REMEDIATION OF PETROLEUM CONTAMINATED SOILS - SECTION 1 ppt

REMEDIATION
OF
PETROLEUM
CONTAMINATED
SOILS
Biological, Physical, and Chemical Processes
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC
LEWIS PUBLISHERS
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
REMEDIATION
OF
PETROLEUM
CONTAMINATED
SOILS
Biological, Physical, and Chemical Processes
Eve Riser-Roberts, Ph.D.
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC

PREFACE

This comprehensive technology survey describes and compares the many biological, chemical, and
physical processes available for remediating soils contaminated by jet fuels, gasoline, bunker oil, hydrau-
lic and lubricating oils, and related petroleum products. Many details have been collected from the
literature and assembled under one cover to provide a convenient and informative reference source for
those who must contend with the critical worldwide problem of environmental contamination by these
compounds.
The survey was initially conducted for the Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory (NCEL), Port Huen-
eme, CA, which is now merged with other commands in the new Naval Facilities Engineering Service

Center (NFESC). The survey was performed in connection with the installation restoration effort at
Twenty-nine Palms, a marine corps base training and staging facility at Twenty-nine Palms, CA, on
Purchase Order Number N62583/88 P 2085. It was later expanded and updated for this publication.
Bioremediation is emerging as an important tool for treating petroleum-contaminated soils, whether
used as a stand-alone technology or in combination with other physical or chemical methods. Bioreme-
diation was considered to be the desired primary approach for remediating the contaminated soil at
Twenty-nine Palms, supplemented, as necessary, by other processes. Also, because of heightened world
interest in the phenomenon of bioremediation and its appropriation as a viable treatment option, this
book presents an in-depth coverage of its application for contaminated soils.
The results of current research are combined with essential background information to cover all
aspects of

in situ

and

ex situ

bioremediation of petroleum-contaminated soils. This information elaborates
on the numerous factors affecting biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons and describes how they
can be enhanced to optimize bioremediation. The susceptibility of individual petroleum components to
biodegradation by specific microorganisms is reported, as are the chemical reactions and metabolic
pathways involved. All groups of microorganisms are considered for their potential contribution, and
the effects of both aerobic and anaerobic conditions are discussed.
This survey also contains an extensive overview of current

in situ

and

ex situ

physical and chemical
soil remediation processes for dealing with petroleum contamination, including many innovative
approaches. It investigates means of controlling release of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to the
atmosphere and leachate that could migrate to the groundwater during remediation. Methods for col-
lecting and treating VOCs and leachate are included to address these secondary waste streams generated
during soil treatment, whether

in situ

or

ex situ

. The importance of selecting appropriate technologies
for each contamination incident and the potential value of combining processes for maximum efficiency
are discussed. The expansive coverage of these subjects will furnish the reader with a wide range of
options for developing treatment strategies and for customizing remediation procedures to the specific
site requirements.
Information for this report was obtained through API (American Petroleum Institute), NTIS (National
Technical Information Service), DTIC (Defense Technical Information Center), and Dialogue searches,
and by extensive use of the library facilities of the University of California at Santa Barbara, in Goleta,
CA.
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Eve Riser-Roberts, Ph.D.,

received her doctoral degree in microbiology
from the University of London, England. She has over 30 years’s expe-
rience in the life and physical sciences as a consultant, researcher, tech-
nical writer, copywriter, and editor. She has conducted and directed
research and written for scientists, engineers, and the general public
while working in England, Germany, and the United States.
Dr. Riser-Roberts compiled two major reports for the U.S. Navy on
remediation of the environment contaminated by petroleum products.
Her previous book,

Bioremediation of Petroleum-Contaminated Sites,

was published in 1992 by Lewis Publishers.
At the University of Arizona, Tucson, she wrote for the Lunar and
Planetary Laboratory (LPL), Department of Planetary Sciences, Depart-
ment of Physics, and the Department of Agriculture. She also conducted
research in the university’s Department of Geosciences, and coordinated
the first microbiological research ever performed on hydroponic systems at the Environmental Research
Laboratory. Prior to that she conducted medical research at the University Health Sciences Center at the
University of Arizona; at the Royal Free and Middlesex Hospitals in London, England; at the Technical
University in Munich, Germany; and at the University of Tübingen and Max Planck Institute in Tübingen,
Germany.

© 1998 by CRC Press LLC

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Thanks must be given to all the practitioners and researchers in the many diverse areas related to
remediation of soils contaminated by petroleum products. The information they contribute from their
work and studies help facilitate restoration of our contaminated world.

© 1998 by CRC Press LLC

DEDICATION

This book is dedicated to Richard M. (Mike) Roberts, my personal, in-house chemical and environmental
consultant, whose help in so many ways made this book possible.
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC

CONTENTS

Section 1
Introduction
1.1 Background
1.2 Biodegradation as a Treatment Alternative
1.3 Combined Technologies
Section 2
Current Treatment Technologies
2.1 On-Site or

Ex Situ

Processes
2.1.1 Physical/Chemical Processes
2.1.1.1 Soil Treatment Systems
2.1.1.1.1 Thermal Treatment
2.1.1.1.2 Incineration
2.1.1.1.3 Soil Washing
2.1.1.1.4 Chemical Treatment
2.1.1.1.5 Chemical Extraction
2.1.1.1.6 Supercritical Fluid (SCF) Oxidation

2.1.1.1.7 Volatilization
2.1.1.1.8 Steam Extraction
2.1.1.1.9 Solidification/Stabilization
2.1.1.1.10 Encapsulation
2.1.1.1.11 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
2.1.1.1.12 Beneficial Reuse
2.1.1.2 Leachate/Wastewater Treatment Systems
2.1.1.2.1 Carbon Adsorption
2.1.1.2.2 Resin Adsorption
2.1.1.2.3 Adsorption with Brown Coal
2.1.1.2.4 Wet Air Oxidation (WAO)
2.1.1.2.5 Supercritical Fluid (SCF) Oxidation
2.1.1.2.6 Chemical/Photochemical Oxidation
2.1.1.2.7 Chemical Catalysis
2.1.1.2.8 Chemical Precipitation
2.1.1.2.9 Crystallization
2.1.1.2.10 Density Separation
2.1.1.2.10.1 Sedimentation
2.1.1.2.10.2 Flotation
2.1.1.2.11 Flocculation
2.1.1.2.12 Evaporation
2.1.1.2.13 Stripping
2.1.1.2.14 Distillation
2.1.1.2.15 Filtration
2.1.1.2.16 Ultrafiltration
2.1.1.2.17 Dialysis/Electrodialysis
2.1.1.2.18 Ion Exchange
2.1.1.2.19 Reverse Osmosis
2.1.1.2.20 Solvent Extraction
2.1.2 Biological Processes

