Mercury Hazards to Living Organisms - Chapter 8 pdf

P
ART
3
Lethal and Sublethal Effects of Mercury
under Controlled Conditions
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155
C
HAPTER
8
Lethal Effects of Mercury
This chapter synthesizes available literature on the lethality of inorganic and organic mercury
compounds to freshwater and marine biota; the effect of route of administration of various mer-
curials on the survival of representative species of waterfowl, passerines, raptors, and other avian
groups; and the lethality of organomercury compounds to humans, small laboratory mammals,
livestock, domestic cats and dogs, and various species of wildlife.
Death is the only biological variable now measured that is considered irreversible by all
investigators. Nevertheless, time of death is modified by a host of physical, chemical, biological,
metabolic, and behavioral variables, and it is unfortunate that some regulatory agencies still set
mercury criteria to protect natural resources and human health on the basis of death — usually
concentrations producing 50.0% mortality — and some variable uncertainty factor. Mercury criteria
for protection of natural resources and human health, as discussed in Chapter 12, should be based —
at a minimum — on the highest dose tested or highest tissue concentration found that does not
produce death, impaired reproduction, inhibited growth, or disrupted well-being.
8.1 AQUATIC ORGANISMS
Lethal concentrations of mercury salts ranged from less than 0.1
µg Hg/L to more than 200.0 µg/L
for representative sensitive species of marine and freshwater organisms (Table 8.1). The lower
concentrations of less than 2.0 µg/L recorded were usually associated with early developmental
stages, long exposures, and flowthrough tests (Table 8.1). Among teleosts, females and larger fish
were more resistant to lethal effects of mercury than were males and smaller fishes (Diamond et al.,

1989). Among metals tested, mercury was the most toxic to aquatic organisms, and organomercury
compounds showed the greatest biocidal potential (Eisler, 1981; Jayaprakash and Madhyastha,
1987). In general, mercury toxicity was higher at elevated temperatures (Armstrong, 1979), at
reduced salinities for marine organisms (McKenney and Costlow, 1981), and in the presence of
other metals such as zinc and lead (Parker, 1979). Salinity stress, for example, especially abnormally
low salinities, reduced significantly the survival time of mercury-exposed isopod crustaceans (Jones,
1973), suggesting that species adapted to a fluctuating marine environment — typical of the
intertidal zone — could be more vulnerable to the added stress of mercury than species inhabiting
more uniformly stable environments.
8.1.1 Invertebrates
The marine ciliate protozoan Uronema marinum, with an LC50 (24 h) value of 6.0
µg/L, failed to
develop resistance to mercury over an 18-week period (Parker, 1979). However, another marine
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156 MERCURY HAZARDS TO LIVING ORGANISMS

Table 8.1 Lethality of Inorganic and Organic Mercury Compounds to Selected Species

of Aquatic Organisms
Chemical Species, Ecosystem, Taxonomic
Group, Species, and Other Variables
Concentration
(
µµ
µµ

g Hg/L medium) Effect

a

Ref.

b

Inorganic Mercury: Freshwater

Crustaceans

Crayfish,

Orconectes limosus

2.0 LC50 (30 d) 1
Daphnid

Daphnia magna

5.0 LC50 (96 h) 1
Daphnid,

Daphnia magna

1.3–1.8 LC50 (LT) 1
Scud,

Gammarus pseudolimnaeus

10.0 LC50 (96 h) 1

Molluscs

Rainbow mussel,

Villosa



iris:

Glochidia 14.0 LC50 (72 h) 33
Glochidia 25.5 All dead in 72 h 33
Juveniles; age 2 months; not fed during
exposure
99.0 LC50 (96 h) 33
Juveniles; age 2 months; not fed during
exposure
234.0 All dead in 96 h 33
Juveniles; age 2 months; fed 114.0 None dead in 21 d 33

Fish

Zebrafish,

Brachydanio



rerio

; embryo-larvae < 2.0 No deaths 16
Goldfish,

Carassius



auratus

122.0 LC50 (96 h) 27
Air-breathing catfish,

Clarias



batrachus

; adults 507.0 LC50 (96 h) 18
Catfish,

Clarias lazera:

Adults 720.0 LC50 (96 h) 17
Adults 960.0 LC50 (24 h) 17
Mosquitofish,

Gambusia

affinis

; adults 1000.0 LC77 (10 d) 19
Channel catfish,

Ictalurus punctatus

; embryo-
larva:
Static test 30.0 LC50 (10 d) 2
Flowthrough test 0.3 LC50 (10 d) 2
Largemouth bass,

Micropterus salmoides

;
embryo-larva:
Static test 188.0 (138.0–238.0) LC50 (8 d) 2, 27
Flowthrough test 5.3 LC50 (8 d) 2
Rainbow trout,

Oncorhynchus mykiss

:
Juveniles 155.0–200.0 LC50 (96 h) 1
Embryo-larva:
Static test 4.7 (4.2–5.3) LC50 (28 d) 2, 27
Flowthrough test < 0.1 LC50 (28 d) 2

Subadults 64.0 LC50 (58 d) 20
Subadults 426.0 LC50 (24 h) 20
Brook trout,

Salvelinus fontinalis

0.3–0.9 LC50 (LT) 1
Tench,

Tinca tinca

1000.0 All dead in 48 h 26
Tench 100.0 None dead in 3 weeks 26
Bronze featherback,

Notopterus notopterus

440.0 LC50 (96h) 3

Amphibians

Blanchard’s cricket frog,

Acris



crepitans

blanchardi

; embryo-larva
10.0 (8.5–13.0) LC50 (72 h) 27
Kentucky small-mouthed salamander,

Ambystoma



barbouri

; embryo-larva
8.0 (2.0–14.0) LC50 (168–192 h) 27
Jefferson’s salamander,

Ambystoma



jeffersonianum

; embryo-larva
19.0 (16.0–21.0) LC50 (144–192 h) 27
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

