is
we're lost, aT the
object
of
a pr

epositio
n, e.g. I'm worried
about
whether
I
made
a
good
impression
.
~
252
nOun
phrase
A n
ou
n
phrase
can
be
the
subject,
object
or
com
plement
of
a
se
ntence

,
c.g.
The
bu
s is late; I c
ould
hear music;
II
was
a lovely
holiday.
It
can
also
com
e after
a preposition, e.g.
Il
was in
my
po
ck
et.
It
can be a nOlln
on
its
own
(music),
but

it
usually has a det
er
min
er
(the, a,
my
),
and
it
can
have
an
adjec
tive (lovely
).
A noun
phra
se
can
also be a
pronoun
, e.g. r,le beell looking
fo
r you.
object
In the
sentence
He was wearing a sweater, the
noun

phrase
t
he
swe
at
er is the
object
or
dir
ect object.
The
object usually
comes
after
the
verb. In
the
sentence
They
gave the children. presents,
lhe
noun
phra
se
presents is the direct
object
,
and
the
children

is
the indirect object.
The
lI1dircct object typica
ll
y refers to
the
person
receiving
somet
hin
g .

6A
See al
so
prepOSitional o
bject
.
object
complement
In
{\
sentence
such
as They voted her
th
eir
lead
er

or
The
quarr
el
made
Tom
miserabl
e, the object
comp
lem
en
t
is
a
noun
phrase,
e.g.
their
Leader,
or
an
adjective
phrase
, e.
g.
mi
serable.
These
co
mpl

emen
ts
relate
to the
object
of
the
se
n
tence
(he
r,
Tom
).
~
.
50
object
pronoun
I
and
s
he
are s
ubje
ct
pronoun
s; me
and
her

ar
e
obje
ct
pronouns.
~
1758
ordinal
number
a
number
sllch as first, secolld, third.
ordinary
verb
(or full
verb
or lexical
verb
) a verb s
uch
as
bring
, offer,
remember
,
or
Slay, any verb which is
not
an
aux

ili
ary v
erb
pair
noun
a plural
noun
which refers
to
som
ething
made
of
two
parts, e.g.
jean
s,
scissors, trousers

148
participle
A participle
is
a verb f
or
m s
uch
as turning, turned,
or
hav

ing turned
~
121
See also active participle, passive
parti
Ciple, past
particip
le,
perfect
participle
.
participle
clause
a
clause
with a
pa
rt
iciple
as
its verb, e.g.
Arriving
hom
e, I
found
the
front
door ope"; We
saw
a

ship
launch
ed by
th
e
Que
en .

122
particle (or
adverb
particle
)
an
adverb
which
is
part
of
a
phrasal
verb, e.g.
look
up
, 1
1",1
down.
run
awa
y,

'"
217A
passive
A
pa
ssive
sentence
has a ve
rb
f
orm
With
be
an
d a passive participle, e.g.
My
co
al
w
as
stolen.
The
windows
are
being
cleaned.
II>"
86
Co
mpare

th
e active s
entence
s
Som
eone sto
le
my
coat
and
We're
cleaning
the
wi
ndow
s.
passive
gerund
a ve
rb
f
orm
with
be
ing
+
pass
ive participle, e.g. I
hate
being

stared
at.
~
95
passive
infinitive
A
pas
sive lu-i
nfin
ili
vc
is a v
erb
fUIT
II with to
be
+
pas
sive
participle,
e.g.
Som
e
th
ing lIeeds
to
be
don
e .

95
The
infinitive
is
so
metimes
without
to, c.g.
N
othing
can be
done
.
passive
ing-form A passive ing-fo
nll
is a verb form with
being
+ passive participle.
It
can
be
a
pa
ssive
gerwld
, e.g. No
one
likes beillg

made
UJ
look
foolish .