2.1.2.1 Soil Treatment Systems
2.1.2.1.1 Landtreatment/Landfarming
2.1.2.1.2 Composting
2.1.2.1.3 Bioreactors
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC

2.1.2.1.3.1 Bioslurry Reactors
2.1.2.1.3.2 Dual Injected Turbulent Suspension (DITS)
Reactor
2.1.2.1.3.3 Gravel Slurry Reactors
2.1.2.1.3.4 Tubular Reactors
2.1.2.1.3.5 Blade-Mixing Reactors
2.1.2.1.3.6 Prepared-Bed Reactors
2.1.2.1.3.7 Enclosed Reactors
2.1.2.1.3.8 Fermenters
2.1.2.1.3.9 Fungal Compost Bioreactors
2.1.2.1.3.10 Combination Reactors
2.1.2.1.3.11 Pressure Reactors
2.1.2.1.3.12 Wafer Reactors
2.1.2.1.4 Biopiles
2.1.2.1.5 Vacuum Heap Biostimulation System
2.1.2.1.6 Vegetation
2.1.2.1.7 Photolysis
2.1.2.2 Leachate/Wastewater Treatment Systems
2.1.2.2.1 Aerobic Systems
2.1.2.2.1.1 Suspended Growth Systems
2.1.2.2.1.2 Fixed-Film Systems
2.1.2.2.1.3 Microbial Accumulation of Metals
2.1.2.2.1.4 Combination Aerobic Reactors/Microbial
Adsorption

2.1.2.2.1.5 Bioreactor for Aromatic Solvents
2.1.2.2.1.6 Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR)
2.1.2.2.1.7 Self-Cycling Fermenter (SCF)
2.1.2.2.1.8 Autothermal Aerobic Membrane Bioreactor
(ATA MBR)
2.1.2.2.1.9 Evaporation and Biofilm Filtration
2.1.2.2.1.10 Biocatalyst Beads
2.1.2.2.2 Anaerobic Systems
2.1.2.2.2.1 Anaerobic Bioconversion Process
2.1.2.2.2.2 Suspended Growth Systems
2.1.2.2.2.3 Fixed-Film Systems
2.1.2.2.3 Combined Aerobic/Anaerobic Treatment
2.1.2.2.3.1 Aerobic/Anaerobic Biofilm Reactor
2.1.2.2.3.2 Sequential Anaerobic/Aerobic Treatment
2.2

In Situ

Processes
2.2.1 Physical/Chemical Soil Treatment Processes
2.2.1.1 Shallow Soil Mixing (SSM)
2.2.1.2 Oxidation/Reduction
2.2.1.3 Hydrolysis
2.2.1.4 Neutralization
2.2.1.5 Stabilization/Solidification
2.2.1.6 Mobilization/Immobilization
2.2.1.7 Soil Flushing/Washing/Extraction/Pump and Treat
2.2.1.8 CROW Process
2.2.1.9 Injection/Extraction Process
2.2.1.10 Air Stripping

2.2.1.11 Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE)
2.2.1.12 Air Sparging
2.2.1.13 Detoxifier™
2.2.1.14 Soil Heating
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC

2.2.1.14.1 Hot Air Injection/Flushing
2.2.1.14.2 Steam Injection/Steam Flushing/Steam Stripping
2.2.1.14.3 Radio Frequency (RF) Heating
2.2.1.15 Vitrification
2.2.1.16 Tensiometric Barriers
2.2.1.17 Electric Fields
2.2.2 Biological Soil Treatment Processes
2.2.2.1 Bioremediation/Bioreclamation
2.2.2.2 Bioventing
2.2.2.3 Bioslurping
2.2.2.4 BioPurge

SM

/BioSparge

SM

2.2.2.5 Hydraulic/Pneumatic Fracturing
2.2.2.6 Deep Soil Fracture Bioinjection™
2.2.2.7 Combined Air–Water Flushing
2.2.2.8

In Situ

Electrobioreclamation/Electro-Osmosis/Electrokinetics/
Electrochemical Remediation
2.2.2.9 Biopolymer Shields
2.2.2.10 Bioscreens
2.2.2.11 Phytoremediation
Section 3
Biodegradation/Mineralization/Biotransformation/Bioaccumulation of Petroleum
Constituents and Associated Heavy Metals
3.1 Chemical Composition of Fuel Oils
3.1.1 Naphtha
3.1.2 Kerosene
3.1.3 Fuel Oil and Diesel #2
3.1.4 Gasoline
3.1.5 JP-5
3.1.6 JP-4
3.2 Organic Compounds
3.2.1 Aerobic Degradation
3.2.1.1 Degradation of Alkanes
3.2.1.2 Degradation of Branched and Cyclic Alkanes
3.2.1.3 Degradation of Alkenes
3.2.1.4 Degradation of Aromatic Compounds
3.2.1.5 Degradation of Specific Compounds
3.2.1.5.1 Mononuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Derivatives
3.2.1.5.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
3.2.1.5.3 Branched-Chain Aliphatics
3.2.1.5.4 Straight-Chain Aliphatics
3.2.1.5.5 Fatty Acids and Carboxylic Acids
3.2.1.5.6 Alcohols
3.2.1.5.7 Alicyclic Hydrocarbons

3.2.1.5.8 Asphaltenes
3.2.1.6 Nonaqueous-Phase Liquids (NAPLs)
3.2.2 Anaerobic Degradation
3.2.2.1 Anaerobic Respiration
3.2.2.1.1 Denitrification
3.2.2.1.2 Sulfate Reduction
3.2.2.1.3 Methanogenesis
3.2.2.2 Fermentation
3.2.2.3 Anaerobic Photometabolism
3.2.2.4 Specific Compounds
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC

3.2.2.4.1 Mononuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons
3.2.2.4.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
3.2.2.4.3 Straight-Chain Aliphatics
3.2.2.4.4 Branched-Chain Aliphatics
3.2.2.4.5 Alcohols
3.2.2.4.6 Alicyclic Hydrocarbons
3.2.2.4.7 Fatty Acids
3.3 Heavy Metals
3.3.1 Specific Elements
3.3.1.1 Arsenic (As)
3.3.1.2 Cadmium (Cd)
3.3.1.3 Chromium (Cr)
3.3.1.4 Iron (Fe)
3.3.1.5 Lead (Pb)
3.3.1.6 Mercury (Hg)
3.3.1.7 Nickel (Ni)
3.3.1.8 Selenium (Se)
3.3.1.9 Silver (Ag)