LETHAL EFFECTS OF MERCURY 157

Table 8.1 (continued) Lethality of Inorganic and Organic Mercury Compounds to Selected Species

of Aquatic Organisms
Chemical Species, Ecosystem, Taxonomic
Group, Species, and Other Variables
Concentration
(
µµ
µµ

g Hg/L medium) Effect

a

Ref.

b

Spotted salamander,

Ambystoma



maculatum

;
embryo-larva
31.0 (25.0–37.0) LC50 (144–168 h) 27
Marbled salamander,

Ambystoma



opacum

;
embryo-larva
103.0 (63.0–153.0) LC50 (120–144 h) 27
Small-mouthed salamander,

Ambystoma



texanum

27.0 (21.0–33.0) LC50 (144–168 h) 27
Anurans; 4 spp; embryo-larva 36.8–67.2 LC50 (96 h) 2
Eastern green toad,

Bufo



debilis



debilis

;
embryo-larva
40.0 (26.0–52.0) LC50 (72 h) 27
Fowler’s toad,

Bufo



woodhousei fowlerei:

Embryo-larva 35.0 (21.0–38.0) LC50 (72 h) 27
Tadpole 25 LC50 (72 h) 28
Toad,

Bufo



melanosticus

; tadpole 185 LC50 (96 h) 28
Red-spotted toad,

Bufo



punctatus

; embryo-
larva
32.0 (22.0–41.0) LC50 (72 h) 27
Narrow-mouthed toad,

Gastrophryne
carolinensis

; embryo-larva
1.0 (0.9–1.9) LC50 (72 h) 27
Southern gray treefrog,

Hyla



chrysoscelis

;
embryo-larva
2.3 (1.5–3.4) LC50 (72 h) 27
Treefrogs,

Hyla

spp.; embryo-larva; 5 species 2.4–2.8 LC50 (72–96 h) 2, 27
Frog,

Microhyla

ornata

; tadpoles:
Embryo 126.0 LC50 (96 h) 29
Tadpoles:
Recently-metamorphosed 88.0 LC50 (96 h) 29
Age 1 week 1120.0 LC50 (96 h) 13, 30
Age 4 weeks 1430.0 LC50 (96 h) 13, 30
Spring peeper,

Pseudocris



crucifer

; embryo-
larva
2.3 (0.3–4.9) LC50 (72 h) 27
Frog,

Rana



breviceps

; tadpole 207.0 LC50 (96 h) 28
Bullfrog,

Rana



catesbeina

; embryo-larva 6.3 (4.9–8.1) LC50 (144–192 h) 27
Frog,

Rana cyanophlyctis

:
Adult females 960.0 LC50 (31–65 d) 14
Adult females 4800.0 LC50 (96 h) 14
Pig frog,

Rana



grylio

; embryo-larva 59.0 (32.0–109.0) LC50 (144–192 h) 27
River frog,

Rana

heckscheri:

Embryo-larva 55.0 (38.0–78.0) LC50 (72 h) 27
Embryo 502.0 LC50 (96 h) 31
Adults 3252.0 LC50 (96 h) 31
Adult females 880.0 No deaths in 60 d 15
Adult females 4400.0 LC50 (96 h) 15
Pickerel frog,

Rana



palustris

; embryo-larva 5.1 (4.0–6.2) LC50 (144 h) 27
Leopard frog,

Rana pipens

; embryo-larva 7.3 LC50 (96 h) 2
Northern leopard frog,

Rana



pipiens

pipiens

;
embryo-larva
8.4 (5.3–13.3) LC50 (144 h) 27
Southern leopard frog,

Rana



sphenocephala

;
tadpoles; fed diets containing various
concentrations of HgCl

2

for 254 d:
Control 0.0 mg/kg FW diet 12.0%


dead in 240 d 34
Low Hg diet 0.1 mg Hg/kg FW diet None dead in 240 d 34
Medium Hg diet 0.5 mg Hg/kg FW diet 22.0%

dead in 70 d;
28.0% dead in 240 d
34
High Hg diet 1.0 mg Hg/kg FW diet 28.0%

dead in 240 d
South African clawed frog,

Xenopus



laevis

;
tadpole
74.0 LC50 (48 h) 32

(continued)
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

158 MERCURY HAZARDS TO LIVING ORGANISMS

Table 8.1 (continued) Lethality of Inorganic and Organic Mercury Compounds to Selected Species

of Aquatic Organisms
Chemical Species, Ecosystem, Taxonomic
Group, Species, and Other Variables
Concentration
(

µµ
µµ

g Hg/L medium) Effect

a

Ref.

b

Inorganic Mercury: Marine

Protozoans

Ciliate,

Uronema marinum

6.0 LC50 (24 h) 4

Coelenterates

Coral,

Porites



asteroides:

Colonies 100.0, nominal; 37.0,
measured
No deaths in 15 d 25
Colonies 500.0 (nominal);
180.0 (measured)
3 of 6 colonies dead in 72
h; remaining 3 colonies
survived exposure for at
least 15 d
25

Molluscs

Softshell clam,

Mya arenaria

:
Adults 1.0 No deaths in 168 h 5
Adults 4.0 LC50 (168 h) 5
Adults 30.0 All dead in 168 h 5
Adults 400.0 LC50 (96 h) 5
Hardshell clam,

Mercenaria mercenaria

:
Larva 4.8 LC50 (48 h) 1
Larva 4.0 LC50 (9 d) 1

American oyster,

Crassostrea virginica

:
Embryo 3.3 5.0% dead in 12 d 1
Larva 5.6 LC50 (48 h) 1
Adult 5.5–10.2 LC50 (48 h) 1
Pacific oyster,

Crassostrea



gigas

; embryos 5.7 LC50 (48 h) 10
Common mussel,

Mytilus edulis

5.8 LC50 (96 h) 6
Mud snail,

Nassarius obsoletus

:
Adults 100.0 No deaths in 168 h 5
Adults 700.0 LC 50 (168 h) 5
Adults 5000.0 LC (100 (168 h) 5

