TEA CULTURE IN ENGLAND: PAST AND PRESENT

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
University of Languages and international
Studies FACULTY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION
nguyÔn hång NGäC

TEA CULTURE IN ENGLAND:
PAST AND PRESENT
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of bachelor of arts (TEFL)
Ha Noi, May 2014
VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
University of Languages and international Studies
FACULTY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION
nguyÔn hång NGäC

TEA CULTURE IN ENGLAND:
PAST AND PRESENT
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of bachelor of arts (TEFL)
supervisor: NGUYÔN DIÖU HåNG, ma.
Ha Noi, May 2014
ACCEPTANCE PAGE
I hereby state that I: Nguyễn Hồng Ngọc, QH2010.F1.E13, being a
candidate for the degree of Bachelor of Arts (TEFL) accept the requirements
of the College relating to the retention and use of Bachelor’s Graduation
Paper deposited in the library.
In terms of these conditions, I agree that the origin of my paper
deposited in the library should be accessible for the purposes of study and
research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the
librarian for the care, loan or reproduction of the paper.
Signature

Nguyễn Hồng Ngọc
Date: April 30
th,
2014
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are a number of people without whom this paper might not have
been completed, and to whom I am greatly indebted. I take this opportunity
to express my gratitude to those whose encouragement and guidelines have
made tremendous contribution to the success of my study.
First and foremost, I have to thank my research supervisor, Ms.
Nguyễn Diệu Hồng. Without her valuable advice and constant
encouragement in every step throughout the process, this thesis would have
never been accomplished. Words could not convey enough my appreciation
for her support and understanding over the past seven months.
Furthermore, I am truly grateful to Mr. Đỗ Quốc Minh, Ms. Giang
Thùy Dương and Ms. Nguyễn Thúy Hạnh for their help in data collection
and proofreading process. I am also fortunate enough to receive mental
support from Ms. Đặng Minh Trang, Ms. Vũ Liên Hương and many others
from class QH2010.F1.E13 throughout the difficult time conducting this
research.
Most importantly, none of this could have happened without my
family. They have been kind and supportive to me during my undergraduate
years. This dissertation stands as a testament to their unconditional love and
encouragement, to which I am wholeheartedly appreciative.
Finally, I would honestly thank my readers for their interests and
criticism on the study.
4
ABSTRACT
Currently, tea consumption in the UK is the highest in the world per
capita. The English sip 165 million cups of tea daily according to the UK

Tea Council. Their fondness for this aromatic brew began about three
hundred years ago and hasn’t slowed down since. This dissertation aims to
explain the growth of popularity of tea in England and its roles in the society
of London over the years. The objectives of the research is to find out how
tea, from a luxury goods that only the rich could afford, became the national
favorite drink as well as to clarify the differences in the way people in
England, between upper and lower classes, practiced tea customs years ago
and whether these differences still exist until today.
The research employs qualitative data analysis such as content
analysis and visual analysis. Content analysis is mainly applied in the paper,
for most of sources are written documents. On the other hand, visual
analysis is used when studying tea paintings, which reflect the attitude of
English painters towards tea culture at that time.
Originating as an index of fashion and modernity, tea passed with
remarkable speed from the conspicuous consumption of the wealthy and
powerful to use by all classes. There may be several reasons explaining the
surprising growth of tea in England, such as duty reduction, diversion of
importation and recognition of tea’s medicinal values. Even though the
English today may have the same attitude towards tea, in the past, tea to
each class in the society had different meanings. Tea customs as well as
English tea drinking habits have significant changes in their symbolic
meanings, especially between different classes.
5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i
ABSTRACT ii
TABLE OF CONTENT iii
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1. Statement of the problem and rationale for the study 1
1.2. Aims and objectives of the study 3
1.3. Significance of the study 3
1.4. Scope of the study 3
1.5. Organization 4
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 6
2.1. A brief history and classification of tea 6
2.2. Brief overview of tea cultures around the world 10
2.3. The social classes existing in England now and then 11
2.4. East India Company – The rise and fall of the most powerful
commercial organization 13
6
2.5. Review on previous studies related to the research subject 14
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 17
3.1. Data collection method 17
3.2. Data analysis method 18
CHAPTER 4: TEA – FROM A LUXURY TO A NECESSITY 22
4.1. The spreading popularity of tea in England 22
4.2. Main factors contributing to the popularity of tea in England 32
4.2.1. Decrease in tax, increase in consumption 33
4.2.2. A change in the sources of tea importation 34
4.2.3. Growing recognition of tea’s medicinal values 36
CHAPTER 5: TEA CUSTOMS AND TEA’S ROLES TO DIFFERENT
CLASSES 39
5.1. Tea customs in England 39
5.1.1. Afternoon Tea and High Tea 39
5.1.2. Tea Dances 46
5.2. Roles of tea to different classes 47
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION 54
6.1. Summary of findings 54

6.2. Limitations of the research 55
7
6.3. Suggestions for further study 56
REFERENCES 57
8
LIST OF TABLES
Names of tables Page
Table 1. Tea importation by the Company into England in
1700s (Martin,p.18)
26
Table 2. An account, showing the gross quantity of tea,
including private- trade, prize, neutral property, etc. annually
imported into England, put up to sale, sold and refused from
1784 to 1823 (Martin, 1832)
27
Table 3. Tea Consumption in the UK, 1919 – 38 (lb/head/year)
(Mitchell & Deane, 1962)
28
Table 4. Sources of UK tea supplies, 1866 – 1903 (Burnett,
1999, p.61)
35
Table 5. Differences between Afternoon Tea and High Tea 42
9
LIST OF FIGURES
Names of figures Page
Figure 1. Step model of deductive category application
(Mayring 2000)
19
Figure 2. An English family at tea (Joseph Van Aken, 1720) 25
Figure 3. A group of women workers at the British Oil Cake

