A FAIR GLOBALIZATION: CREATING OPPORTUNITIES FOR ALL phần 8 doc

106 A fair globalization: Creating opportunities for all
Private capital flows to low-income countries
Private capital
flows need to be
spread more
widely
473. Cross-border investments have grown very rapidly. Today, 75 per cent of net
capital flows to developing countries are private. However, as we saw in Part II,
poorer developing countries do not appear to have benefited much from financial
globalization. Private capital flows remain concentrated in a small number of
mostly middle-income countries.
474. How private capital can be attracted and contribute to development was dis-
cussed in previous sections. Section III.1 argues the need for governments to invest
in skills, infrastructure and institutions and to understand the motivations of pri-
vate investors. Section III.2.2 suggests the need for a development-friendly multi-
lateral framework of rules for investment. These two elements should be
supported by more public-private initiatives and institutions such as country in-
vestment guides, common principles and investment routes. The latter can
include global investment funds which channel resources to start-ups, micro-credit
initiatives and socially responsible projects. The large number of successful
socially responsible investment initiatives
87
suggests that this is a promising route,
and more effort should be devoted to developing ways for them to channel
resources to low-income countries. The complementarities between private and
public capital flows also need to be on the agenda.
475. Good data on social and environmental sustainability are important too. Rat-
ings agencies emphasize economic rather than socio-political indicators, and it is
desirable to broaden assessment criteria to get a more accurate picture of long-
term prospects and stability, as is attempted for example in the Calvert-Henderson
index or the Wealth of Nations Triangle index of the Money Matters Institute.

88

Achieving key goals
476. At the Millennium Summit, Heads
of State and Government agreed to
work together to build a safer, more
prosperous and equitable world for all
by 2015. They adopted eight global
goals, all of them to be achieved by
2015. These goals commit the entire
global community – rich and poor
countries together. We regard them as
a minimum for a decent world. We
should move, on this foundation, to-
wards a common understanding of a
socio-economic floor for the global
economy.
87
In the United States, one out of every nine dollars under professional investment management is
in “socially responsible” investing, amounting to over US$ 2 trillion. See Social Investment
Forum, 2003 Report on Socially Responsible Investing Trends in the United States, Washington DC,
www.socialinvest.org
88
H. Henderson, J. Lickerman and P. Flyn (eds): Calvert-Henderson Quality of Life Indicators
(Bethesda, Calvert Group, Dec. 2000). Money Matters Institute: Wealth of Nations Triangle Index,
(Boston, March 2002).
The Millennium Development Goals
In September 2000, 189 Heads of State and
Government committed their countries – rich
and poor – to meet a set of time-bound and

measurable goals by 2015:
• Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
• Achieve universal primary education
• Promote gender equality and empower
women
• Reduce child mortality
• Improve maternal health
• Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other dis-
eases
• Ensure environmental sustainability
• Develop a global partnership for develop-
ment.
Part III Page 106 Friday, April 16, 2004 2:46 PM
Better international policies 107
477. Much of this depends on policies within countries, as we have discussed in
section III.1. But the Millennium Declaration also represents a global commitment
to international action. Achieving these goals will be important steps towards a
fairer world. However, they will not be achieved with current levels of resources.
478. Many of these goals reiterate commitments that have been made many times,
notably in the programmes of action of the major global conferences of the
1990s.
89
They also reflect internationally agreed instruments which protect the
basic rights of peoples necessary to social, economic and cultural development.
90
Such universal human rights are the bedrock. They reflect internationally agreed
norms and standards which are legal expressions of universally shared values and
principles. They provide a framework for holding social actors accountable, in-
cluding governments, citizens, corporations and international organizations.
91

Health and
sustainable
development are
key goals
479. Among the key goals of social development, health has been given particular
attention by the international community. The concept of “health for all” has been
an important factor in recent debates on making medicines more affordable. The
rapid spread of infectious diseases is one of the global ills of our interconnected
world. Most recently the rapid action of the World Health Organization (WHO) on
SARS has been effective in containing the spread of the disease. The 2001 WHO-
supported Commission on Macroeconomics and Health argued for large-scale fi-
nancial commitment by rich countries to scaling up the access of the world’s poor
to essential health services, contending that this will pay off in accelerated eco-
nomic growth. The converse is also true. Poor health impedes development, as the
catastrophic effects of HIV/AIDS in Africa testify. HIV/AIDS erodes development
gains and risks crippling a whole generation. The ILO estimates that at least 26 mil-
lion prime age workers (15–49) worldwide are infected. In Africa, 11 million chil-
dren have lost at least one parent to AIDS – a number that is expected to rise to 20
million by 2010. Women are disproportionately affected by the disease. In Africa,
58 per cent of those with HIV/AIDS are female, and among the teenagers affected,
75 per cent are girls.
92
Initiatives launched to combat the disease require urgent
attention and support. We have already referred to the debate on access to essen-
tial medicines in relation to the TRIPS agreement. Multilateral institutions and pro-
grammes, such as UNAIDS, the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and
Malaria and the WHO ‘3 by 5’ strategy to deliver antiretroviral therapy to 3 million
people by 2005 remain under-funded and need to be adequately resourced.
89

See especially the Rio Declaration and Agenda 21 (UN Conference on Environment and Develop-
ment), Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action (World Conference on Human Rights), Copen-
hagen Declaration and Programme of Action (World Summit on Social Development), Cairo
Declaration and Programme of Action (World Conference on Population and Development), Beijing
Declaration and Programme of Action (Fourth World Conference on Women).
90
These include the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and International Covenant
on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrim-
ination Against Women, the Declaration on the Right to Development, the Convention on the Rights
of the Child, ILO Convention No. 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples and the Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination.
91
See www.unhchr.ch; and on the relationship between globalization and human rights, Mary
Robinson: “Making Globalization Work for all the World’s People”, speech delivered at the Aspen
Institute Summer Speakers Series, Aspen, Colorado, July 2003.
92
UNAIDS, AIDS Epidemic Update 2003 provides a report on the overall progression of the
epidemic.
Part III Page 107 Friday, April 16, 2004 2:46 PM
108 A fair globalization: Creating opportunities for all
480. We have also referred in this Report to national efforts in favour of sustain-
able development. Globalization has put additional stress on natural resources and
the environment. Large-scale deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions are
important factors in global climate change. Agenda 21 of the 1992 Earth Summit of
Rio de Janeiro and the Declaration of the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable De-
velopment of Johannesburg laid out frameworks for action which show the com-
plementarity between ecological, social and economic goals. Environmental goals
must be pursued as part of the social dimension of globalization.
481. We do not go further into these issues, which are already the subject of a
great deal of international attention. We focus instead on a number of goals closely