3.3.1.10 Other Metals
3.4 Intermediate Metabolites and End Products of Biodegradation
Section 4
Factors Affecting Biodegradation in Soil–Water Systems
4.1 Chemical and Physical Factors
4.1.1 Chemical Solubility
4.1.2 Advection
4.1.3 Dispersion and Diffusion
4.1.4 Sorption
4.1.5 Volatility
4.1.6 Viscosity
4.1.7 Density
4.1.8 Chemical Structure
4.1.9 Toxicity
4.1.10 Hydrolysis and Oxidation
4.1.11 Concentration of Contaminants
4.1.11.1 Low Concentrations
4.2 Biological Factors
4.3 Soil/Environmental Factors
Section 5
Optimization of Bioremediation
5.1 Variation of Soil Factors
5.1.1 Soil Moisture
5.1.1.1 Irrigation
5.1.1.2 Drainage
5.1.1.3 Additives
5.1.2 Temperature
5.1.3 Soil pH
5.1.3.1 Increasing Soil pH
5.1.3.2 Decreasing Soil pH

5.1.4 Oxygen Supply
5.1.4.1 Ozone
5.1.4.2 Hydrogen Peroxide (H

2

O

2

)
5.1.4.3 Hypochlorite
5.1.4.4 Other Electron Acceptors
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC

5.1.4.5 Soil Oxygen Delivery Approaches
5.1.4.6 Commercial Soil Oxygen Delivery Approaches
5.1.4.7 Creating Anaerobic Conditions
5.1.4.8 Combination Aerobic/Anaerobic Treatment
5.1.5 Nutrients
5.1.6 Organic Matter
5.1.6.1 Addition of Products to Immobilize Heavy Metals
5.1.7 Oxidation-Reduction Potential
5.1.8 Attenuation
5.1.9 Texture and Structure
5.1.9.1 Texture
5.1.9.2 Bulk Density
5.1.9.3 Water-Holding Capacity
5.2 Biological Enhancement
5.2.1 Microorganisms in Bioremediation

5.2.1.1 Aerobic Bacteria
5.2.1.2 Anaerobic Bacteria
5.2.1.3 Oligotrophs
5.2.1.4 Fungi
5.2.1.4.1 Extracellular Enzymes
5.2.1.4.2 Soil Inoculation
5.2.1.4.3 Screening Strategies
5.2.1.5 Phototrophs
5.2.1.6 Higher Life Forms and Predation
5.2.2 Bioaugmentation
5.2.2.1 Acclimated/Adapted Bacteria
5.2.2.2 Mutant Microorganisms
5.2.2.3 Microbial Consortia
5.2.2.4 Emulsifier Producers
5.2.2.5 Microbial Transport
5.2.2.6 Microbial Preservation
5.2.2.7 Encapsulation/Immobilization
5.2.3 Cometabolism and Analog Enrichment
5.2.3.1 Diauxie Effect
5.2.4 Application of Cell-Free Enzymes
5.2.5 Addition of Antibiotics
5.2.6 Use of Aerobic/Anaerobic Conditions
5.2.7 Use of Biosorption/Bioaccumulation/Bioconcentration
5.2.8 Use of Vegetation
5.2.9 Other Microbial Applications
5.3 Contaminant Alteration
5.3.1 Use of Surfactants
5.3.1.1 Chemical Surfactants
5.3.1.2 Microbial Surfactants
5.3.1.3 Biodegradation of Surfactants

5.3.2 Photolysis
Section 6
Volatile Organic Compounds in Petroleum Products
6.1 Emissions Produced from Soil Contamination
6.1.1 Gasoline Vapor Composition
6.1.2 Human Health Criteria
6.2 Parameters Affecting Volatilization
6.2.1 Temperature
6.2.2 Operating Surface Area
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC

6.2.3 Wind/Barometric Pressure
6.2.4 Soil Moisture/Volumetric Water Content
6.2.5 Mass Transfer Coefficient/Partition Coefficient
6.2.6 Effective Depth
6.2.7 Mole Fraction of Diffusing Component
6.2.8 Humidity
6.2.9 Solar Radiation
6.2.10 Vapor Pressure
6.2.11 Soil Properties
6.2.12 Adsorption onto Soil
6.2.13 Evaporation
6.2.14 Water Solubility
6.2.15 Henry’s Law Constant
6.2.16 Density
6.2.17 Viscosity
6.2.18 Dielectric Constant
6.2.19 Boiling Point
6.2.20 Molecular Weight
6.2.21 Air-Filled Porosity

6.2.22 Retention
6.2.23 Diffusion Travel Times
6.3 Control of VOC Emissions
6.3.1 Design and Operating Practices
6.3.1.1 Surface Area Minimization
6.3.1.2 Freeboard Depth
6.3.1.3 Inflow/Outflow Drainage Pipe Locations
6.3.1.4 Operating Practices
6.3.1.4.1 Temperature of Influent
6.3.1.4.2 Dredging, Draining, and Cleaning Frequency
6.3.1.4.3 Handling of Sediments and Sludge
6.3.1.4.4 Collecting Samples for Monitoring
6.3.2

In Situ

Controls
6.3.2.1 Air-Supported Structures and Synthetic Membranes
6.3.2.2 Vapor Extraction Systems (VES)
6.3.3 VOC Pretreatment Techniques
6.3.3.1 Pretreatment Processes for Organic Liquids
6.3.3.1.1 Distillation
6.3.3.1.2 Steam Stripping
6.3.3.1.3 Solvent Extraction
6.3.3.1.4 Air Stripping
6.3.3.1.4.1 Aeration Devices
6.3.3.1.4.2 Secondary Effects of Aeration
6.3.3.1.5 Carbon Adsorption
6.3.3.1.5.1 Gaseous Carbon Adsorption
6.3.3.1.6 Biological Treatment

6.3.3.1.7 Refrigeration/Condensation
6.3.3.1.8 Evaporation
6.3.3.2 Pretreatment Processes for Sludge with Organics
6.3.3.2.1 Air Stripping with Carbon Adsorption
6.3.3.2.2 Evaporation with Carbon Adsorption
6.3.3.2.3 Steam Stripping
6.3.3.3 Pretreatment Processes for Soils
6.3.3.3.1 Soil Washing/Extraction
6.3.3.3.2 Thermal Desorption
6.3.3.3.3 Soil Venting/

In Situ

Air Stripping
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC

6.3.3.3.4 Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE)
6.3.3.3.5 Soil Vapor Extraction/Shallow Soil Mixing (SSM)
6.3.3.3.6 Detoxifier™
6.3.3.3.7 Photodegradation
6.3.4 VOC Posttreatment Techniques
6.3.4.1 Combustion/Incineration
6.3.4.1.1 Thermal Incinerators
6.3.4.1.2 Afterburners
6.3.4.1.3 Catalytic Incinerators
6.3.4.1.4 Flares
6.3.4.1.5 Boiler/Process Heater
6.3.4.2 Condensation
6.3.4.3 Distillation
6.3.4.4 Absorption

6.3.4.4.1 Packed Columns
6.3.4.4.2 Plate Columns
6.3.4.4.3 Polymer-Based Adsorbent
6.3.4.5 Biofiltration
6.3.4.5.1 BIOPUR