Adults 32,000.0 LC 50 (96 h) 5
Slipper limpet,

Crepidula fornicata

:
Larva 60.0 LC50 (96 h) 7
Adults 330.0 LC50 (96 h) 7
Bay scallop,

Argopecten irradians

; juveniles 89.0 LC50 (96 h) 8

Crustaceans

Fiddler crab,

Uca pugilator

, zoea 1.8 LC50 (8 d) 1
Mysid shrimp,

Mysidopsis bahia

:
Juveniles 3.5 LC50 (96 h) 9
Egg to egg exposure 1.8 LC50 (LT) 9
Dungeness crab,

Cancer magister

; larva 6.6 LC50 (96 h) 10
Copepod,

Acartia tonsa

; adult 10.0–15.0 LC50 (96 h) 1
Hermit crab,

Pagurus longicarpus

:
Adults 10.0 No deaths in 168 h 5
Adults 50.0 LC50 (96 h) 5
Adults 50.0 LC50 (168 h) 5
Adults 125.0 All dead in 168 h 5
Prawn,

Penaeus indicus

:
Postlarva 16.1 LC50 (48 h) 11
Postlarva 15.3 LC50 (96 h) 11
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LETHAL EFFECTS OF MERCURY 159

Table 8.1 (continued) Lethality of Inorganic and Organic Mercury Compounds to Selected Species

of Aquatic Organisms
Chemical Species, Ecosystem, Taxonomic
Group, Species, and Other Variables
Concentration
(
µµ
µµ

g Hg/L medium) Effect

a

Ref.

b

Annelids

Polychaete,

Capitella capitata

; larva 14.0 LC50 (96 h) 1
Sandworm,

Nereis



virens:

Adults 25.0 No deaths in 168 h 5
Adults 60.0 LC50 (168 h) 5
Adults 70.0 LC50 (96 h) 5
Adults 125.0 All dead in 168 h 5

Echinoderms

Starfish,

Asterias



rubens:
Adults 10.0 No deaths in 168 h 5
Adults 20.0 LC50 (168 h) 5
Adults 60.0 LC50 (96 h) 5
Adults 125.0 All dead in 168 h 5
Fish
Haddock, Melanogrammus aeglefinus; larvae 98.0 LC50 (96 h) 1
Spot, Leiostomus xanthurus; adult 36.0 (32.0–39.0) LC50 (96 h) 23
Tidewater silverside, Menidia peninsulae;
larvae, age 26 days
71.0 (60.0–84.0) LC50 (96 h) 23
Mummichog, Fundulus heteroclitus:
Adults 80.0 LC50 (96 h) 5
Adults 80.0 LC50 (168 h) 5
Adults 23,000.0 LC50 (24 h) 5
Organic Mercury: Freshwater

Planarians
Flatworm, Dugesia dorotocephala:
Adult 200.0 LC0 (10 d) 12
Adult 500.0 LC100 (5 d) 12
Crustaceans
Daphnid, Daphnia magna 0.9–3.2 LC50 (LT) 1
Fish
Rainbow trout:
Larva 24.0 LC50 (96 h) 1
Juvenile 5.0–42.0 LC50 (96 h) 1
Subadult 34.0 LC50 (48 h) 20
Subadult 4.0 < 50.0% dead in 100 d 20
Brook trout; yearling 65.0 LC50 (96 h) 1
Air-breathing catfish, Clarias batrachus;
adults:
Methylmercury 430.0 LC50 (96 h) 18
Methoxyethylmercury 4300.0 LC50 (96 h) 18
Blue gourami, Trichogaster sp.; adults 70.0 LC50 (96 h) 22
(continued)
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160 MERCURY HAZARDS TO LIVING ORGANISMS
ciliate protozoan, Uronema nigricans, acquired tolerance to mercury after feeding on mercury-
laden bacteria and subsequently exposed to increasing levels of mercury in solution (Berk et al.,
1978). The phenomenon of acquired mercury tolerance in U. nigricans occurred in a single
generation (Berk et al., 1978). Among coral colonies of Porites asteroides, the LC50 (72 h) value
was 180.0 µg Hg/L, as HgCl
2
. Death was preceded by polyp contraction during the first 8 h, color
loss within 24 h, and tissue loss within 48 h (Bastidas and Garcia, 2004).
In general, salts of mercury and its organic compounds have been shown in short-term bioassays

to be more toxic to marine organisms than salts of other heavy metals (Kobayashi, 1971; Conner,
1972; Schneider, 1972; Berland et al., 1976; Reish et al., 1976; Eisler and Hennekey, 1977). To
oyster embryos, for example, mercury salts were more toxic than salts of silver, copper, zinc, nickel,
lead, cadmium, arsenic, chromium, manganese, or aluminum (Calabrese et al., 1973); to clam
embryos, mercury was the most toxic metal tested, followed, in order, by silver, zinc, nickel, and
Table 8.1 (continued) Lethality of Inorganic and Organic Mercury Compounds to Selected Species
of Aquatic Organisms
Chemical Species, Ecosystem, Taxonomic
Group, Species, and Other Variables
Concentration
(µµ
µµ
g Hg/L medium) Effect
a
Ref.
b
Amphibians
Toad, Bufo bufo japonicus; tadpole 120.0 LC50 (48 h) 28
Toad, Bufo melanosticus; tadpole 56.0 LC50 (96 h) 28
Frog, Rana breviceps; tadpole 60.0 LC50 (96 h) 28
Organic Mercury: Marine
Molluscs
American oyster, Crassostrea virginica:
Adults 50.0 for 19 days at
0–10°C to
methylmercury or
phenylmercury
Most moribund or dead 24
Adults Survivors from above
removed at day 19 and