related to globalization where greater international effort is particularly needed:
first, education, skills and technological capability; second, issues of security and
adjustment; and third, the goal of decent work.
Education, skills and technological capacity
482. In today’s global economy and information society, knowledge and informa-
tion are the keys to social inclusion and productivity, and connectivity is the key
to global competitiveness. Yet in our unequal world the networked economy is
able to incorporate all that it regards as valuable, but also to switch off people and
parts of the world that do not fit the dominant model.
483. Technological capability is essential. Countries need the communications in-
frastructure and the production system which can process and use information for
development; and people must have access to the knowledge and the ability to use
it, in order to participate, take advantage of and be creative in the new techno-
logical environment. That puts education and skills at the centre of a fair and in-
clusive globalization.
484. Yet the foundation is not being laid in many parts of the world. Universal pri-
mary education is one of the MDGs that is furthest away from attainment. As for
the skills and capabilities developed at secondary level and beyond, crucial for the
information society, the gap is greater still.
International
action on
education must
be reinforced
485. Education is a core element of society, and the foundation of democratic
choice. The large differences in opportunities in education between countries are
one of the basic causes of global inequality. Furthermore, international migration
allows rich countries to benefit from the investments in human capital made in
poor countries – giving them a responsibility to support the education systems
where those investments are made. Yet World Bank figures show that only 3 per
cent of funding for education budgets in developing countries comes from inter-

national sources.
486. We call for international action in this area to be reinforced. The “Education
for All” Fast Track initiative must be moved up the priority agenda. The goal is to
deliver on the global commitment made at the World Education Forum in Dakar in
April 2000 to ensure that by 2015 all children have access to, and complete, free
and compulsory primary education of good quality, and that gender discrimination
is eliminated. In order to meet this objective, international financial support to edu-
cation must be increased substantially. However, bilateral aid flows for education
fell to US$ 3.5 billion in 2000, a 30 per cent decline in real terms from 1990.
487. We also support calls for more ambitious proposals aimed at helping low-
income countries to rapidly raise technological capability. One important means is
Part III Page 108 Friday, April 16, 2004 2:46 PM
Better international policies 109
to engage education institutions from the North in distance learning.
93
Online dis-
tance learning could become a powerful tool for developing countries – reducing
the need for expensive physical infrastructure for tertiary and vocational educa-
tional facilities and enabling investments to be made instead in communications
equipment, with curricula and teaching provided through regional initiatives. The
Global Distance Learning Network (GDLN) is one such initiative which deserves
support. It is a worldwide network of institutions which are developing and apply-
ing distance learning technologies and methods with a focus on development and
poverty reduction. Such networks are likely to play an important role in building
technological capabilities.
Adjustment, security and social protection
488. In a competitive international economy, there is greater vulnerability to sud-
den change than in protected national markets. Globalization triggers the need for
frequent adjustments to national production processes, and hence to jobs and the
life strategies of women and men. Adjustment takes time and requires public pol-

icy interventions to support the restructuring of production systems and the cre-
ation of new opportunities.
Need for better
social protection
supported by
international
action and
solidarity
489. This calls for a focused set of domestic policies, which we discussed in sec-
tion III.1. As a minimum, systems of social protection are required which can sta-
bilize incomes, distribute some of the gains of globalization to groups which would
otherwise be excluded, and support the development of new capabilities. Yet the
reality is that 80 per cent of the world’s families have little or no social protection.
The wave of globalization a century ago was associated with a strengthening of so-
cial protection systems, notably in Europe and the United States. By contrast, the
tendency today is just the opposite. In many societies, both industrialized and de-
veloping, social protection systems are under financial strain, due to structural ad-
justment programmes, slow growth or national budgetary restrictions, often
compounded by demographic changes. Where there is pressure on public expend-
iture, social transfers are among the prime targets.
490. International action is now essential. There is a need for donors and interna-
tional and regional financial institutions to contribute to the development of na-
tional social protection systems in developing countries, and to invest in the
retraining and economic restructuring which can promote more equitable adjust-
ment and a fairer distribution of the gains from globalization. Private solidarity ini-
tiatives can also contribute. At the very least, technical assistance in this field
should be strengthened.
491. Achieving progress in this area will clearly require an increase in inter-
national solidarity. This is a key issue for the global community, as it is for any com-
munity. Basic security is a recognized human right, and a global responsibility.

94
All industrialized countries devote substantial resources to social protection and
93
See, for example, Manuel Castells: “Information and communications technologies and global de-
velopment”, keynote address at the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations, New York,
12 May 2000.
94
The Commission on Human Security argues that this extends beyond basic economic security to
encompass a minimum of “vital freedoms”, including basic health, education, shelter, physical safety,
clear air and water, and gender equality. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights recognizes the
rights to both personal security and social protection. The ILO’s current global campaign for universal
social protection aims to mobilize opinion around these issues.
Part III Page 109 Friday, April 16, 2004 2:46 PM
110 A fair globalization: Creating opportunities for all
social transfers but such policies are extremely limited at the global level. Yet the
gaps in income and security between countries are vastly greater than would be
tolerated within them. A certain minimum level of social protection needs to be
accepted and undisputed as part of the socio-economic floor of the global econ-
omy. As long as countries – however poor – are able to collect some taxes and con-
tributions, they can afford some levels of social protection. If they do so, they
deserve international support as well. A global commitment to deal with insecurity
is critical to provide legitimacy to globalization. We believe that steps should be
taken now to strengthen a sense of common responsibility and to reinforce mutual
support across borders.
Making decent work a global goal
International
economic
policies should
promote decent
work