®

6.3.4.6 Photo-oxidation
6.3.5 Recycle
6.3.6 Treatment Residuals
Section 7
Monitoring Bioremediation
7.1 Microbial Counts
7.1.1 Methods for Enumerating Subsurface Microorganisms
7.1.1.1 Direct Microscopic Counts
7.1.1.2 Direct Counts with Acridine Orange
7.1.1.3 Direct Viable Counts by Cell Enlargement
7.1.1.4 Direct Viable Counts from Cell Division
7.1.1.5 Dip Slides
7.1.1.6 INT Activity Test
7.1.1.7 ATP Content
7.1.1.8 Direct Epifluorescence Filtration Technique (DEFT)
7.1.1.9 Microcolony Epifluorescence Technique
7.1.1.10 Immunofluorescence Microscopy
7.1.1.11 Plate Counts
7.1.1.12 Enrichment Techniques
7.1.1.13 Fume Plate Method
7.1.1.14 Drop Count Method
7.1.1.15 Droplette Method

7.1.1.16 Broth Cultures
7.1.1.17 Most-Probable-Number (MPN) Method
7.1.1.18 Membrane Filter Counts
7.1.1.19 Rapid Automated Methods
7.1.1.20 Fatty Acid Analysis/Lipid Biomarkers
7.1.1.21 Dehydrogenase-Coupled Respiratory Activity
7.1.1.22 Microautoradiography
7.1.1.23 Protozoan Counts
7.1.1.24 Fungal Counts
7.1.1.25 Opacity Tube Method
7.1.1.26 Turbidimetric Measurement
7.1.2 Counts in Uncontaminated Soil
7.1.3 Counts in Contaminated Soil
7.1.4 Effect of Biostimulation on Counts
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC

7.2 Other Monitoring Methods
7.2.1 Biomolecular/Nucleic Acid–Based Methods
7.2.1.1 Reporter Genes
7.2.1.2 mRNA Extraction
7.2.1.3 Chromosomal Painting
7.2.1.4 rRNA Methods
7.2.1.5 Polymerase Chain Reaction
7.2.2 Biomarkers
7.2.2.1 Carboxylic/Hopanoic Acids
7.2.2.2 Bicyclic Alkanes, Pentacyclic Terpanes, and Steranes
7.2.2.3 Phenanthrenes/Anthracenes
7.2.2.4 Pristane and Phytane
7.2.3 Hydrocarbon Concentration
7.2.4 Other Organic Indicators

7.2.5 Electron Acceptor Concentration
7.2.6 Soil Gas Monitoring
7.2.6.1 Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen
7.2.6.2 Nitrous Oxide
7.2.6.3 Methane
7.2.7 Anaerobic By-Products
7.2.8 Inorganic Indicators
7.2.9 Stable Isotope Analysis
7.2.10 Labeled Contaminants
7.2.11 Enzyme Assays
7.2.12 Intermediary Metabolite Formation
7.2.13 Monitoring Conservative Tracers
7.2.14 Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS)
7.2.15 Thin-Layer Chromatography–Flame Ionization Detection
7.2.16 Antibiotic-Resistant Microorganisms
7.2.17 ELISA
7.2.18 Biolog

®

System
7.2.19 Respirometry/Radiorespirometry
7.2.20 Microcalorimetry
7.2.21 Flow Cytometry
7.2.22 Biochemical Testing
7.2.23 Modeling
7.3 Rate of Biodegradation
7.4 Differentiating Biotic and Abiotic Processes
Section 8
Treatment Trains

8.1 Limitations of Soil Treatment Systems
8.1.1 Physical/Chemical Treatment Systems
8.1.2 Landtreatment
8.1.3

In Situ

Biodegradation
8.1.4 On-Site/

Ex Situ

Biological Systems
8.2 Remediation Guidelines
8.3 Combined Technologies
8.3.1 On Site/

Ex Situ

8.3.2

In Situ

8.3.3 Processes for Treatment Trains
8.4 Examples of the Use of Treatment Trains
References
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC

GLOSSARY
TERM/ACRONYM DESCRIPTION

ABF:

Activated biofilters

Abiotic reactions:

All reactions not biological in origin, including inorganic, photolytic, surface-
catalyzed, sorptive, and transport processes

Absorption:

Retention of the solute within the mass of the solid rather than on its surface

Acclimation:

The lag time during which organisms acquire the ability to degrade novel compounds

Acetogens:

Microorganisms that convert higher volatile acids to acetate and hydrogen

ACGIH:

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists

Acidophilic:

Favors acidic conditions

Adaptation:

The modification of characteristics of organisms to improve ability to survive and repro-
duce in a particular environment

Adsorption:

Retention of solutes in solution by the surfaces of the solid material

Aerobic:

In the presence of oxygen

AFCEE:

U.S. Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence

AGP:

Attached growth ponds

Alfonic 810-60:

A nonionic alcohol ethoxylate surfactant

Alkalophilic:

Favors basic conditions

Allochthonous:

Nonindigenous microorganisms

Ambersorb 563:

Activated carbon

Anaerobes:

Microorganisms that require anoxic conditions and oxidation-reduction potentials of less
the –0.2 V

Anaerobic:

The absence of oxygen

Anisotropic:

Exhibiting properties with different values when measured along axes in different directions

Anoxic:

Oxygen free

Anthropogenic:

Of man-made origin

AODC:

Acridine orange direct counting method

API:

American Petroleum Institute

Assimilatory:

Results in the reduction of nitrate to ammonia for denitrification cellular synthesis

ATAB:

Autothermal aerobic bioreactor

ATA MBR:

Autothermal aerobic membrane bioreactor

ATF:

Automatic transmission fluid

ATP:

Adenosine-5

′

-triphosphate

Attenuation:

Mixing of contaminated soil with clean soil to reduce concentration of hazardous
compounds

ATTIC:

Alternative Treatment Technology Information Center (EPA database for technical informa-
tion on innovative treatment technologies for hazardous waste and other contaminants)

Autochthonous:

Indigenous or native bacteria found in soil in relatively constant numbers that do not
change rapidly in response to the addition of specific nutrients

Autotrophic:

The ability to use reduction of carbon dioxide as major source of organic compounds
needed for growth

Autotrophs:

Organisms that can survive autotrophically

Axenic:

Free from other living organisms

BAC:

Biological activated carbon

BARR:

Bioanaerobic reduction and reoxidation; a remedial technique for

in situ

biodegradation in
soil and groundwater

BCP:

Bacterial chromosomal painting

BDAT:

Best demonstrated available technology

Bioaccumulation:

Accumulation of organic contaminants or metals by some microorganisms

Bioaugmentation:

Supplementation of microorganisms to a contaminated site to enhance bioremedi-
ation; see Enhanced biodegradation

BIOCELS:

Bioreclamation with Innovative On-Site Controlled Environment Landtreatment Systems
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC

Biodegradation:

Breakdown of organic substances by microorganisms by breaking intramolecular
bonds; e.g., involving substituent functional group or mineralization. As a result, the microorganisms
derive energy and may increase in biomass.