95
It
can
also
be
a
continuou
s
pa
ssive partiCiple, e.g.
We
watched tile building beirlg
knocked
down.
passive
participle A
pa
ss
ive participle
is
a v
erb
form
such
as

deemed
or
broken
,
the
s
ame
form as the
past
pa
rticiple.
It
is u
se
d
after
be
in
the
passive, e.g. The room was
cleaned,
and
in
other
s
tructur
es. e.g. I stepped
on
a
broken

bolt/e .

121
40a
Glossary
passive to-infinitive a verb f
or
m with to be + passive participle,
e.
g. f asked
LO
be
exc
us
ed .

95
past
continuous
(
or
past
progressive) a verb form with the pa5t
of
he
and
an
ing-fon
n,
e.g.

It
WlIS
raining
at
the
lime
.
II>
47
past
participle A
pa
st participle is a verb form such as arrived or klloum,
the
same
form
as the passive participle.
It
is u
se
d after
have
in
the
perfect, e.g. They
hm
le arri
ve
d;
How

l
ong
has he
known?

121
past
perfect a verb form with
had
and a past pa
rt
iciple, e
g.
J
had
seen the fi
lm
bef
ore.
~
49
past
perfect
continuous
(or
past
perfect
progressive
) a ve
rb

form w
it
h
had
b
ee
n
and
an
ing-form, e.g. I saw
lhal
it
had
been
raini"g
.

50
past
progressive see
past
continuous
past
simple (or Simple past)
the
past tense with
out
an
auxiliary, e.g.
TIle

lrain slOp
ped
;
I wrote a feller .

43
perception
see
ve
rb
of
perception
perfect
a verb form w
it.h
have + p
as
t participle, e,g. Tile game
IUl
S started;
If
only /
had
known
; I regret
having
opened
my
mouth
.

perfect
conditional A ve
rb
form such as
would
ha
ve
l
ef
t
or
would
have seen is
so
metimes
ca
ll
ed
a perfect conditional.
perfect
gerund
a verb form with having + past participle, e
.g
. He denied
having
taken
th
e
mon
ey .

111
B
perfect
infinitive A perf
ec
t to-infinitive is a verb rorm with
to
ha
ve + past p
ar
ti
ci
pl
e,
e.g. 1
hop
e
10
have
finished
by
lh
en .

978 The infinitive is someti
me
s without to, e.g.
We
might

have
finished by then.
perfect
participle a verb rorm with having + p
as
t participle, e.g. ,.,aving
paid
lhe bill,
we
l
ef
l.
~
1218
perfect
to-infinitive a verb form with
£0
halJe + past participl
e,
e.g.
11
would
be
good to
have
done
all tlwse
job
s by the weeke
nd

978
performative
verb When we say I
agrel
~
to express agreement. we
ar
e using a
pcrformative verb. Others are apologize, p
ro
mise
, refu
se,
and
suggesl.

9
person
First per
so
n relates to the speaker (/, we). Second pers
on
relates
to
the person
spoken to
(you). Third
per
so

n relates to o
ther
people
and
things (
he,
she
,
il,
they
).
personal
pronoun
words such as I,
me
,
yo
u,
and
she
~
175
phrasal verb a verb
+ adve
rb
combinati
on
, e.g. J
gaL
up

early. Did you
lum
off
tile
heating?
~
217A
phrase
A phrase i5 a wo
rd
or
group
of
words
that
func
ti
ons as
part
of
a clause. In the
se
ntence
My
friend is leaving 0
11
Frid
ay
, the
noun

ph
rase
my
friend runc
ti
ons as the
subject,
and
the pre
po
sitional ph rase
on
Frid.ay funct
io
ns as an
ad
verbia
l.'"
3-5
plural A plural form
mean
s m
ore
than one. Co
mpare
the singular
Thm
tree is very
old
(

one
tree) and the plural Those trees
are
very
old
(
mor
e
than
one
tree
).
positive (
or
affirmative)
I'm
ready
is
a pos
it
ive
se
ntenc
e,
and
I'm
not
ready is negativ
e.
possessive a form expressing the idea