492. As argued in earlier sections, there is a strong need to reform international
policies to make them more supportive of growth, enterprise development, pov-
erty reduction and the creation of decent work for all. At present these policies em-
phasize market-opening measures and give low priority to goals such as full
employment and social protection. We believe that it is imperative to redress this
imbalance and to build a global strategy for sustainable growth aimed at achieving
decent work for all. Decent work, identified in section III.1 as an important goal
for national action, encompasses full employment, social protection, fundamental
rights at work and social dialogue – all key ingredients for achieving global social
justice.
493. The performance of the global economy has major implications for the cre-
ation of employment and its quality within each country. Today, countries cannot
achieve employment goals on their own. Patterns of international investment, the
growth of trade and the cross-border movement of workers all affect jobs, in-
comes, security and the rights of workers. We believe that more coordinated inter-
national policies are essential to improve the prospects for achieving decent work
for all in the global economy. We discuss in turn the coordination of macroeco-
nomic policies, the promotion of decent work in global production systems, and
the broader question of establishing coherence between economic and social
goals.
Coordinated macroeconomic policies for full employment
494. One of the most obvious effects of globalization has been to increase the in-
terdependence between countries in macroeconomic policies. For example, coun-
tries which aim to increase employment levels through more expansionary
macroeconomic policies have little space to do so on their own without generating
adverse reactions in international capital markets. Enhanced coordination of
macroeconomic policy among countries is therefore important to attain the global
goal of full employment and decent work.
495. More specifically, market liberalization needs to be accompanied by effective
policies for global macroeconomic management, in order to ensure that global

growth is higher and more stable. There is a need for a better mechanism to
achieve orderly adjustment to persistent balance of payments deficits and sur-
pluses, and a balanced distribution of the responsibilities for maintaining effective
demand in the global economy, so that no single country is seen as the consumer
of last resort. All countries, developing and industrialized, have a strong obligation
to adopt fair and responsible trading policies, and domestic policies which are fis-
cally responsible, provide adequate social protection and adjustment assistance,
and take into account the impact on other countries.
Part III Page 110 Friday, April 16, 2004 2:46 PM
Better international policies 111
496. An improved framework for international coordination must be developed.
This coordination should include both fiscal and monetary policy and their timing.
It should also include more determined efforts to prevent contagion effects, as
pointed out in section III.2.2 above. It should take account of the particular needs
and vulnerabilities of countries at different levels of development. In particular,
means are required to ensure that middle-income countries have greater space to
apply countercyclical macroeconomic policies. At present they are much more
constrained in this respect than industrialized countries. Coordination should in-
volve not only governments, but also central banks, given their critical role in de-
termining output growth and employment levels. The latter are already mandated
goals for some central banks, such as the US Federal Reserve.
497. We recommend that these issues be treated as a high priority for action at the
global level. Just as employment must be a priority in macroeconomic policy deci-
sions at national level, so it must be made a priority in international economic co-
ordination. Macroeconomic policies must take into account not only financial
targets but also their social impact. A political momentum must be built around this
issue.
Promoting decent work in global production systems
498. Global production systems are now a significant source of employment
growth for those developing countries that have managed to become part of them.

Although MNEs alone account for only a fraction of employment in most countries,
outsourcing to domestic producers implies that these global systems have a con-
siderable impact on the labour market in many parts of the world. Regulation is
weak in these new production systems, and there is widespread debate about
whether there is a “race to the bottom” in labour and other standards. At the same
time, for many countries, participation in these systems is an important way to
attract investment and increase technological capability.
Rights at work
and employment
quality in EPZs
499. The system of Export Processing Zones has become a prominent issue. Over
50 million workers are now employed in such zones worldwide. Persistent con-
cerns have been expressed that EPZs are sometimes given exemptions from na-
tional labour laws, or that there are obstacles to exercising rights in practice,
95
and
that they engage countries in a competition for foreign investment which leads to
damaging tax and subsidy policies. By their nature, EPZs are linked closely to the
global economy. However, they often have few linkages back to national econ-
omies, thereby creating international enclaves. Outside such zones, similar
concerns are expressed about employment and working conditions in a variety
of smaller enterprises in international subcontracting chains, both formal and
informal.
500. At the same time, EPZs are widely seen to make important contributions to
development strategy. Wages and working conditions, and opportunities for em-
ployment for women, are often observed to be better than the national average.
There are possibilities which have not been fully used to ensure that EPZs, and par-
ticipation in global production systems more generally, contribute to both devel-
opment and decent work. This applies not only to manufacturing, but increasingly
to services. Trade in services is the fastest growing component of world trade, and

95
International Confederation of Free Trade Unions: Export Processing Zones: Symbols of Exploita-
tion and a Development Dead-End (Brussels, September 2003).
Part III Page 111 Friday, April 16, 2004 2:46 PM
112 A fair globalization: Creating opportunities for all
increasingly service activities such as data processing, call centres and software
services are undertaken in developing and transition countries as part of global
production and distribution networks.
501. Improved competition policy and a development framework for FDI, as dis-
cussed in section III.2.2 above, are important elements of any policy framework for
global production systems. But promoting decent work will require a broader
range of integrated economic and social policies. We cannot accept a policy based
on lowering labour or environmental standards or excessive tax competition. We
recommend that the main international organizations and other actors concerned
work together to develop proposals for effective international policies to promote
decent work, investment and trade both in EPZs and more generally in global pro-
duction systems. Such proposals should address issues of labour standards, back-
ward linkages to the domestic economy, and the ways that enterprises can move
up the “value chain” through investment and technological upgrading. The pri-
mary beneficiaries of such an approach would be the countries, enterprises – both
domestic and multinational – and workers concerned. We also believe that social
dialogue among workers and employers is an important means by which this can
be achieved, an issue to which we return in the next section.
Policy coherence for decent work
502. Action in the above areas will make a significant contribution to achieving
the goal of decent work for all. However, it will have a much larger impact if there
is greater consistency and coherence within the multilateral system. A key step to-
wards this policy coherence is to ensure that the goal of decent work is adequately
recognized by all the organizations concerned. This includes not only the promo-
tion of full, productive employment but also a range of other key elements of de-

cent work such as conditions of work, gender equality, social security, safety at
work and social dialogue. International labour standards have been developed
which cover all of these issues, in addition to the core standards discussed earlier.
Full employment
should be a major
international goal
503. This approach has deep roots in the international system as a whole. From
the outset, the United Nations was mandated to promote “higher standards of liv-
ing, full employment, and conditions of economic and social progress and devel-
opment”.
96
504. The international community renewed this commitment in 1995 at the
World Summit for Social Development and agreed “to promote the goal of full em-
ployment as a basic priority of our economic and social policies, and to enable all
men and women to attain secure and sustainable livelihoods through freely chosen
productive employment and work.”
97
Gender equality was an important aspect of
this goal.
505. The importance of the employment goal is also recognized by the key eco-
nomic organizations of the international system. The purposes of the IMF, for in-
stance, include “to facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international
trade, and to contribute thereby to the promotion and maintenance of high levels
of employment and real income…”. As recently as 1994, the Marrakech Agreement
which gave birth to the WTO recognized that “relations in the field of trade and
96
Charter of the United Nations, Article 55.
97
United Nations, 1995, Declaration and Programme of Action agreed at the World Summit for Social
Development.