transferred to flowing
mercury-free seawater
All dead within 14 days 24
Crustaceans
Amphipod, Gammarus duebeni 150.0 LC50 (96 h) 1
Fish
Mummichog, Fundulus heteroclitus:
Eggs, polluted creek (sediment content of
10.3 mg Hg/kg)
1700.0 LC50 (20 min) 21
Eggs, reference site 700.0 LC50 (20 min) 21
a
Abbreviations: LT = lifetime exposure; h = hours; d = days; min = minutes.
b
Reference: 1, USEPA, 1980; 2, Birge et al., 1979; 3, Verma and Tonk, 1983; 4, Parker, 1979; 5, Eisler and
Hennekey, 1977; 6, USEPA, 1985; 7, Thain, 1984; 8, Nelson et al., 1976; 9, Gentile et al., 1983; 10, Glickstein,
1978; 11, McClurg, 1984; 12, Best et al., 1981; 13, Jayaprakash and Madhyastha, 1987; 14, Kanamadi and
Saidapur, 1991; 15, Punzo, 1993; 16, Dave and Xiu, 1991; 17, Hilmy et al., 1987; 18, Kirubagaran and Joy,
1988; 19, Diamond et al., 1989; 20, Niimi and Kissoon, 1994; 21, Khan and Weis, 1987; 22, Hamasaki et al.,
1995; 23, Mayer, 1987; 24, Cunningham and Tripp, 1973; 25, Bastidas and Garcia, 2004; 26, Shah and Altindag,
2004; 27, Birge et al., 2000; 28, Paulose, 1988; 29, Ghate and Mulherkar, 1980; 30, Rao and Madyastha, 1987;
31, Punzo, 1993; 32, De Zwart and Sloof, 1987; 33, Valenti et al., 2005; 34, Unrine et al., 2004.
LETHAL EFFECTS OF MERCURY 161
lead (Calabrese and Nelson, 1974). Glickstein (1978) reported an LC50 (48 h) value of 5.7 µg
Hg/L, as inorganic mercury, to embryos of the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas; however, embryos
were relatively insensitive to mercury 24 h postfertilization, and survival was enhanced by a variety
of factors, including ambient selenium concentrations.
Mercury toxicity to crustaceans was markedly influenced by developmental stage, diet, sex,
salinity, tissue sensitivity, and selenium. Larvae and newly molted crustaceans were more sensitive
to mercury toxicity than were adults of the same species (Wilson and Conner, 1971; Vernberg et al.,

1974; Shealy and Sandifer, 1975). Starved larvae of the grass shrimp had lower survival rates than
fed larvae when subjected to mercury insult (Shealy and Sandifer, 1975). Also, male adult fiddler
crabs (Uca pugilator) were more sensitive to mercury salts than females (Vernberg et al., 1974).
Lethality of mercury salts to the porcelain crab (Petrolisthus armatus) were most pronounced at
lower salinities within the range of 7 to 35‰ (Roesijadi et al., 1974). A similar pattern was recorded
for the fiddler crab, Uca pugilator (Vernberg et al., 1974). Adult prawns (Leander serratus) held
in lethal solutions of mercury (50.0 mg inorganic Hg/L; 1.0 mg organic mercury/L) for 3 h contained
at death 320.0 to 460.0 mg Hg/kg DW in antennary gland (Corner and Rigler, 1958). High levels
of selenium (> 5.0 mg/L) increased mercury toxicity to larvae of dungeness crab, Cancer magister,
to levels below the LC50 (96 h) value of 6.6 µg Hg/L; however, moderate selenium values of 0.01
to 1.0 mg/L tended to decrease mercury toxicity (Glickstein, 1978).
Many acute toxicity bioassays were of 96-h duration, a duration that allows the senior investi-
gator and technicians alike the opportunity to enjoy an uninterrupted weekend. But it is clear from
Table 8.1 that assays of 168-h duration produced LC50 values up to 45 times lower (more toxic)
than did the 96-h assays, as was shown for mud snails. It is recommended that acute toxicity
bioassays with mercury and other toxicants and estuarine fauna should consist of a minimal 10-day
continuous exposure followed by a 10-day observation period (Eisler, 1970).
8.1.2 Vertebrates
Signs of acute mercury poisoning in fish, included flaring of gill covers, increased the frequency
of respiratory movements, loss of equilibrium, excessive mucous secretion, darkening of coloration,
and sluggishness (Armstrong, 1979; Hilmy et al., 1987). Signs of chronic mercury poisoning
included emaciation (due to appetite loss), brain lesions, cataracts, diminished response to change
in light intensity, inability to capture food, abnormal motor coordination, and various erratic
behaviors (Armstrong, 1979; Hawryshyn et al., 1982). Total mercury concentrations in tissues of
mercury-poisoned adult freshwater fish that died soon thereafter ranged (in mg/kg fresh weight)
from 6.0 to 114.0 in liver, 3.0 to 42.0 in brain, 5.0 to 52.0 in muscle, and 3.0 to 35.0 in whole
body (Armstrong, 1979; Wiener and Spry, 1996). Whole body concentrations up to 100.0 mg/kg FW
were reportedly not lethal to rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, although 20.0 to 30.0 mg/kg
FW in that species were associated with reduced appetite, loss of equilibrium, and hyperplasia of
gill epithelium (Niimi and Lowe-Jinde, 1984). Brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis, however, showed