Bioemulsifier:

An emulsifier produced by a microorganism

BIOFAST:

Biological forced-air soil treatment for biopiles

Biofiltration:

Treatment of off-gases using biological filters to remove VOCs

Biolog

®

system:

Measures metabolic potentials to describe bacterial communities (Biolog, Inc.)

Biopiles:

Mounds of excavated contaminated soil for controlled

ex situ



treatment

BIOPUR

®

:

A patented, aerated, packed-bed, fixed-film reactor using PUR as a carrier material for
microorganisms

BioPurge

SM

:

Technology using bioventing with a closed-loop concept to regulate soil moisture and
release of nutrients, oxygen, and microorganisms into the vadose zone

Biorecalcitrance:

Resistance of a compound to biological attack

Bioreclamation:

A natural or managed process involving biodegradation of environmental contaminants

Bioremediation:

A natural or managed process involving biodegradation of environmental contaminants

Biorestoration:

A natural or managed process involving biodegradation of environmental contaminants

BioSparge™:

Technology using bioventing with a closed-loop concept to regulate soil moisture and
release of nutrients, oxygen, and microorganisms below groundwater level

Biostim:

Uses “Tysul” WW H

2

O

2

to circulate oxygen in the soil (Biosystems, Inc.)

Biotic reactions:

Reactions that are biological in origin

Biotransformation:

Microbial or enzymatic alteration of the molecular structure of a chemical; i.e.,
microbial metabolism

Bioventing:

Process of aerating subsurface soils to stimulate

in situ

bioremediation using SVE systems

Bio XL:

Process employing stabilized solutions of H

2

O

2

to increase level of oxygen in soil (Aquifer
Remediation System)

BOD:

Biochemical oxygen demand

Brij 30:

A surfactant

BR:

Butyl rubber, can be used as a liner

Brij 30:

A surfactant

Brij 35:

A surfactant

BSRR:

Rotary reactor

BTEX:

Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes

BTX:

Benzene, toluene, and xylenes

C8PE9.5, C9PE10.5:

Nonionic alkylphenol ethoxylate surfactants

C12-E4:

Nonionic alkylethoxylate surfactant

Catox:

Catalytic/thermal oxidation units for controlling VOC emissions

Cedephos FA-600:

Anionic surfactant mixture of mono- and diorganophosphate esters

CEQ:

Council on Environmental Quality

CERCLA:

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (Superfund)

CFU:

Microbial colony-forming unit

CGAs:

Colloidal gas aphrons (foams); e.g. NaDBS

Chemoautotrophic:

Derives energy from the respiration of inorganic electron donors

CO-601 carbons:

Coal-based or coconut shell carbons for removal of hydrocarbons from gas streams
with the Detoxifier™

CoA:

Coenzyme A

COD:

Chemical oxygen demand

Commensalism:

Sequential degradation of a compound by two or more microorganisms in a relation-
ship that may benefit only one partner

Cometabolism or Cooxidation:

The indirect metabolism of a recalcitrant substance; the process by
which microorganisms, in the obligate presence of a growth substrate, transform a nongrowth substrate

Composting:

A form of biodegradation involving mesophilic and thermophilic microorganisms

Conjugation:

Reaction between a normal metabolite and a toxicant

Convective Transport:

Passive transport of microorganisms through soil by transport addition of water
or aqueous nutrient feed solution

Corexit 0600:

A surfactant
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC

CPE:

Chlorinated polyethylene, can be used as a liner

CR:

Neoprene, can be used as a liner

CREAM

®

:

Video image analyzing system for reading ELISA plates (Kem-En-Tec A/S)

Critical micelle concentration:

Lowest concentration at which micelles begin to form

CROW:

Contained recovery of oily wastes process to recover DNAPLs

Cryo-SEM:

Cryoscanning electron microscopy

CSPE:

Chlorosulfonated polyethylene, can be used as a liner

Customblen:

A slow-release fertilizer containing calcium phosphate, ammonium phosphate, and
ammonium nitrate in a vegetable oil coating

Cy3, Cy5:

Fluorochrome (fluorescing) DNA label

Cyanobacteria:

Blue-green algae, which are actually bacteria; can be present in surface soil

DCE:

1,2-Dichloroethane
DEFT: Direct epifluorescence filtration technique for counting microorganisms
Dehalogenation: Enzymic removal of a halogen
DEHP: Di-2-ethylhexylphthalate
Denitrification: Also called dissimilatory nitrate reduction, where nitrate serves as the terminal elec-
tron acceptor in the oxidation of an organic substance, with production of N
2
and energy for the
cell; begins when oxygen concentration goes below 10 µmol/L
Denitrifying bacteria: Facultative bacteria that reduce nitrate using the oxygen of nitrate as a hydrogen
acceptor; they (denitrifiers) have the ability to oxidize inorganic energy sources (e.g., hydrogen or
sodium sulfide)
DETOXIFIER™: Technology/equipment potentially capable of implementing a range of in situ
treatment methods; e.g., air/steam stripping, neutralization, solidification/stabilization, oxidation
(Toxic Treatments U.S.A.)
Diauxie: The opposite of cometabolism; a sparing effect, when a compound is not degraded in the
presence of another compound
Dissimilatory nitrate reduction: Nitrate serves as the terminal electron acceptor in the oxidation of
an organic substance, producing N
2
and energy for the cells
Dissimilatory sulfate reduction: Strict anaerobes that utilize organic carbon as a source of carbon and
energy and use reducible sulfur compounds (e.g., sulfate, thiosulfate) as terminal electron acceptors
DITS: Dual injected turbulent suspension

DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid
DNAPLs: Dense nonaqueous-phase liquids
DNOC: 4,6-Dinitro-o-cresol
DO: Dissolved oxygen
Dobanols 91-5, 91-6, 91-8: Surfactants
DOC: Dissolved organic carbon
DOD: Department of Defense
Dowfax C10L: A sulfonated anionic surfactant
Dowfax 8390: A sulfonated anionic surfactant
DPA: Diphenylamine
EC: Elimination capacity
EDTA: Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
Eh: Redox potential
Electro-osmosis: Soil water is induced to flow toward a cathode during in situ or ex situ electrobiore-
clamation of low permeability, unsaturated soils
ELISA: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; a monoclonal antibody immunoassay
ELPO: Elasticized polyolefin, can be used as a liner
END: Enhanced natural degradation; in situ process to increase amount of H
2
O
2
in contaminated soil
(Groundwater Technology)
Engineered bioremediation: Any modification or intervention in the bioremediation process
Enhanced biodegradation: Stimulation of microbial degradation of organic contaminants by addition
of microorganisms, nutrients, or optimization of environmental factors on-site or in situ
Enrichment culturing: Addition of a specific hydrocarbon to a minimal medium to select for degraders
of that compound
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC
EO: Ethoxylate (surfactant)