Part III Page 112 Friday, April 16, 2004 2:46 PM
Better international policies 113
economic endeavour should be conducted with a view to raising standards of liv-
ing, ensuring full employment and a large and steadily growing volume of real in-
come and effective demand …”.
506. In practice, however, the international economic organizations have tended
to regard employment as derivative from their main mandates, rather than as an ob-
jective in its own right. The WTO promotes the expansion of trade, and this is seen
as the way to create employment: “Trade liberalization increases national income
and fosters growth and employment”.
98
The IMF promotes sound financial poli-
cies as a basis for growth and employment creation. The World Bank tends to as-
sume that what is needed is growth, and that growth creates jobs and incomes. As
a result, employment and enterprise are not seen as major policy goals in their own
right. This was evident in the lack of emphasis on employment in the design of the
PRSP process.
Need for better
coordination in
international
economic policy
507. The need for better coordination in international economic policy was re-
flected in the conclusions of the Special Session of the United Nations General As-
sembly held in 2000 to review progress made towards the Social Summit
commitments. The representatives of 189 countries unanimously invited the ILO
to “elaborate a coherent and coordinated international strategy on employment”.
99
In response, the ILO has developed the Global Employment Agenda, which aims
to place employment at the heart of economic and social policy, on the basis of a
tripartite strategy which engages government, business and workers’ organizations

in a wide range of actions. It includes proposals for strategic alliances with the
Bretton Woods institutions and others, including the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) and the WTO, in pursuit of employment objectives.
508. In practical terms, this means ensuring the consistency between the goals of
decent work and full employment, on the one hand, and the financial, trade and
production goals of the economic system, on the other. The ILO already has an ex-
plicit constitutional mandate to oversee the social implications of international
economic policy. In the 1944 Declaration of Philadelphia, the ILO was given a spe-
cial responsibility to “examine and consider all international economic and finan-
cial policies and measures” in order to ensure that they were compatible with the
right of all human beings “to pursue both their material well-being and their spirit-
ual development in conditions of freedom and dignity, of economic security and
equal opportunity”.
100
509. In practice, responsibility at the international level for finance, development,
trade and social policy was assigned to different institutions, and adequate coordi-
nation mechanisms were never created. There were also fundamental power asym-
metries between institutions dealing with finance and trade, and those dealing
with normative and social matters.
510. We believe that the organizations of the multilateral system should deal with
international economic and labour policies in a more integrated and consistent
way. There are some positive recent trends at this level that should be expanded.
98
ILO: “Trade liberalization and employment”, paper presented to the ILO Working Party on the
Social Dimension of Globalization, November 2001.
99
United Nations, Report of the Ad Hoc Committee of the Whole of the Twenty-Fourth Session of
the General Assembly, 2000, para. 36, p. 24.
100

Constitution of the ILO, Annex, Declaration Concerning the Aims and Purposes of the Internation-
al Labour Organization (Philadelphia Declaration), sec. II, p. 23.
Part III Page 113 Friday, April 16, 2004 2:46 PM
114 A fair globalization: Creating opportunities for all
In the major international conferences of the past decade the international commu-
nity moved towards consensus on the need for a concerted and coordinated effort
to reduce poverty and make globalization more inclusive. Collaboration between
the World Bank and the ILO has started to give employment growth a more prom-
inent place in some national PRSPs. At the IMF, there is growing recognition of the
importance of the social dimension of globalization.
101
In addition, fundamental
rights at work are increasingly being accepted as an essential foundation for inter-
national economic policies.
Integrating economic and social goals
Achieving social
goals requires an
integrated
approach
511. The principle of a more coherent approach, which we have developed with
reference to decent work, applies more generally. Education, health, human rights
and environmental goals also need to be addressed in a more consistent and inte-
grated way, because they interact with each other and with economic goals and
relationships. Policies at international, national and local levels are likewise inter-
dependent and need to be developed in integrated ways.
512. Correctives are required, not only in the international agenda, but also in the
actions of the international system at the country level. A better coordinated effort
by the United Nations system as a whole is required to ensure that a coherent ap-
proach to economic and social goals is adopted in international advice and support
to PRSPs and other country-level frameworks. These should adequately reflect de-

cent work, education, health, human rights, gender equality and other key aspects
of social development.
513. New initiatives are required to promote coherence at these different levels
and more effective collaboration among the international institutions concerned.
We invite the ILO, taking advantage of its wide-ranging Constitution and its con-
stituency of workers’ and employers’ organizations as well as governments, to de-
velop new instruments and methods which can promote coherence between
economic and social goals in the global economy, in coordination with other
organizations of the multilateral system. In Part IV we make a number of concrete
proposals on how to take forward a more integrated agenda.
514. At the political level, we see a need for a regular meeting between finance
and trade ministers, and ministers responsible for key labour and social policies, in
order to review policy coherence among them, preferably with the participation
of representatives of labour and business and, when appropriate, civil society. This
might be organized initially at a regional or subregional level. At global level, ad-
vantage could be taken of the High Level Segment of ECOSOC, a point to which
we return below.