of
so
mething
belonging
to
someone, or a similar
co
nnection, e
.g.
That
's
my c
hai
r;
Wliose
id
ea was it
?;
I'd love
Diana
's job.
possessive
determiner
(or possessive adjective) the words my, your,
Ili
s,
her, it
s,
Ollr,
and

their u
se
d bef
ore
a
noun
,
c.g.
my
flat,
li
er
nam
e
~
16
4
possessive form (
or
genitive
) The possess
iv
e form
of
a noun
is
a
noun
with an
apostrophe

suc
h as
Ad
am
's
room
or
a dogs' home, oft en
used
to express the
id
ea that
so
mething belongs
to
so
meone .

132
possessive
pronoun
the
words mine, yours,
fli
s,
her
s,
ou
rs
.

and
theirs, e.g. These photos
are
mine
.

164
postmodifier
a word, phrase, or
cl
ause that modifies
rh
e word it follows, e.g. the people
outside, the shop
Oil
llle c
omer,
a
game
you
play
on
the
beach
409
Glossary
predlcatlve
An
adjec
ti

ve
in
prcdicative
po
si
ti
on
comes
after a linking
ve
rb such as be,
e.g. The room was s
mall
. But in
the
sente
n
ce
It
was
a s
mall
mom.
the adjective is
before the noun in a
ttributi
ve position.
prefix
A
pr

e
fix
is
some
thi
ng
we put at the begi nning
of
a word
to
c
hang
e
the
m
ea
ning.
The word
subw
ay
has
th
e
pr
efix
sub
- before
way
.
The

word
unhappy
has
the
pr
efIx
un
- before
happy
.
premodifier
a word
or
phrase
that
modifies the
wo
rd that
comes
after
it,
e.g. a red
dr
ess. a carefully
prepared
speech
preposition
A
prepo
s

iti
on
is a word like Oil, W,
by
,
or
with.
It
is usua
ll
y rollowed by a
noun
phra
se, e.g.
on
the
water, to the left.
Ii'-
208
prepositional
object
the
object
of
a
prepo
sition,
e.g.
be
hind

the
sofa,
Qrl
your
bike
prepositional
phrase
A prepositional
phrase
is a pr
epos
ition + no
un
phr
ase, e.g. in the
stud
io
.
from
Australia,
or
a preposition + adverb,
e.
g.
since lhen.
It
often functions
a&
an adverbial, e.g. I've got
an

interview
on
Thursday.
pr
epositioni)1 verb a verb + preposition combination,
c.
g.
Look
at
this phot
o;
Did you
pay
for
your
drink
?
Ii'-
2'78
present
continuous
(
or
present
progressive
) a verb form
with
the
present
of

be
and
an
ing-form,
e.g. Everyone is
waiting/or
you.
Ii'-
41
present
participle see active participle
present
perfec
t a 'verb
fonn
\vilh
the
pre
se
nt
of
ha
/Je
and
a past participle, c.g. NOlhing
h
as
c
han
ged

.
Ii'-
44
present
perf
ect
continuous
(
or
present
perfect
progressive
) a v
erb
form with
Lhe
present
of
hav
e + been + ing-
fonn
. e.g. She h
as
been
wor
kin
g all day.
Ii'-
48
present

perfect
simple
the
present
perf
ec
t, c.g. I J
uwe
writte
n it, as distinct from the
pre
se
nt
perfect
continuous,
e.g. I
ha
ve
bee"
writing
it.
present
prog
ressi
ve
see
present
continuous
present
simple