E
o
: Standard reduction potential
EPA: Environmental Protection Agency
EPDM: Ethylene propylene rubber, can be used as a liner
EPS: Extracellular polymeric substances; exopolysaccharide; polysaccharide produced by microor-
ganisms external to the cell
Eukaryotic: Nucleus is surrounded by a membrane, as in fungi and higher organisms
Ex Situ: Latin for not in its original place. Ex situ treatments could be on site or off site
F-1: Controlled-release, hydrophobic fertilizer; modified urea-formaldehyde polymer with N and P
F-400 GAC: Granular activated carbon
Facultative: The ability to adapt to the conditions specified with this term
Facultative anaerobes: Microorganisms that are metabolically active under aerobic or anaerobic
conditions
FBR: Fluidized-bed reactor
FDA: Fluorescein diacetate-hydrolyzing activity assay for determining biological potential of pelleted
fungi for bioaugmentation
FID: Flame ionization detector
Field capacity: Water-holding capacity of soil
FITC: Fluorescein isothiocyanate
Fluor-X: Fluorochrome (fluorescing) DNA label
F/M: Food-to-microorganism ratio
FyreZyme™: Bioremediation enhancing agent containing extracellular enzymes, microbial nutrients,
and bioemulsifiers
GAC: Granular activated carbon
GAC FBR: Integrated biological granular activated carbon fluidized-bed reactor
GAS 3D: Three-dimensional gas flow model to aid in design of soil-venting systems
GC: Gas chromatography
GC/MS: Gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy
GLC: Gas-liquid chromatography

GPMS: Gas-permeable-membrane supported (reactor)
Gram-negative bacteria: Bacteria that do not possess a cell wall and thus do not retain the blue dye
that stains cell walls; these cells are enclosed by a cell membrane that will absorb the red counter
stain in the Gram stain technique
Gram-positive bacteria: Bacteria that possess a cell wall, which retains the blue dye that stains cell
walls in the Gram stain technique
H: Henry’s law constant or Henry’s coefficient
H
2
O
2
: Hydrogen peroxide, used to supply oxygen to the subsurface
Half-life: The time required to decrease original concentration by one half
Heterotrophic: The ability to derive energy and carbon for survival and growth from decomposition
of organic materials
Hoechst 33342: Allows assessment of macromolecular composition for DNA
Homologous: Identical compounds except for number of repeating units
HPAH: High-molecular-weight PAH
HPCD: Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin
HRUBOUT
®
: Hot air injection process for soil flushing (Hrubetz Environmental Services)
HSWA: Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments
Hydrocarbonoclastic: Ability to degrade and utilize hydrocarbons
Hydrolysis: Chemical reaction involving cleavage of a molecular bond by reaction with water
Hydrophilic: Water attracting
Hydrophobic: Water repelling
Hydrophobization: Conversion to a hydrophobic (water-repellent) state
Hydroxylation: Addition of OH to an aromatic or aliphatic molecule
ICB: Immobilized cell bioreactor (Allied Signal)

ICP/MS: Inductively coupled plasma/mass spectrometry
Igepal CA-720: A surfactant
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC
Igepal CO-603: Nonionic ethoxylated alkylphenol surfactant
Indigenous microorganisms: Microorganisms occurring naturally in a particular region or environ-
ment; stable members of a community that have a selective, competitive advantage in that environment
Inipol EAP-22: An oleophilic fertilizer (Elf Aquitaine in France)
In situ bioreclamation: Biodegradation operations taking place in the contaminated soil or ground-
water without excavation
INT Activity Test: A dye, 2-(p-iodophenyl)-3-(p-nitrophenyl)-5-phenyl-tetrazolium chloride; identi-
fies bacteria active in electron transport
Intrinsic bioremediation: Lack of intervention in bioremediation process, or natural attenuation; the
result of several natural processes (e.g., biodegradation, abiotic transformation, mechanical dispe-
rion, sorption, and dilution) that reduce contaminant concentrations in the environment
Intrinsic remediation: Results from natural processes; e.g., biodegradation, abiotic transformation,
mechanical dispersion, sorption, or dilution
In vitro: In a test tube
In vivo: In life
K: Soil adsorption constant; the measure of the tendency of a pollutant to be adsorbed and stay on
soil; the greater the K value, the stronger the binding
KAX-50, KAX-100: Proprietary rubber particulates as stabilization additives
K
oc
: This value reflects the impact of organic material to adsorb organic compounds out of solution
K
ow
: Octanol/water partition coefficient; also P
K
p
: The linear partition coefficient

lacYZ: Gene for lactose utilization
Landfarming, Landtreatment: Controlled application of waste materials to soil for immobilization
or for degradation or transformation by resident microorganisms
Leachate: Liquids generated by movement of liquids by gravity through a disposal site
LiP: Lignin peroxidase; extracellular fungal enzyme
Lipotin: Glycerophospholipids
Lithotrophic: The ability to obtain energy from oxidation of inorganic compounds
LNAPLs: Light nonaqueous-phase liquids
log K
OH
0
: The atmospheric reaction rate of a specific compound
log K
ow
, log P: A measure of the tendency of a compound to dissolve in hydrocarbons, fats, or organic
component of soil rather than in water
LPAH: Low-molecular-weight PAH
LPH: Liquid-phase hydrocarbon
luxAB: Gene for bioluminescence
Macrofauna: Soil organisms, such as insects, protozoa, earthworms, and slugs that aid in decompo-
sition of organic material
MARS: Membrane aerobic or anaerobic reactor system
MBR: Membrane biological reactor
MeOH: Methanol
Mesophilic: The ability to grow at temperatures from 10 to 45
o
C, with optimum growth around 20

to
40

o
C; most human pathogens grow best at 37
o
C
Methanogenic consortia: Groups of microorganisms that function under highly reducing conditions
and produce methane from degradation of small or low-molecular-weight organic compounds
Methanogenesis: Conversion of short-chain organic compounds by anaerobic microorganisms to
methane, carbon dioxide, and inorganic substances
Methanotroph: Microorganisms that break down methane
Methylation: Addition of a methyl group
MF: Microfiltration
Micelles: Surfactant molecules emulsify oily material into fine droplets that form aggregates 10 to
100 Å in diameter, called micelles
Microaerophilic: The ability to survive on very low levels of oxygen
Microbial consortia: Mixed population of interacting microorganisms
Microbial diffusion: Transport of microorganisms in soil as a result of (microbiological) life/death
cycle and natural microbial movement; requires expenditure of energy
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC
Mineralization: Complete biodegradation of organic molecules to mineral products; e.g., CO
2
, NO
3
–
,
SO
4
2–
, PO
4
3–