101
See, for example: “Toward a Better Globalization” by Horst Köhler, Managing Director of the IMF,
Inaugural Lecture on the Occasion of the Honorary Professorship Award at the Eberhard Karls Uni-
versity in Tübingen, 16 October 2003.
Part III Page 114 Friday, April 16, 2004 2:46 PM
More accountable institutions 115
III.2.4 More accountable institutions
More accountable institutions
515. Globalization has empowered public opinion through better communica-
tions and new technologies. As a result, both national and international institutions
face greater pressure for more participatory and democratic governance.
516. The key issue in global governance is better accountability to people, both in

terms of setting the global agenda and assessing the results of global policies.
Greater representativeness, participation, transparency, efficacy and subsidiarity
are essential principles to achieve better accountability and legitimacy of authority.
517. While most international actors are quick to express their support for such
principles, in practice there are very different understandings of what these are.
Accountability can be interpreted in many different ways, from the narrower sense
of simply making information publicly available, to a broader conception which
holds international organizations directly accountable for the impact of their
policies.
518. In some cases the principles will come into direct conflict with each other.
For example, inclusiveness and maximum participation may not be wholly consist-
ent with effective and politically relevant decision-making. Again, the principle of
efficacy must be reconciled with the principle of subsidiarity. Less formal, “net-
worked” governance may be the best way of fulfilling some global purposes.
519. In this section we examine some ways that democratic governance can be
strengthened, as an essential precondition for the implementation of reforms in
international economic and social policies proposed in preceding sections. We build
on the work of several previous commissions and many scholars who have exam-
ined the global governance system and made recommendations for its reform and
renewal.
102
We first indicate a number of reforms that would enhance the strength
and effectiveness of multilateral institutions, before turning to recommendations
on the tasks and responsibilities of States, parliaments, business, organized labour,
civil society and the media.
Strengthening the multilateral system
Effectiveness of
UN multilateral
system needs to
be enhanced

520. The UN multilateral system constitutes the core of the existing system of glo-
bal governance. Armed with experience, knowledge and competence acquired
over more than 50 years and a legitimacy endowed by its near universal member-
ship of States and its mandate, it is uniquely equipped to spearhead the process of
reform in economic and social policies. At the same time, as the world moves to
ever greater interdependence in a widening range of activities, the need for new
international agreements and new areas and forms of cooperation will become
even more urgent. For the multilateral system to cope with the current and emerg-
102
See, for example: Commission on Global Governance: Our Global Neighbourhood (Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 1995); Meltzer Commission: Report of the International Financial Institutions Advi-
sory Commission (Washington DC, 2000); United Nations: International Monetary and Financial
Issues for the 1990s (New York and Geneva, 1997); Erskine Childers and Brian Urquart: Renewing
the United Nations System (Uppsala, Sweden, Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation, 1994); Mahbub Ul-
Haq et al (eds.): The United Nations and the Bretton Woods Institutions: New Challenges for the
21st Century (New York, St. Martin’s Press, 1995); Global Governance Reform Project: Reimagining
the Future: Towards Democratic Governance (2000); Deepak Nayyar (ed.), op. cit; Joseph Stiglitz,
op. cit.
Part III Page 115 Friday, April 16, 2004 2:46 PM
116 A fair globalization: Creating opportunities for all
ing challenges of global integration, it will need to enhance its effectiveness
through constant upgrading of its technical services, knowledge base and manage-
ment systems. Its effectiveness also depends on the quality of its governance.
Three areas are of particular concern: democratic representation and decision-
making, accountability to all stakeholders, and coherence in economic and social
policy. In addition, there is a critical need to ensure the adequacy of resources
for multilateral agencies to enable them to strengthen the social dimension of
globalization.
Democratic representation in governing councils
Reconciling

power with
democratic
participation
521. In a world comprising nation States with vastly unequal power and wealth, it
is inevitable that countries will have unequal influence in international organiza-
tions. The challenge lies in reconciling the reality of power with equality and
democratic participation. There is widespread dissatisfaction with the present
decision-making systems in the Bretton Woods institutions, the WTO and the
United Nations. For example, membership of the Security Council is based on
the situation in the period after the Second World War and does not take into
account the present day realities. Reform of the membership and decision-making
procedures of the Security Council has become more urgent than ever.
522. There have been many calls to increase the representation and voting
strength of developing countries in the IFIs. According to one estimate, the devel-
oped countries, with around 15 per cent of the world’s population, account
for 17 per cent of voting strength in the UN, 34 per cent in the International Fund
for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and over 60 per cent in the World Bank and
the IMF.
103
523. The voting formula in the Bretton Woods institutions is based on a calcula-
tion of various economic indices together with a discretionary element. This has
given rise to various anomalies. Even when measured in terms of GDP in US dollars,
and more so in terms of GDP in purchasing power parity, the developing coun-
tries, especially Asia and to a lesser extent Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa,
are under-represented in voting power.
524. The situation is somewhat improved by the constituency system of represen-
tation in the Bretton Woods institutions. While eight countries appoint their own
representatives to the Board of Executive Directors, all the remaining countries are
grouped into 16 constituencies, each represented by an Executive Director.
Furthermore, it is open to countries to move to different groupings and be

represented by other directors, thus giving them some room for manoeuvre.
525. Despite these qualifications, it remains true that the industrialized countries,
which are the main shareholders, exercise decisive influence on important policy
decisions, as compared with stakeholders. We recommend the establishment of a
fairer system of voting rights. This should result in increased representation for de-
veloping countries, with a significant proportion of voting rights still vested in the
industrialized countries. As a first step we recommend that the size of the Board be
increased to include one more representative from sub-Saharan Africa.
103
G. Helleiner: “Markets, Politics and Globalization” in Journal of Human Development, Vol. 2,
No. 1, 2001.
Part III Page 116 Friday, April 16, 2004 2:46 PM
More accountable institutions 117
Increasing accountability
International
institutions must
be accountable
to the public
526. All international institutions, by virtue of their enhanced responsibilities in
the era of globalization, need to be accountable to the public at large as well as to
their own governing bodies. While it is for each public or private institution to
examine how it can make its activities more transparent and more accountable
to people, globalization requires that they now explicitly recognize this responsi-
bility.
527. The international institutions responsible for finance, development and trade
have been subjected to considerable public criticism in recent years. Many cri-
tiques and protests have focused on their lack of transparency and their failure to
engage in consultations with civil society and interest groups on their policies and
programmes. Some institutions, like the World Bank, have responded positively to
these criticisms and are starting to devote valuable time and energy to dialogue