(
or
simple
present
)
dle
pre
sent tense wit
hout
an
auxiliary, e g. I like
this song; He sells c
omputers
.
Ii'-
40
progressive
see
continuous
pronoun
A
pronoun
is a word that runctions like a
noun
phrase,
c.g.
you
(personal
pronoun
), o

ur
selves (renexive/e
mphati
c pronoun), theirs
(possessive
pronoun
),
which (relative pr
ono
un
).
pronounce
/
pronunciation
COrrt:~c
t
pronuncia
li
on
is
speaJdng some
Lhing
with
the
correct !;ounds.
proper
noun
A
proper
noun

is a name, e.g.
je
ss
ica,
New
York.
It
begins with a capital
leHer
and
does not
norm
a
lly
have a
determiner
such
as
a
or
the. Other
noun
s are
co
mm
on no
un
s,
e.
g.

tabl
e,
bu
sine
ss,
m isUlke, treatme
nt
.
punctuation
marks such as a full
stop
or
comma
u
se
d to divide
se
ntences,
clause
s
or
phrases.
quantifier
A quantifier is a word that says how
man
y
or
how
mu
ch,

e.
g.
all
the books,
som e
milk,
IIalf
of
lite Slu
t/em
s,
enoug
h
mon
ey.
[t
usually
comes
before a noun.
question
A
qu
estion is a request f
or
infonnation
which usually involves inversion
of
subj
ect
and

a
u.
xiliary, c.g. I-la
ve
YO
l1
bought a ticket? Where
ar
e we going?
Ii'-
13-15
question
mark
We write a
ques
ti
on
mark
at the end
of
a
qu
estion, e.g. Are y
ou
sure?
question
phrase
a phrase with wha.t
or
how

at !he
beginning
of
a
que
st.
ion, e.g. lI\iJlOt
time
is it? H
ow
long
will you b
e?

16C
question
tag
a s
hon
que
s
ti
on
added
to
the
end
of a s
tatement
, e.g. 11ml

wa
s nice,
Wasil ', it?
Ii'-
20
question
word
the words wilo. w
hat
, w
hi
ch,
who
se,
whe
re,
when. why,
and
how
Ii'-
15
quotes
/
quotat
i
on
marks
(or
inverted
commas

) When we report the words so
meone
sa
id
, we put
quot
es before
and
after the words, e.g.
'U
's
not
my
fault,'
she
said.
410
Glossary
reflexive
pronoun
a
pronoun
such as
myselfor
tllernselv
es
which refers
10
the subject,
e.

g.
He
blamed
himself
for
the accide
nt
.

177
regular
A regular form
is
the
same
as
mo
st other
s;
it
fo
ll
ows the
norma
l paltern.
The
verb call has a regular past tense called,
but
the verb s
in

g has
an
irr
eg
ular past
ten
se
sang .

285 Regular
noun
plurals
end
in
-sl -es, hut me
fl
, women, and children are
irregular pluraJs
.

281
relative
adverb
the
words
where, when,
and
why
in
a relative clause,

e.g.
the hotel
where
we stayed

271
relative clause a
clause
[hat
comes after a
noun
and
identifies
what
is
meant
or adds
information, e.
g.
the
woman
wilD
called
yesterd
ay
.
II>
266
r
elative

pronoun
a wo
rd
suc
h as who,
which
,
or
Ihat in a relative clause, e.g. [he person
who
started Ihe
argument,
a job that I
have
to do.
II>
266
reply
question
see
echo
tag
reported
speech
see indirect speech
reporting
verb
see
verb
of

report
i
ng
rule A grammatical rule is a state
ment
of
how
a language works.
Por
exampl
e,
there is a
rule that in Eng
li
sh
we
form a noun plural by add
in
g -5
or
-es to the
Si
ngular, e.g. car
~ cars, bus
~
bu
ses.
This rule applies
10
aJmost aU

cO
llntable
nou
ns in English, but
there are
a few exce
ptions
, words which
do
not
fo
ll
ow
the
rule,
c.g
.
mali
men.
s-form
the
form
of
a verb
with
-5
or ·es
added
in the simple
present

third person
singular, e.g.
Th
e office opens at nine.
second
condit
i
onal
s
ee
type
2
conditiona
l
second
person
see
person
semi-colon In this
se
ntence
there IS a s
emi·colon
between
the
two clauses: It was very
late; I was ready for bed.
sentence
A se
ntence

ca
n
be
a statement, e.g. I waited for you, a
qu
estion,
e.g
. Did )
'0
11
wait
faT
me?,
an
imperative, e.g.
Wait
for me, or
an
exclamation, c.g. How silly!