. A portion of the carbon from the organic molecule is usually incorporated into biomass
MLSS: Mixed liquor suspended solids
MLVSS: Mixed liquor-volatile suspended solids
MnP: Manganese-dependent peroxidase; extracellular fungal enzyme
MPN: Most-Probable-Number; method for estimating counts of viable microorganisms
MPP: Multiplasmid Pseudomonas putida
MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging
mRNA: Messenger RNA
MS: Mass spectroscopy
MTBE: Methyl-tert-butyl ether, a gasoline additive
NaDBS: Sodium dodecyl benzosulfonate; colloidal gas aphron foam
Na
5
DTPA: Pentasodium salt of diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid; most effective of the commercially
available chelating agents for preventing contact between metals and H
2
O
2
NAH plasmids: Naphthalene-degrading plasmids
NALS: Narrow angle light scatter at the cell surface reflects cell size
NAPLs: Nonaqueous-phase liquids (e.g., solvents and fuels); pollutants present in liquids that are
immiscible with water
Natural attenuation: Unassisted biochemical degradation, evaporation, adsorption, metabolism, or
transformation by microorganisms of subsurface contaminants
ndoB: Naphthalene degradation gene probes
Nitrogen demand: Amount of nitrogen required for degradation of a given amount of contaminant
Normal flora: Mixed population of microorganisms occurring in nature
Novel II 1412-56: A nonionic alcohol ethoxylate surfactant
NRV: Nitrogen requirement value; the amount of nitrogen required by organisms to decompose or
degrade a particular organic chemical

NTA: Nitrilotriacetic acid
NVOCs: Nonvolatile organic compounds
Obligate: Strict dependence upon the conditions specified with this term
Obligate anaerobes: Microorganisms that require the absence of oxygen
OCAs: Oil-core aphrons
ODR: Oxygen diffusion rate
Oligotrophic: The ability to survive on very low concentrations of nutrients
Oligotrophs: Organisms that can survive on low organic concentrations (<15 mg carbon/L)
OLR: Organic load rate
On-site bioreclamation: Biodegradation operations that occur above ground at the site of contamination
Operon: A DNA region that codes for several enzymes in a reaction pathway; it enables or prevents
repression of structural gene function by controlling synthesis of mRNA by RNA polymerase enzyme
OR: Oxidation-reduction potential; Eh
Orange I: Azo dye; substrate for assaying for fungal manganese peroxidases
Orange II: Azo dye; substrate for assaying for fungal LiP
OTA: Congressional Office of Technology Assessment
P: Octanol/water partition coefficient; also K
ow
PAC: Powdered activated carbon
PAHs: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, also called polyaromatic hydrocarbons and PNAs
PB: Polybutylene, can be used as a liner
PCBs: Polychlorinated biphenyls
PCE: Tetrachloroethylene
PCPs: Polychlorinated phenols
PE: Polyethylene, can be used as a liner
PEL: Polyester elastomer, can be used as a liner
PHB: Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate, an intracellular storage polymer; improves eroding soil, enhances soil
strength, reduces soil permeability
PHENOBAC
®

Mutant Bacterial Hydrocarbon Degrader: Mixture of mutant microorganisms (Polybac)
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC
Photodegradation: Use of light for direct photodegradation or sensitized photo-oxidation to degrade
organic compounds
Photolysis: Light-sensitized oxidation of resistant complex compounds
Photo-oxidation: UV light-induced oxidation for destruction of organic contaminants
Phototrophs: Organisms that derive energy from sunlight
PID: Photoionization detector
PISB: Passive in situ biotreatment
pKa: Dissociation constant indicates degree of acidity or basicity of a compound and thus the extent
of adsorption and ease of desorption
Plasmids: Extra-chromosomal genetic material
Pleomorphs: Bacteria having multiple shapes
pMOL28 (163 kb): Microbial plasmids specifying nickel, mercury, chromate, cobalt, and thallium
resistance
pMOL30 (240 kb): Microbial plasmids specifying zinc, cadmium, cobalt, mercury, copper, lead, and
thallium resistance
pMOL85 (240 kb): Microbial plasmids specifying zinc, cadmium, cobalt, and copper resistance
PNAs: Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, also called PAHs
Poly B-411: Polymeric dyes that serve as substrates for lignin degrading enzymes
Poly R-478: Polymeric dyes that serve as substrates for lignin degrading enzymes
Poly R-481: Polymeric dyes that serve as substrates for lignin degrading enzymes
Poly Y-606: Polymeric dyes that serve as substrates for lignin degrading enzymes
POLYBAC
®
E biodegradable emulsifier: Synthetic biodegradable emulsifier (Polybac)
POLYBAC
®
N biodegradable nutrients: Commercial fertilizer containing balanced nitrogen and
phosphorus to enhance bioremediation by soil microorganisms (Polybac)

Pozzolanic: Materials such as Portland cement, fly ash, kiln dust
PP: Polypropylene, can be used as a liner
PRISM: Plasma remediation of in situ materials
Procaryotic “Nucleus”: Single chromosome without a membrane, as in bacteria
Proppant: Material that props a fracture, as created in the subsurface by hydraulic/pneumatic fracturing
Protocooperation: Sequential metabolism of compounds by two or more microorganisms where both
benefit
Pseudomonads: Bacteria belonging to the genus Pseudomonas
PSO: Petroleum sulfonate-oil surfactant; commercial Petronate
Psychrophilic: The ability to grow best at temperatures from –5 to 30°C, with optimum growth
between 10 and 20°C
Psychrotrophs: Organisms growing optimally at lower temperatures (e.g., <20°C)
PUF: Porous polyurethane foam for immobilizing enzymes and living microorganisms
PUR: Reticulated polyurethane, a carrier material for microorganisms
PVC: Polyvinyl chloride, can be used as a liner
PWEs: Platinum wire electrodes
Q
10
effect: Decrease in microbial enzymatic activity as a result of low temperature
qO
2
: Oxygen consumption rate
RAAS: Remedial action assessment system
RAPD: Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA to characterize bacteria in biodegradation
RAS: Return activated sludge
RBC: Rotating biological contactor
RCRA: Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976
RE: Removal efficiency
Recalcitrant: Resistant to microbial degradation
RF: Radio frequency heating to desorb organic contaminants from soil; improves soil venting by