with representatives of trade unions, business and CSOs. Recently, these groups
have also become increasingly involved in WTO issues. The WTO has responded
by establishing a more systematic dialogue with them. But the problem remains
that the procedures adopted for negotiations have resulted in the WTO agenda and
agreements being dominated by the interests of major trading groups and coun-
tries. It is essential to reform the working methods and negotiation procedures to
ensure full and effective participation in agenda setting and negotiations by all
member States. The outcome of the Cancun Conference has only reinforced the
need for such reforms.
Greater
transparency…
528. On the issue of public accountability, there has been an improvement in the
performance of multilateral agencies, but more needs to be done. For instance, the
World Bank and the IMF now publish a range of previously confidential informa-
tion on their policies, operations, decisions and evaluations. However, Executive
Directors still do not publish the minutes of their Board meetings. We recommend
that members of the Executive Boards of the Bretton Woods institutions be ac-
countable to the national parliaments of their respective constituencies.
… and better
evaluation
529. The World Bank and the IMF have also developed more elaborate evaluation
methods. The World Bank's Operation and Evaluation Department has four evalu-
ation units, whose reports are available to the public. The IMF has established an
Independent Evaluation Office which also publishes its reports. The evaluation of-
fices are independent from the management structure and report directly to the
Boards of Executive Directors. Accountability in the UN has traditionally been ex-
ercised through external oversight bodies such as external auditors and the Joint
Inspection Unit, or by internal oversight mechanisms such as the UN’s Office for
Internal Oversight Services. Most UN organizations also have well established
evaluation units, some of which report directly to the executive management.

Member States have repeatedly called for strengthening of these evaluation
capacities, as well as increased transparency through publication of their reports.
CSOs have also called for the implementation of recommendations that emerged
from these evaluation processes. While some UN bodies have taken steps to pub-
lish the findings and recommendations of their evaluations, we recommend that all
UN agencies strengthen their evaluation units, adopt clear disclosure policies with
regard to the results of internal and external evaluations of their programmes,
policies and projects, and publish these findings accordingly. There should be
regular reporting on the follow-up to recommendations arising from such evalua-
tion processes. We also welcome independent evaluations by stakeholders and
others.
104
Part III Page 117 Friday, April 16, 2004 2:46 PM
118 A fair globalization: Creating opportunities for all
Proposals to
improve policy
coherence in
multilateral
system
530. As pointed out in section III.2.3, policy coordination and coherence is a crit-
ical issue for the multilateral system. Proposals have been made for the establish-
ment of a more representative and politically effective body that can provide
leadership on harmonizing and balancing social and economic policy to achieve
agreed objectives. Among the most important of these is the establishment of an
economic and social security council with similar status to the UN Security Council
but without the authority to make legally binding decisions. This is an important
idea that should be considered. However, there has been no serious consideration
of this proposal owing to lack of interest from a number of key States and the hur-
dle of amending the UN Charter in order to establish such a body.
531. Another proposal to improve global coherence of policy and action was ad-

vanced recently by the UN Secretary-General’s High-Level Panel on Financing for
Development chaired by Ernesto Zedillo, the former President of Mexico. In their
Report, the panel wrote that “Despite recent worthy efforts, the world has no fully
satisfactory mechanism to anticipate and counter global economic shocks”. Fur-
ther: “… global economic decision-making has become increasingly concentrated
in a few countries. Tensions have worsened as a result. For a range of common
problems, the world has no formal institutional mechanism to ensure that voices
representing all relevant parts are heard in the discussion”. The Panel proposed the
creation of a global council “at the highest political level to provide leadership on
issues of global governance … through its political leadership, it would provide a
long-term strategic policy framework to promote development, secure consist-
ency in the policy goals of the major international organizations and promote con-
sensus building among governments on possible solutions for issues of global
economic and social governance”.
105
532. In view of the critical importance of achieving greater coherence in inter-
national socio-economic policy, we recommend that this issue be placed on the
agenda of gatherings of world political leaders such as the biennial high-level dia-
logues of the regular sessions of the UN General Assembly, the regional and sub-
regional summits, and enlarged meetings of the Group of 8 (G8). Adequate techni-
cal work has been done both on the need for reform and on a range of feasible in-
stitutional arrangements. At the international level, the time has come for Heads of
State and Government, acting collectively, to give clear mandates to the relevant
international organizations to ensure greater coherence of international social and
economic policies.
533. Under the UN Charter, ECOSOC has the major responsibility for promoting
global policy coordination in the economic and social fields. However, ECOSOC’s
mandate has always been far larger than the actual exercise of it. The political and
functional separation of the Bretton Woods institutions from the United Nations,
and the failure to set up an International Trade Organization at an early stage of

the UN system, has inevitably resulted in ECOSOC’s limited capacity to influence the
dynamics of globalization in the areas of trade, finance, investment and technology.
534. Although ECOSOC was never given the authority to fully exercise its man-
date, this has lost none of its original significance and legitimacy. There is much
that could be done within the present mandate of ECOSOC by changing the
political attitude towards the UN’s role in economic and social issues. It would re-
104
For example, the Global Accountability Project, developed by One World Trust. See www.one-
worldtrust.org
105
High-Level Panel on Financing for Development, op. cit.
Part III Page 118 Friday, April 16, 2004 2:46 PM
More accountable institutions 119
quire new forms of functioning, upgrading its level of representation and a clear
will on the part of the main actors in the economic, trade and financial spheres to
use it as a high level policy-making body. Pending a major political decision on its
role, some reforms could be undertaken immediately within the existing structure
to strengthen ECOSOC and improve policy coherence. The High Level Segment of
its annual session could promote interaction on specific aspects of global macro-
economic, social and environmental management among the ministers concerned
– finance, labour, social affairs, environment or others, as appropriate to the sub-
ject. ECOSOC could also use its capacity to hold short, focused sessions during the
year to discuss high priority or emergency issues with the participation of relevant
ministers. ECOSOC could also be serviced by a multi-agency Secretariat, headed by
the Under-Secretary-General for Economic and Social Affairs. An Executive
Committee of ECOSOC, at the ministerial level, could help provide the necessary
leadership to achieve such reforms.
Increasing resources
Increase UN
resources and