toxic signs and death at whole body residues of only 5.0 to 7.0 mg/kg FW (Armstrong, 1979).
Some fish populations have developed a resistance to methylmercury, but only in the gametes
and embryonic stage. For example, eggs of the mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus), an estuarine
cyprinodontiform fish, from a mercury-contaminated creek, when compared to a reference site,
were more than twice as resistant to methylmercury (LC-50 values of 1.7 mg Hg/L vs. 0.7 mg
Hg/L) when exposed for 20 min prior to combination with untreated sperm. Eggs from the polluted
creek that were subjected to 1.0 or 2.5 mg CH
3
HgCl/L produced embryos with a 5.0 to 7.0%
malformation frequency vs. 32.0% malformations at 1.0 mg/L and little survival at 2.5 mg/L in
the reference group (Khan and Weis, 1987). Genetic polymorphism in mosquitofish (Gambusia
sp.) at specific enzyme loci are thought to control survival during mercury exposure (Diamond
et al., 1989). In one population of mosquitofish during acute exposure to mercury, genotypes at
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
162 MERCURY HAZARDS TO LIVING ORGANISMS
three loci were significantly related to survival time, as was heterozygosity. However, neither
genotype nor heterozygosity were related to survival in a different population of mosquitofish
during acute mercury exposure (Diamond et al., 1991).
Embryo-larva tests with amphibians and inorganic mercury showed that 6 of the 21 species
tested were more sensitive than rainbow trout embryo-larva tests and 15 were less sensitive;
however, all 21 amphibian species were more sensitive than largemouth bass embryos (Birge et al.,
2000; Table 8.1). Amphibian embryos were the most sensitive stage tested to mercury and other
chemicals owing to the relatively high permeability of the egg capsule at this time (Birge et al.,
2000). In general, organomercurials were 3 to 4 times more lethal than inorganic mercury com-
pounds to amphibians when the same species and life stage were tested (Table 8.1).
Exposure pathways for adult amphibians include soils (dermal contact, liquid water uptake),
water (dermal contact with surface water), air (cutaneous and lung absorption), and diet (adults are
carnivores). All routes of exposure are affected by various physical, chemical, and other factors.
Dietary exposure in adults, for example, is related to season of year, activity rates, food availability,
consumption rate, and assimilation rates (Birge et al., 2000). Knowledge of these modifiers is

necessary for adequate risk assessment of mercury as a possible factor in declining amphibian
populations worldwide.
8.2 TERRESTRIAL INVERTEBRATES
Methylmercury compounds at concentrations of 25.0 mg Hg/kg in soil were fatal to all tiger worms
(Eisenia foetida) in 12 weeks; at 5.0 mg/kg, however, only 21.0% died in a similar period (Beyer
et al., 1985). Inorganic mercury compounds were also toxic to earthworms (Octochaetus pattoni);
in 60 days, 50.0% died at soil Hg
2+
levels of 0.79 mg/kg, and all died at 5.0 mg/kg (Abbasi and
Soni, 1983).
8.3 REPTILES
Data on mercury lethality in reptiles are scarce, and those available suggest that sensitivity may
be both species and age dependent (Rainwater et al., 2005). For example, juveniles of the corn
snake, Elaphe guttata, fed diets containing 12.0 mg methylmercury/kg FW diet all died within
days (Bazar et al., 2002). However, adults and offspring from treated adults of the garter snake,
Thamnophis sirtalis, fed diets containing up to 200.0 mg methylmercury/kg FW diet all survived
and showed no sign of toxicity (Wolfe et al., 1998).
8.4 BIRDS
Signs of mercury poisoning in birds include muscular incoordination, falling, slowness, fluffed
feathers, calmness, withdrawal, hyporeactivity, hypoactivity, and eyelid drooping. In acute oral
exposures, signs appeared as soon as 20 min post-administration in mallards, Anas platyrhynchos,
and 2.5 h in ring-necked pheasants, Phasianus colchicus. Deaths occurred between 4 and 48 h in
mallards and 2 and 6 days in pheasants; remission took up to 7 days (Hudson et al., 1984). In
studies with coturnix, Coturnix sp., Hill (1981) found that methylmercury was always more toxic
than inorganic mercury, and that young birds were usually more sensitive than older birds. Fur-
thermore, some birds poisoned by inorganic mercury recovered after treatment was withdrawn, but
chicks that were fed methylmercury and later developed toxic signs usually died, even if treated
feed was removed. Coturnix subjected to inorganic mercury, regardless of route of administration,
showed a violent neurological dysfunction that ended in death 2 to 6 h posttreatment. The withdrawal
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LETHAL EFFECTS OF MERCURY 163
syndrome in coturnix poisoned by Hg
2+
was usually preceded by intermittent, nearly undetectable
tremors, coupled with aggressiveness toward cohorts; time from onset to remission was usually 3
to 5 days, but sometimes extended to 7 days. Coturnix poisoned by methylmercury appeared normal
until 2 to 5 days posttreatment; then, ataxia and low body carriage with outstretched neck were
often associated with walking. In advanced stages, coturnix lost locomotor coordination and did
not recover; in mild to moderate clinical signs, recovery usually took at least 1 week (Hill, 1981).
Mercury toxicity to birds varies with the form of the element, dose, route of administration,
species, sex, age, and physiological condition (Fimreite, 1979). For example, in northern bobwhite
chicks fed diets containing methylmercury chloride, mortality was significantly lower when the
solvent was acetone than when it was another carrier such as propylene glycol or corn oil (Spann
et al., 1986). In addition, organomercury compounds interact with elevated temperatures and pes-
ticides, such as DDE and parathion, to produce additive or more-than-additive toxicity, and with
selenium to produce less-than-additive toxicity (Fimreite, 1979). Acute oral toxicities of various
mercury formulations ranged between 2.2 and about 31.0 mg Hg/kg body weight for most avian
species tested (Table 8.2). Similar data for other routes of administration were 4.0 to 40.0 mg/kg
for diet and 8.0 to 15.0 mg/kg body weight for intramuscular injection (Table 8.2).
Residues of mercury in experimentally poisoned passerine birds usually exceeded 20.0 mg/kg
FW, and were similar to concentrations reported in wild birds that died of mercury poisoning
(Finley et al. 1979). In one study with the zebra finch (Poephila guttata), adults were fed methyl-
mercury in the diet for 76 days at dietary levels of < 0.02 (controls), 1.0, 2.5, or 5.0 mg Hg/kg
DW ration (Scheuhammer, 1988). There were no signs of mercury intoxication in any group except
the high-dose group, which experienced 25.0% dead and 40.0% neurological impairment. Dead
birds from the high-dose group had 73.0 mg Hg/kg FW in liver, 65.0 in kidney, and 20.0 in brain;
survivors without signs had 30.0 in liver, 36.0 in kidney, and 14.0 mg Hg/kg FW in brain; impaired
birds had 43.0 mg Hg/kg FW in liver, 55.0 in kidney, and 20.0 in brain (Scheuhammer, 1988).
Mercury levels in tissues of poisoned wild birds were highest (45.0 to 126.0 mg/kg FW) in
red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus), intermediate in European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris)