7
It
consists
of
onc
or more clauses, e.g. I waiced for you,
or
I waited for
you
, bur you did,,'t come. A written se

nt
ence begins with a capital letter and
ends
with a full s
top
(.), a question mark. (?),
or
an
exclamation
mark
(!).
short
answer
an
answer
where
the
words
afte
r the auxiliary arc left
out
because
th
ey
are understood
in
the contex
t.
e.g. HQI)e
you

he
ard
tile Ilews?

Yes,
J have.
meaning
Yes,
/
hav
e heard the
new
s.
short
form (or
contraction
) Some words
ca
n be wr
i({
cn
in a full form
or
a short form,
e.g.
We
ha
ve
or
we've.

In
the short form
we
miss
out
pan
of
the word
and
w
ri
te
an
apo
st
rophe
instead.
short
question
a
que
stion where the
words
after
the
auxiliary or after
the
qu
estion
word

are
lefl
out
because
th
ey
are
understood
i.n
the
context, e.g. My tutor told
me
to
rewrite the
essa.y.
, ;
And
hav
e you?
'"'"'
No,
but
I'm going lo.
'""
Well, wizen?
sibilant
Sibilant so
und
s are
lsI,

Izl,
I
fl,
13/, It
II
,
and
/d3/, as in
the
words
see,
%(JO
,
show, vision, chair,
and
ju
st.
simple The s
imp
le tenses are
Lh
e pres
ent
s
imp
le, e.g.
It
arri
ves.
and

the past simple,
e.g.
It
arrived.
Some
times a perfect tense is
ca
ll
ed
'simple'
meaning
'
non
-
continuous'; I
have
done
it
is present perfect s
imp
l
e,
and
I
hav
e been
doing
it is
present perfect continuolls.
simple

future
The
use of will + verb
in
a
se
ntence
such as
Tomo
rr
ow
w
ill
be
we
t
and
windy
is sometimes
ca
ll
ed the simple future.
simple
past
see
past
simple
simple
present
see

present
simp
le
si
ngular
A Singular form m
ea
ns one only. Co
mpare
the
singular
That
tree is very old
(
one
tr
ee
)
and
the plural Those trees are very
old
(
more
than
one
tree).
specific
We are being specific when we m
ea
n a particular

one
. The
First
World War is a
spedflc
wor,
but
if we say
W(U
is
a terrible tliing, we are talking
about
war
in
gener
a
l.
411
Gl
ossary
spelling If y
ou
spe
ll
a word corr
ec
tl
y,
yo
u write it wl

l'
h the correct le
tt
ers.
split infiniti
ve
a t
o-
infin
itive
\r\oi
th
an
adverb between to and the
ve
rb, e.g. I
wan
t
10
co
mpl
et
ely
fo
r
get
aboue il .

9SA Note
standard

Standard Eng
li
sh is the kind
of
En
gl
ish used in cducation and in
ser
ious
ne
wspapers and generally consi
de
red correc
t.
I'
m
fla
t. telling yo
l.l
is standard ; I ain't
ce
lling
you
is
non
-s
tand
ard.
stat
e verb (or stative verb) a verb that ex

pr
esses a m
ea
ning such ilS
be
ing, having an
opi
nio
n, or thinking rather than doing, e.g. exist, helielle,
know
. i
nclude

51 A The
oppo
site
is
an action verb.
statement
A state
men
t is a
se
ntence which gives information. I like it here is a
statement, b
ut
Do y
ou
like it her
e?

is a
qu
cstlun .