effectiveness to
meet
responsibilities
535. Contrary to popular perceptions, the UN system disposes of pitifully small re-
sources in relation to its huge responsibilities for maintaining peace and security,
promoting human rights and the rule of law, undertaking humanitarian work and
assisting countries to meet the essential development needs of their population.
The regular budget of the UN Secretariat, some US$ 1.3 billion per year, has
remained constant in nominal terms (so declining in real terms) for the last eight
years. The entire UN system, including its Funds, Programmes, Specialized Agencies
and peacekeeping operations, spends about US$ 12 billion per year – less than the
annual budget of the New York City Board of Education.
536. In view of this, the position of some developed countries of maintaining zero
nominal growth in their mandated contributions to the UN system is deplorable.
In order to discharge its enhanced responsibilities in an effective manner, it is es-
sential that the international community agree to increase financial contributions
to multilateral institutions and reverse the trend toward raising voluntary contri-
butions at the expense of mandatory contributions. This must go hand in hand with
increased effectiveness and efficiency in the management of these institutions.
Nation States
Greater
accountability of
governments for
positions in
global fora
537. Although globalization has reduced the power and autonomy of States in vari-
ous ways, States – particularly the powerful ones – continue to exercise important
influence on global governance through their own policies and behaviour and
their decisions in intergovernmental agencies. It is therefore surprising that so few
States subject the decisions taken by their representatives in those fora, to parlia-

mentary or other public scrutiny. Even the principle of collective cabinet respon-
sibility does not seem to work well in many countries with regard, for instance, to
positions taken by their representatives on issues such as trade, agricultural, envi-
ronmental or financial matters. There are several reasons for this: the overloading
of parliamentary agendas; the increasingly technical nature of the issues involved;
and a lack of adequate and balanced information for an informed public debate. It
is important that governments and parliaments address this problem through nor-
mal channels of collective cabinet responsibility and deliberate parliamentary and
public debate.
538. National governments can thus contribute significantly to improved account-
ability of international organizations. Just ensuring that governments report pub-
licly on what they do in the national name at international gatherings, and a
Part III Page 119 Friday, April 16, 2004 2:46 PM
120 A fair globalization: Creating opportunities for all
rigorous review of their decisions by parliaments and interested and expert
groups, could have an immensely beneficial impact on the role played by their na-
tional representatives operating internationally. Public interactions with ministers,
parliamentarians and public servants in capitals can have significant impact.
Global policy
coherence has
national roots
539. Equally important is the contribution that States can make to achieving
greater coherence in global social and economic policy. It should be noted that,
fundamentally, the roots of the problem of global policy coherence lie at the na-
tional level. The United Nations system is based on the principle of decentralized
functional coordination. Intergovernmental organizations are sectoral in nature
and their governance is the responsibility of different ministries of national govern-
ments. These organizations, additionally, have their own constitutional mandates.
As a result, the solution has to be primarily sought at the national level, where there
is often no consensus among different sectors and ministries within governments

as to what a coherent global policy should be. Global coherence, like good govern-
ance, begins at home. We call on Heads of State and Government to adopt the nec-
essary measures, at the national level, to ensure that the positions taken by their
representatives in international fora promote a coherent integration of economic
and social policies which focus on the well-being and quality of life of people.
540. Unless action is taken at the national level to achieve policy coherence
through cabinet, parliamentary and public discussions of global economic and so-
cial issues, there is little hope of major improvements in global policy coordin-
ation. National Economic and Social Councils, which exist in many countries, with
membership drawn from governments, business, labour and civil society, can play
a particularly valuable role in this process.
541. States must also act consistently and responsibly by adhering strictly to inter-
national laws, regulations and norms that are the foundations of global governance.
As underlined in section III.1 above, they should carefully consider the conse-
quences of their actions and policies on the rest of the world, especially the LDCs
and the poor. As in other domains, the richer and stronger countries carry a heavier
burden of responsibility to ensure that domestic decisions do not harm the inter-
ests of people in other parts of the world.
542. A global community can only be nurtured if States extend their concerns to
the plight of others beyond their borders, especially the poor. Although people in
industrialized countries are generally concerned about development issues, there
are few votes in these issues at national level. However, the number of people con-
cerned, and their influence, are increasing in most countries. While the strongest
voice is that of civil society organizations and movements, and voluntary advocacy
and development agencies, sections of other influential groups, such as parlia-
mentarians, religious groups, foundations, organized labour, professional asso-
ciations and multinational enterprises are increasingly aware of their global
responsibilities and committed to working towards a more just and stable world
order.
Parliaments

National and
global
parliamentary
oversight
543. Parliaments are the focus for accountability at the national level. They are the
most important national fora for public debate about global issues and for review-
ing action by governments at the international level. Parliamentary committee
hearings can be influential ways of publicizing issues and engaging public opinion.
We urge national parliaments to strengthen their role and capacity to provide ade-
quate checks and balances over their governments’ positions at international fora.
Part III Page 120 Friday, April 16, 2004 2:46 PM
More accountable institutions 121
544. Parliaments can also play an important role in promoting accountability and
coherence of public policy at the global level. Global parliamentary associations
such as the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), Parliamentarians for Global Action,
World Women Parliamentarians for Peace and regional parliamentary assemblies
such as the European Parliament, Latin American Parliament and African Union Par-
liamentary Assembly, can encourage better performance and accountability on the
part of international agencies. Several inter-parliamentary groups have already
been established to promote action and monitor developments with reference to
specific areas of global social and economic policy. These include parliamentary
networks involving the World Bank and WTO. We call for a progressive expansion
of accountability for global policies and actions to such parliamentary groupings.
We call in particular for the creation of a Global Parliamentary Group concerned
with coherence and consistency between global economic and social policies,
which should develop an integrated oversight of major international organizations
of the UN system, the Bretton Woods Institutions and the WTO.
545. The annual meeting of the IPU at the United Nations is a useful means of in-
creasing cooperation between members of national legislatures on international
issues. Parliamentary groups in different areas can coordinate their positions on

reform of global governance, using electronic means of communication. We invite
the IPU and other parliamentary fora to explore ways of mobilizing public opinion
on the social dimension of globalization, and ask the international agencies to facili-
tate such action.
Business
Contribution of
companies
546. Companies, both national and transnational, make an important contribution
to the social dimension of globalization. They shape the world of work and influ-
ence the social and economic environment in which people live. Enterprises are
the primary source of employment and income creation and their values, practices
and behaviour have a major impact on the attainment of social goals.
547. It is important to distinguish between corporate governance and corporate
social responsibility.
Corporate governance
548. Corporate governance is essentially concerned with issues of ownership and
control of enterprises and the rules governing financial procedures, disclosure and
transparency. It includes both legal standards and internal company procedures.
Good corporate governance is at the heart of both a market economy and a demo-
cratic society. As stated in the OECD Principles of Corporate Governance (1999),
an influential benchmark, “good corporate governance helps to ensure that
corporations take into account the interests of a wide range of constituencies, as
well as of the communities within which they operate . This, in turn, helps to
assure that corporations operate for the benefit of society as a whole”.
549. Corporate governance has become a major issue in an increasingly globalized
economy where different national systems need to adapt to new market pressures.
The recent spate of scandals concerning corporate behaviour, including corrup-
tion, and non-compliance has increased the need for change and greater account-
ability.
Part III Page 121 Friday, April 16, 2004 2:46 PM