and cowbirds (Molothrus ater), and lowest (21.0 to 54.0) in common grackles (Quiscalus quiscula).
In general, mercury residues were highest in the brain, followed by the liver, kidney, muscle, and
carcass. Some avian species are more sensitive than passerines (Solonen and Lodenius, 1984;
Hamasaki et al., 1995). Liver residues (in mg Hg/kg FW) in birds experimentally killed by methyl-
mercury ranged from 17.0 in red-tailed hawks (Buto jamaicensis) to 70.0 in jackdaws (Corvus
monedula); values were intermediate in ring-necked pheasants, kestrels (Falco tinnunculus), and
black-billed magpies (Pica pica) (Solonen and Lodenius; Hamasaki et al., 1995). Experimentally
poisoned grey herons (Ardea cinerea) seemed to be unusually resistant to mercury; lethal doses
produced residues of 415.0 to 752.0 mg Hg/kg dry weight of liver (Van der Molen et al., 1982).
However, levels of this magnitude were frequently encountered in livers from grey herons collected
during a massive die-off in the Netherlands during a cold spell in 1976; the interaction effects of
cold stress, mercury loading, and poor physical condition of the herons are unknown (Van der
Molen et al., 1982).
8.5 MAMMALS
Mercury is easily transformed into stable and highly toxic methylmercury by microorganisms and
other vectors (De Lacerda and Salomons, 1998; Eisler, 2000). Methylmercury affects the central
nervous system in humans — especially the sensory, visual, and auditory areas concerned with
coordination; the most severe effects lead to widespread brain damage, resulting in mental derange-
ment, coma, and death (Clarkson and Marsh, 1982; USPHS, 1994). Methylmercury has long
residence times in aquatic biota and consumption of methylmercury-contaminated fish is implicated
in more than 150 deaths and more than 1000 birth defects in Minamata, Japan, between 1956 and
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
164 MERCURY HAZARDS TO LIVING ORGANISMS
Table 8.2
Lethality to Birds of Mercury Administered by Oral, Dietary, or Other Routes
Route of Administration, Organism,
and Mercury Formulation Mercury Concentration and Effect Ref.
a
Single Oral Dose

Chukar, Alectoris chukar:
Ethylmercury 26.9 mg/Hg kg body weight (BW); LD50 within 14 d
posttreatment
1
Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos:
Methylmercury 2.2–23.5 mg Hg/kg BW; LD50 within 14 d
posttreatment
1
Ethylmercury 75.7 mg Hg/kg BW; LD50 within 14 d posttreatment 1
Phenylmercury 524.7 mg Hg/kg BW; LD50 within 14 d posttreatment 1
Common bobwhite, Colinus virginianus:
Methylmercury 23.8 mg Hg/kg BW; LD50 within 14 d posttreatment 1
Coturnix, Coturnix japonica:
Methylmercury 11.0–33.7 mg Hg/kg BW; LD50 within 14 d
posttreatment
1–3
Inorganic mercury 26.0–54.0 mg Hg/kg BW; LD50 within 14 d
posttreatment
2, 3
Ethylmercury 21.4 mg Hg/kg BW; LD50 within 14 d posttreatment 1
Rock dove, Columba livia; ethylmercury 22.8 mg Hg/kg BW; LD50 within 14 d posttreatment 1
Fulvous whistling duck, Dendrocygna bicolor;
methylmercury
37.8 mg Hg/kg BW; LD50 within 14 d posttreatment 1
Domestic chicken, Gallus domesticus;
phenylmercury
60.0 mg Hg/kg BW; LD50 within 14d posttreatment 4
House sparrow, Passer domesticus;
methylmercury
12.6–37.8 mg Hg/kg BW; LD50 within 14 d

posttreatment
1
Gray partridge, Perdix perdix; ethylmercury 17.6 mg Hg/kg BW; LD50 within 14 d posttreatment 1
Ring-necked pheasant, Phasianus colchicus:
Ethylmercury 11.5 mg Hg/kg BW; LD50 within 14 d posttreatment 1
Methylmercury 11.5–26.8 mg Hg/kg BW; LD50 within 14 d
posttreatment
1
Phenylmercury 65.0–101.0 mg Hg/kg BW; LD50 within 14 d
posttreatment
1, 4
Prairie chicken, Tympanuchus cupido;
ethylmercury
11.5 mg Hg/kg BW; LD50 within 14 d posttreatment 1
Dietary Route
Mallard; hens; methylmercury 3.0 mg Hg/kg diet; reduced duckling survival over two
reproductive seasons
11
Coturnix:
Inorganic mercury 32.0 mg Hg/kg diet between hatch and age 9 weeks;
no deaths
2
Inorganic mercury 2956.0–5086.0 mg Hg/kg diet for 5 days followed by
7-day observation period; LD50
2
Inorganic mercury 14-d-old coturnix fed for 5 days on treated diet, then
untreated food until remission of signs: controls, 2.0%
dead; 2500.0 mg Hg/kg diet as HgCl
2
, 13.0% dead;