7
stativ
e verb see sta
te
verb
stress
When we stress a word or sy
ll
abl
e,
we
make it sound more
pr
omine
nt
The word
app
le
I'
rep
ll is stressed on the
fi
rst syllable, and again.
la'
genl is stressed on the
s

econd
sy
llable.
s
tr
ong
form see
we
ak form
structure
The
structu re
of
a
se
nt
ence is the way the dif
fe
rent parts are arranged to
form the whole. The senten
ce
M y
fri
e
nd
has WO
Il
ti
le
IO

ltery has this structure:
subject
(my frien
d)
+ verb
(1
11
15
wo
n) + o
bj
ec
t
(t
he lOllmy). The
phr
ase
my
fr
iend has
this structure: dete
rmm
er (my) + noun (frie/ld
).
sub-clause
(o
r
subordinate
clause) see ma
in

clause
sub
j
ect
In
the
s
ent
E!
nce The s
hip
sa
i
Ls
;n an hour, the
nuun
phr
ase
the
sh
ip is the
subj
ec
t.
In a statement the s
ub
ject
co
mes before the verb.
"'"

4
subj
e
ct
complement
s
ec
com
pleme
nt
subj
e
ct
pronoun
J and s
he
are subj
ec
t
pronou
n
s;
me
and her arc o
bj
ec
t pronouns.
~
17
58

subjunctive
The subjunc
ti
ve is the
base
form of a
ve
rb
.
We
can u
se
it
in rather
IO
Tm
aJ
E
ng
li
sh
in
s
om
e conte
xt
s, e
.g
. We
pr

opose that t
il
e mon
ey
be ma
de
available
.

231
subordinate
clause
(o
r sub-clause) see main clause
suffix
A su
ffi
x is s
om
e
th
ing we put on the end
of
a word. If we add
th
e suf
fix.
-Iy
to
the

adj
ec
ti
ve calm , we form the adverb
ca
lm ly. if
we
a
dd
the
su
ffi
x
-me
nt
to the verb
move, we form the noun m
ouement
.
s
uperlative
a form with -est or
mos
l used
(Q
make a c
omp
arison, e
.g.
oldest,

most
f
amo
l.l
s, mOll efficie
ntl
y .

203-204
s
yll
able The word
im
por
t
an
t has th ree syllables:
im
por Ianl.
tag
see Question t
ag
tag
question
a se
nt
en
ce
with a
qu

es
ti
on tag, e.g.
Ie
's
true, is
n.
'l
it
?
tense
II
form of the verb which shows whcth
er
we are talking about the
prese
nt, e.g. I
play. he
kn
ows.
we
ar
e,
or
the past, e.g. I
played
,
h.
e knew,
we

wer
e.
The
various
c
ombin
ations
of
tense and aspect can '
1l
so
be ca
ll
ed tenses. e.g. J ha
ve
played is the
pr
esent perfect tense .

39
third
condit
ional see ty
pe
3 conditi
ona
l
third
person
see person

to
-infinitive a form
lik
e to go,
LO
m iss or
LO
open; sec
al
so inf
in
itive
to
-infinitive
cl
a
use
see in
fi
nitive
cl
ause
transitive
verb a verb that has an objec
t,
e.g. We
enj
o)'ed
the
me

a
l;
T
he
postman
b
rin
gs
(he let lers.
truth
adverb
i
al
a word
or
phrase wh
ic
h
ex.
presses the s
pea
ker's view of
!.he
tr
uth
of
a
statement. e.g.
There's certainly a problem; It U
le

lil
OK
Oil
th
e whole .

200
typ
e a
condit
ional a condilional senten
ce
with
th
e
pr
ese
nt
s
imp
le in both clauses
ex
pr
essing the id
ea
that one thing fo
ll
ows a
ut
omatica

ll
y from
an
other. e.g. I[you
click on the icon, the fi le open
s.
,.
244
41
2