122 A fair globalization: Creating opportunities for all
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
550. CSR concerns the voluntary initiatives enterprises undertake over and above
their legal obligations. It is a way by which any enterprise can consider its impact
on all relevant stakeholders. CSR is a complement to, not a substitute for, govern-
ment regulation or social policy.
551. An increasing number of global corporations make social responsibility an in-
herent part of doing business. Initiatives range from the adoption of codes of con-
duct to partnerships in social initiatives at community level. They are prompted by
business’s own ethical concerns as well as by pressure from NGOs, trade unions,
ethical investors and socially conscious consumers.
552. Many companies develop their own approaches to CSR, which vary with the
type of business and the economic and social environment. Important benchmarks
and reference points include the ILO Tripartite Declaration of Principles concern-
ing Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy (1977, revised 2000), the ILO Dec-
laration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work (1998) and the OECD
Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises (1976, revised 2000). The issue is under
intensive debate in many fora. A recent contribution includes a Green Paper and a
Communication on corporate social responsibility from the European Commis-
sion.
106
UN Global
Compact
553. A particularly influential initiative is the UN Global Compact initiated by the
UN Secretary-General. The Compact calls on companies to embrace and promote
nine core principles derived from universally accepted agreements on human
rights, labour and the environment, in collaboration with the UN, ILO, Office of
the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), UNEP, the United Nations In-
dustrial Development Organization (UNIDO) and other actors. The Compact has
already made progress, for example in facilitating compliance with relevant

national legislation, promoting dialogue and addressing the obstacles to realizing
universal principles in global supply chains. It is important for the ILO to monitor
its involvement with the Compact and to assess its future potential and further
increase its effectiveness.
Strengthening
voluntary
initiatives
554. Voluntary initiatives such as the Global Compact can help to build public
trust and confidence in enterprises and contribute to the sustainability of their
business. But there remains scepticism among some actors about their real impact.
The view was expressed, in Commission dialogues and elsewhere, that for volun-
tary initiatives to be credible, there is a need for transparency and accountability,
requiring good systems of measurement, reporting and monitoring.
555. The contribution of voluntary initiatives can be strengthened in a number of
ways:
• Supporting companies in their efforts to develop credible reporting mech-
anisms and performance measures both for global business and domestic sup-
pliers, in line with internationally accepted principles and standards.
•Improving methods of monitoring and verification, taking into account di-
verse situations and needs. Independent accreditation and certification is
growing, because some firms find this is a source of credibility.
•Developing more broad-based industry level partnerships, such as the recent
agreement in the cocoa sector aimed at eliminating abusive labour practices,
106
For a review of recent initiatives, see "Information note on corporate social responsibility and
international labour standards", GB.288/WP/SDG/3, ILO, Geneva, November 2003.
Part III Page 122 Friday, April 16, 2004 2:46 PM
More accountable institutions 123
notably child labour.
107

These can engage enterprises, employers’ organiza-
tions, unions, cooperatives, governments, and CSOs, in programmes which
combine promotional policies with monitoring and certification.
•Undertaking more research into the application and impact of codes of con-
duct, and developing guides to good practice.
556. The international representatives of business have an important role to play.
The International Organisation of Employers (IOE) could expand its current efforts
in this field as a privileged actor engaged in promoting both corporate governance
and corporate social responsibility, and it could help improve business participa-
tion in managing globalization through dissemination, training and discussion on
these important issues. The IOE could reinforce its leading role in initiatives like
the Global Compact, to act as a worldwide centre for initiatives that help sponsor
and harmonize economic growth and social development and promote social
dialogue.
557. With its tripartite composition, the ILO offers a unique place for research,
dialogue and policy development on these issues. It should convene a Forum to
develop a practical agenda around the contribution of business to the social
dimension of globalization.
Expanding
partnerships
between private
sector and
international
organizations
558. Beyond the issues of corporate governance and social responsibility, the re-
lationship between the private sector and international organizations has strength-
ened in recent years. In some important new instances of multisectoral
collaboration, the private sector is now playing a pivotal role. For example, the
Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (GAVI) is now the key player in ef-
forts to immunize children in low-income countries. Representatives of the Gates

Foundation – the primary funder – and industry sit on its board alongside inter-
national organizations, governments and civil society.
559. The private sector’s deeper involvement in international public policy has
great potential as a source of additional finance for global programmes and as a pro-
vider of expertise and access to business networks. We believe that such involve-
ment should be encouraged and promoted. There is a need to address concerns for
the protection of the public interest, through arrangements which ensure that pol-
icy choices are not distorted by conflicts of interest. We look to the Secretary-
General’s Commission on the Private Sector and Development to propose ways of
strengthening such partnerships and possibilities.
Organized labour
Trade union
strategies to
influence
globalization
560. In 2000, the international trade union movement made “globalizing social jus-
tice” its prime objective for the new millennium.
108
In reality this objective is not
new but one that trade unions have been pursuing for more than a decade. Over
this period the trade union movement has adopted several different strategies to
influence the process of globalization. These have included: pressuring key gov-
ernments at regular meetings of the G8 and similar economic summits; an intensive
effort to introduce labour and social issues onto the agenda of regional economic
107
The “International Cocoa Initiative – Working towards Responsible Labour Standards for Cocoa
Growing” Foundation was established in 2002. It involves the global chocolate and cocoa industry,
trade unions and NGOs, with the ILO providing advisory services. See www.bccca.org.uk
108
International Confederation of Free Trade Unions: Globalizing Social Justice: Trade Unionism in

the 21st Century, World Congress Report (Durban, April 2000).
Part III Page 123 Friday, April 16, 2004 2:46 PM