3535.0 mg Hg/kg diet, 33.0% dead; 7070.0 mg/kg
diet, 73.0% dead; 10,000.0 mg Hg/kg diet, 80.0%
dead; 5086.0 (3743.0–6912.0) mg Hg/kg diet = LD50
15
Methylmercury Feeding regimen with 14-d-old coturnix as above:
15.0 mg Hg/kg diet, as methylmercury chloride, no
deaths; 21.0 or 42.0 mg Hg/kg diet, 6.0% dead;
60.0 mg Hg/kg diet, 73.0% dead (onset of signs on
day 4, remission on day 12); 47.0 (30.0–60.0) mg
Hg/kg diet = LD50
15
Inorganic mercury:
In dry salt 500.0 mg Hg/kg diet for 28 days; LD86 6
In ethanol, methanol, or water 500.0 mg Hg/kg diet for 28 days; LD55 6
In casein premix 500.0 mg Hg/kg diet for 28 days; LD33 6
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
LETHAL EFFECTS OF MERCURY 165
1960 (see Chapter 10). By 1987, more than 17,000 people had been affected by methylmercury
poisoning in Japan, with 999 deaths. Worldwide, De Lacerda and Salomons (1998) estimate that
mercury poisoning from ingestion of contaminated food is responsible for more than 1400 human
deaths and 200,000 sublethal cases. Excess mercury in human tissues is associated with an increased
risk of acute myocardial infarction (Salonen et al., 1995; Gualler et al., 2002), and increased death
rate from coronary heart disease (Salonen et al., 1995) and carotid atherosclerosis (Salonen et al.,
2000).
In mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus), after acute oral mercury poisoning was induced
experimentally, signs included belching, bloody diarrhea, piloerection (hair more erect than usual),
and loss of appetite (Hudson et al., 1984). The kidney is the probable critical organ in adult mammals
Table 8.2 (continued) Lethality to Birds of Mercury Administered by Oral, Dietary, or Other Routes
Route of Administration, Organism,
and Mercury Formulation Mercury Concentration and Effect Ref.

a
Methylmercury 4.0 mg Hg/kg diet between hatch and age 9 weeks;
no deaths
2
Methylmercury 8.0 mg Hg/kg diet for 5 d; some deaths 3
Methylmercury 31.0–47.0 mg Hg/kg diet for 5 d followed by 7-d
observation period; LD50
2
Zebra finch, Poephila guttata:
Methylmercury 2.5 mg Hg/kg diet for 77 d; no deaths 12
Methylmercury 5.0 mg Hg/kg diet for 77 d; LD25 12
Ring-necked pheasant:
Ethylmercury 4.2 mg Hg/kg diet for 70 d; no deaths
b
5
Ethylmercury 12.5 mg Hg/kg diet for 70 d; LD50 5
Ethylmercury 37.4 mg Hg/kg diet for 28 d; LD50 5
Ethylmercury 112.0 mg Hg/kg diet for 15 d; LD50 5
Birds; 4 species:
Methylmercury 40.0 mg Hg/kg diet for 6 to 11 d; LD33 7
Birds; 3 species:
Methylmercury 33.0 mg Hg/kg diet for 35 d; LD8 to LD90 14
Intramuscular Injection
Coturnix:
Methylmercury Single im injection of 8.0–33.0 mg Hg/kg BW; LD50 2
Inorganic mercury Single im injection of 15.0–50.0 mg Hg/kg BW; LD50 2
Rock dove; inorganic mercury Daily im injections for 17 d of 10.0 mg Hg/kg BW; some
deaths
8
Yolk Sac Injection

Chicken:
Methylmercury Single injection of 0.015 mg Hg/egg; some deaths 13
Methylmercury Single injection of 0.04–0.05 mg Hg/egg; LD50 13
Applied to Egg Surface
Mallard:
Methylmercury Single dose of 0.003 mg Hg/egg; some deaths 9
Methylmercury Single dose of 0.009 mg Hg/egg; LD50 9
In Drinking Water
Chicken; inorganic mercury 500.0 mg Hg/L for 3 days; some deaths 10
a
Reference: 1, Hudson et al., 1984; 2, Hill, 1981; 3, Hill and Soares, 1984; 4, Mullins et al., 1977; 5, Spann
et al., 1972; 6, El-Begearmi et al., 1980; 7, Finley et al., 1979; 8, Leander et al., 1977; 9, Hoffman and Moore,
1979; 10, Grissom and Thaxton, 1985; 11, Heinz and Locke, 1976; 12, Scheuhammer, 1988; 13, Greener
and Kochen, 1983; 14, Hamasaki et al., 1995; 15, Hill and Camardese, 1986.
b
Reduction in egg production of 55.0–80.0%; embryonic survival sharply reduced.
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
166 MERCURY HAZARDS TO LIVING ORGANISMS
due to the rapid degradation of phenylmercurials and methoxyethylmercurials to inorganic mercury
compounds and subsequent translocation to the kidney (Suzuki, 1979), whereas in the fetus the
brain is the principal target (Khera, 1979). Most human poisonings were associated with organo-
mercury compounds used in agriculture as fungicides to protect cereal seed grain (Elhassani, 1983);
judging from anecdotal evidence, many wildlife species may have been similarly afflicted. Organo-
mercury compounds, especially methylmercury, were the most toxic mercury species tested. Among
sensitive species of mammals, death occurred at daily organomercury concentrations of 0.1 to
0.5 mg/kg body weight, or 1.0 to 5.0 mg/kg in the diet (Table 8.3). Larger animals such as mule
deer and harp seals (Pagophilus groenlandica) appear to be more resistant to mercury than were
smaller mammals such as mink, cats, dogs, pigs, monkeys, and river otters (Table 8.3); the reasons
for this difference are unknown but may be related to differences in metabolism and mercury
detoxification rates. Tissue residues in fatally poisoned mammals (in mg Hg/kg fresh weight) were