increasing vapor pressure of contaminants
RESOL 30: Solution containing nonionic and anionic biodegradable surfactants for soil washing
Restore 375: Fertilizer with sodium triphosphate combined with orthophosphates
Rexophos 25/97: A phosphate ester blend weak-acid anionic surfactant
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC
RF: Radiofrequency heating
Rhamnolipid R1: A glycosylated, anionic, amphipathic surfactant secreted by Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Rhodamine 123: A bacterial stain to demonstrate viability
RNA: Ribonucleic acid
RREL: Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory (EPA)
rRNA: Ribosomal RNA
RT-PCR: Reverse transcrition-coupled-PCR
SARA: Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
SBR: Sequencing batch reactor
SCF: Self-cycling fermenter
SCF: Supercritical fluid oxidation
SDS: Sodium dodecyl sulfate, an anionic surfactant used for soil flushing
Serqua 710: A surfactant
SITE: Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation Program
SITE ETP: SITE Emerging Technologies Program
SLB: Signature microbial lipid biomarker indicates viable biomasss
MMO: Soluble form of methane monooxygenase from the methanotroph, Methylosinus trichosporium
OB3b
Sorption: Refers to both “adsorption”, the retention of solutes in solution by the surfaces of the solid
material and “absorption”, retention of the solute within the mass of the solid
SPR: Single particle reactor
S
SM
: Shallow soil mixing; can be combined with SVE to extract VOCs from soil
Sulfate-reducing bacteria: Strict anaerobic bacteria that use sulfate as a terminal electron acceptor,

converting sulfate to sulfide
Sulfidogens: Organic acids are used as electron donors
Superbugs: Strains of microorganisms developed in the laboratory with the potential of biodegrading
a range of contaminants
Superfund: See CERCLA
Surfactants: Surface active agents that promote the wetting, solubilization, and emulsification of
organic chemicals
SVE: Soil vapor extraction; also called soil vacuum extraction, soil venting, and soil vapor stripping;
reduces vapor pressure in soil and increases volatilization of contaminants, which are then withdrawn
by the vacuum
SVOCs: Semivolatile organic compounds
Synergism: Sequential metabolism of compounds by two or more microorganisms where both benefit
Syntrophism: One organism supplying a missing nutritional requirement of another
TAD: Thermophilic aerobic digestion
TAH: Total aliphatic hydrocarbons
TBA: Tertiary butyl alcohol
TCLP: Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure
TEA: See terminal electron acceptor
TEL: Tetra-ethyl lead
Tergitol 15-S-9: An ethoxylated nonionic surfactant
Tergitol NP-10: A surfactant
Tergitol NPX: A surfactant
Terminal electron acceptor (TEA): Chemicals necessary for transfer during metabolic processes
while microorganisms biodegrade contaminants; aerobic biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons
requires the TEA, oxygen; anaerobic biodegradation requires the TEAs iron, sulfate, or nitrate
TESVE: Thermally enhanced soil vapor extraction
Tetren: Tetraethylenepentamine, a chelator
Thermophilic: The ability to grow at temperatures from 25 to 80°C, with optimum growth at 50 to
60°C
TLD-FID: Thin-layer chromatography-flame ionization detection

TLV: Threshold limit value
TOL plasmid: Toluene-degrading plasmid in bacteria
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC
TPH: Total petroleum hydrocarbons
Treatment trains: Use of more than one technology or process, in series or in parallel, to remediate
a contaminated site; these will be site and incident specific
Triton N101: A surfactant
Triton X-100: An ethoxylated nonionic surfactant
Triton X-114: A surfactant
TSDFs: Treatment storage and disposal facilities
Turnover time: The amount of time required to remove the concentration of substrate present
Tween-20-80: A surfactant
Tween-80: A surfactant
Tysul WW: H
2
O
2
from du Pont, used in Biostim to provide oxygen to the soil
UASB: Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket
UST: Underground storage tank
UTCHEM: Multiphase, multicompositional simulator to model migration and surfactant-enhanced
remediation of an NAPL
UV: Ultraviolet
Vadose zone: Unsaturated soil above water table
VES: Vapor extraction system; also called soil vacuum extraction, soil venting, and soil vapor stripping;
in situ technique for removing VOCs from soil
VOCs: Volatile organic compounds
WALS: Wide angle light scatter reflects internal cell structure as refractility
WIGEs: Wax-impregnated graphite electrodes
Xenobiotic: Compounds that are man-made or are unique in nature; also refers to compounds released

in the environment by the action of humans and, thereby, occur in a concentration that is higher
than natural
xylE: Toluene, xylene degradation gene probes
Zymogenous: Soil bacteria that increase rapidly when furnished with certain nutrients and then
diminish in numbers when the material is exhausted
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure
2.1 Flameless thermal oxidizer
2.2 Wet air oxidation (WAO) process
2.3 Biological activated carbon/wet air oxidation combination process schematic
2.4 SCF reactor for retrofit application
2.5 SCF reactor for stand-alone application
2.6 Process schematic of a typical UV/ozone system
2.7 Treatment zone definition
2.8 Fate of refinery waste at a landfarm site
2.9 Evaluation of the economics of options meeting environmentally acceptable
performance standards for hazardous wastes
2.10 System flowchart of the Ebiox Vacuum Heap™ systems: air circulation and water
circulation
2.11 Biological water treatment processes
2.12 Schematic of rotating biological contactor
2.13 Oxitron system fluidized-bed process schematic
2.14 Membrane aerobic or anaerobic reactor system (MARS)
2.15 Biochemical removal of anthropogenic organic compounds from water
2.16 Removal of organic contaminants with photosynthetic microorganisms
2.17 Mechanisms for photosynthetic organism growth
2.18 Reactor configurations for anaerobic biotechnology
2.19 Conventional anaerobic digester
2.20 Anaerobic activated sludge process

2.21 Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB)
2.22 Diagram of typical anaerobic filter system
2.23 Anaerobic expanded/fluidized bed
2.24 Schematic diagram of experimental anaerobic activated carbon filter
2.25 Reactor schematic for the growth of methylotrophs
2.26 Soil flushing
2.27 Schematic of an elutriate recycle system
2.28 Schematic of air stripping process equipment
2.29 A typical process layout for vapor extraction
2.30 The in situ Detoxifier™
2.31 HRUBOUT
®
process
2.32 Steam-enhanced recovery process
2.33 Bioreclamation technology for treatment of contaminated soil and groundwater
2.34 Schematic diagram of bioventing installation: section view
2.35 Well construction detail and slurper tube placement for the skimmer test
configuration
2.36 BioSparge
SM
/BioPurge
SM
schematic
2.37 Hydraulic fracturing
2.38 Pneumatic fracturing schematic
2.39 Electrokinetic remediation process
3.1 Differences between the reactions used by eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms to
initiate the oxidation of aromatic hydrocarbons
3.2 Hydrocarbon substrate recalcitrance: relative proportions of hydrocarbon fractions
3.3 Terminal or diterminal oxidation of alkanes or aliphatics

3.4 Pathways utilized by prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms for the oxidation
of PAHs
3.5 Homocyclic aromatic “benzenoid” nucleus (enclosed) of benzoate (a) and heterocyclic
aromatic “pyridine” nucleus (enclosed) of nicotinate (b)
3.6 Possible sequencing of soil manipulation
6.1 Typical chart trace from a total hydrocarbon monitor
6.2 Overall system for treatment, storage, and disposal of VOCs
© 1998 by CRC Press LLC