approximately 6.0 in brain, 10.0 to 55.6 in liver, 17.0 in whole body, about 30.0 in blood, and 37.7
in kidney (Eisler, 2000; Table 8.3).
The lethal effects of methylmercury in various species of mammals is influenced by ambient
temperature, dietary selenium, ethanol, and especially hypertension (Tamashiro et al., 1986). Tests
with a genetic strain of rat with high blood pressure showed that this strain was more sensitive to
methylmercury than were control strains: they died earlier and with higher tissue mercury burdens
(Table 8.3). Because hypertension and borderline hypertension is common among human inhabit-
ants of mercury-polluted areas, with estimates as high as 56.0% among individuals 40 years old
and older (Tamashiro et al., 1986), more research seems warranted on the role of hypertension as
a significant health problem in methylmercury-impacted populations.
Mercury interactions with other compounds should be considered. Adverse effects on growth
and survival of kits of the mink, Mustela vison, are reported for diets containing 1.0 mg Hg/kg
ration as methylmercury and Aroclor 1254 — a polychlorinated biphenyl — at 1.0 mg/kg ration
(Wren et al., 1987b).
Table 8.3 Lethality of Organomercury Compounds to Selected Mammals
Route of Administration, Organism, Dose,
and Other Variables Effect Ref.
a
Oral Dose
Domestic dog, Canis familiaris:
0.1 to 0.25 mg/kg body weight (BW) during
entire pregnancy
High incidence of stillbirths 1
Rat, Rattus sp.:
Strain with spontaneous hypertension; age
10 weeks; oral dose of 5.0 mg methyl-
mercury/kg BW daily for 10 consecutive days.
Tail blood pressure of hypertensive rats ranged
from 190–231 mm Hg vs. 130–165 mm Hg for
controls

Deaths and signs of mercury intoxication in
hypertensive rats evident 1 week earlier than
controls, but all rats in both groups dead by
day 13 following last dose; total Hg
concentrations in blood and other tissues were
significantly higher in hypertensive rats on
days 1 and 5 following the final dose
10
Pig, Sus spp.:
0.5 mg/kg BW daily during pregnancy High incidence of stillbirths 1
Rhesus monkey, Macaca mulatta:
0.5 mg/kg BW daily during days 20–30 of
pregnancy
Maternally toxic and abortient 1
Mule deer, Odocoileus heminous hemionus:
17.9 mg/kg BW; single oral dose LD50 5
Harp seal, Pagophilus groenlandica:
25.0 mg/kg BW daily Dead in 20 to 26 days; blood mercury levels
immediately prior to death were 26.8–30.3 mg/L
6
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
LETHAL EFFECTS OF MERCURY 167
8.6 SUMMARY
For all organisms tested, early developmental stages were the most sensitive, and organomercury
compounds — especially methylmercurials — were more toxic than inorganic forms. Numerous
biological and abiotic factors modify the lethality of mercury compounds, sometimes by an order
of magnitude or more, but the mechanisms of action are not clear. Lethal concentrations of total
mercury to sensitive, representative organisms varied from 0.1 to 2.0 µg/L of medium for aquatic
fauna; from 2.2 to 31.0 mg/kg body weight (acute oral) and 4.0 to 40.0 mg/kg (dietary) for birds;
and from 0.1 to 0.5 mg/kg body weight (daily dose) and 1.0 to 5.0 mg/kg diet for mammals.

Table 8.3 (continued) Lethality of Organomercury Compounds to Selected Mammals
Route of Administration, Organism, Dose,
and Other Variables Effect Ref.
a
Dietary Route
Domestic cat, Felis domesticus:
0.25 mg/kg BW daily for 90 days; total of about
85 mg mercury
LD50 (78 d). Convulsions starting at day 68; all
convulsing by day 90. Liver residues of survivors
were 40.2 mg/kg FW for total mercury and
18.1 mg/kg for inorganic mercury
2
Human, Homo sapiens:
Methylmercury; whole body: No effect level = 10.0–100.0 mg whole body; toxic
is 100.0–1000.0 mg whole body; 1000.0 mg and
higher is lethal
11, 12
20.0 mg daily for about 50 days Lethal 11, 12
10.0 mg daily for about 500 days Lethal 11, 12
5.0 mg daily for about 30 days Toxic 12
2.0 mg daily for 70 days Toxic 12
1.0 mg daily for about 500 days Toxic 12
0.5 mg daily for < 30 days No observable effect 12
Mink, Mustela vison:
1.0 mg/kg diet daily Fatal to 100.0% in about 2 months 3
1.0 mg/kg diet daily for 4 months, then every
other day for 4 months alternating with control
diet
High mortality after 4 months when subjected to

cold stress; significant mercury transfer to fetus
via placenta
9
5.0 mg/kg diet daily All dead in 30 to 37 days. Elevated mercury
residues (mg/kg FW) in kidney (37.7) and liver
(55.6) prior to death
3
River otter, Lutra canadensis:
> 2.0 mg/kg in diet Fatal within 7 months 4, 8
15.7 mg methylmercury/kg FW ration Lethal. Dead animals had 33.4 mg Hg/kg FW in
liver and 39.2 mg/kg FW in kidney
13
Inhalation Route
Rat, Rattus sp.:
27.0 mg/m
3
air for 1–2 h Fatal; death by asphyxiation; lung edema;
necrosis of alveolar epithelium
7
Various
Human, Homo sapiens Lethal residues in tissues, in mg/kg FW, were
> 6.0 in brain, > 10.0 in liver, and > 17.0 in whole
body
1
a
Reference: 1, Khera, 1979; 2, Eaton et al., 1980; 3, Sheffy and St. Amant, 1982; 4, Kucera, 1983; 5, Hudson
et al., 1984; 6, Ronald et al., 1977; 7, USPHS, 1994; 8, Ropek and Neely, 1993; 9, Wren et al., 1987a; 10,
Tamashiro et al., 1986; 11, Kitamura, 1971; 12, Takizawa, 1993; 13, O’Connor and Nielsen, 1980.
168 MERCURY HAZARDS TO LIVING ORGANISMS
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