Company, Manchester, World War I
29
Figure 4. All night workers of the Rescue Squads welcome tea
in the morning. Life in London during the Blitz of World War II
in 1939-40 (Rodger, 1940)
30
Figure 5. The Distressed Poet (William Hogarth, 1741) 31
Figure 6. Sending a boiler to a tea factory, Ceylon 35
Figure 7. Afternoon Tea (George Goodwin Kilburne, 1839 –
1924)
43
Figure 8. Living off the Fat of the Land (Thomas Unwins, 1782
– 1857)
44
Figure 9. Bettys cafe tea room, York, England 45
Figure 10. Kettledrum in Knightsbridge (1871) 48
Figure 11. The Graphic (1892) 49
Figure 12. Interior of a London Coffee House in 1668 (c. 1700) 50
Figure 13. Eventide: A Scene at the Westminster Union (1878) 51
Figure 14. Willow Workers in Somerset (c.1900) 52
10
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
This initial chapter justifies the reasons for this study to be carried out.
Research questions, aims and objectives, significance, scope as well as
organization of the study would be presented.
1.1. Statement of the problem and rationale for the study
“Everything stops for tea” is how Stephen Birnbaum (1990)
introduces tea in his travel guides for Americans Great Britain 1991. “Rare
is the worker who can get through his day without tea breaks” continues
Stephen “A whole industry of teacups, special china, cake stands,

embroidered cloths, lien, and tea forks for the cakes grew up, and a precise
ritual soon evolved around a silver teapot and sugar bowl with little tongs”.
Tea is thought of as a national necessity in England, and in fact, it is. The
United Kingdom is known to consume 165 million cups of tea daily,
according to The UK Tea Council (n.d), with 66% of its population drinking
tea every day. It would not be an exaggeration to say that tea is the national
favorite beverage in England as well as a special characteristic of the
English. There is frequent appearance of tea in various UK movies, books
and paintings. Even when the magazine “appetite” published a special
British issue, its cover is also an illustration of traditional teapots. However,
when people have been drinking tea for over 350 years, they become too
familiar with it, to the extent that fewer of them want to study tea as a
scholarly topic. There are not many books written about tea in England or
very few researches on tea and its symbolic meaning in English life.
In Vietnam, it is possible to count the number of books about tea on
the fingers of one hand, most of which are about tea and its medical benefits.
11
The very rare one focusing on tea culture is a book by Okakura Kakuzo –
Tea Ceremony (2008) – in Japan, unfortunately. Chinese or Japanese tea is
much more well-known among Vietnamese than the English one. Although
milk tea like Earl Grey tea are very common in menus in cafes here, people
barely know why milk is put in tea or who is the Earl that tea was named
after.
As a student majored in English, I have developed an interest in
British studies and soon had my eyes on its culture. Since tea is my most
favorite drink, I cannot resist the overwhelming temptation to explore the
history and mystery of tea culture in England, but to my disappointment,
there is a lack of knowledge on the subject or the information is often sparse.
This leaves my curiosity unanswered, which is why I would like to study
about tea through various existing data and documents, so that I would come

to a comprehensive understanding of tea’s popularity in England. I also want
to look at the subject in a new and fresh way by using visuals as a source for
my study.
There are several matters that need explanation when talking about
English tea; however, this research is expected to elucidate these questions
below:
1. What factors contributed to the popularity of tea in England?
When tea first arrived at Europe, it was sold at an extremely high
price that only a few very rich people could purchase. A couple of years
later, tea became a national commodity drunk by all classes. This question is
to find out what were responsible for these changes.
12
2. In what ways were tea customs in England practiced differently
between upper and lower classes?
Although it may be unfamiliar to many foreigners, there are various
tea customs in England; nevertheless, the way people from different social
status drank tea in the past also varied. This diversity is hoped to be clarified
through the question above.
1.2. Aims and objectives of the study
The research aims at explaining the growth of popularity of tea in
England and its roles in the society of London over the years.
To be particular, the objectives of the research is to find out how tea,
from a luxury goods that only the rich could afford, became the national
favorite drink as well as to clarify the differences in the way people in
England, between upper and lower classes, practiced tea customs years ago
and whether these differences still exist until today.
1.3. Significance of the study
Since there is a noticeable lack of attention to this subject, the study is
conducted in order to contribute further explanation to existing researches on
tea culture in England and its changes in the English society. When other

documents or researches available nowadays are mainly based on historical
memoirs and monographs, this paper is expected to draw attention by
studying literature and audio-visual materials, such as paintings, novels and
poems. Moreover, once finished, this paper will become a good reference for
students attending British Studies courses at university.
1.4. Scope of the study
13
Study about tea culture in the UK is rather extensive and complicated
because it involves a wide range of background knowledge of British
history. Therefore, the researcher focuses on analyzing popularity of tea in
England over a period of 350 years and comparing tea customs between
upper and lower classes.
1.5. Organization
The main content of this research consists of six chapters.
Chapter 1: Introduction
This chapter deals with the rationale, research questions, aims and
objectives, scope, significance and structure of the study.
Chapter 2: Literature review
This chapter provides necessary background of key subjects in the
research.
Chapter 3: Methodology
This chapter includes data collection and analysis methods.
Chapter 4: Tea – From a luxury to a necessity
This chapter answers the first research question about how tea went
from an expensive beverage to national refreshment enjoyed by every class
of English people.
Chapter 5: Tea customs and tea’s roles to different social classes
The problem stated in the second research question is clarified in this
chapter.
14

Chapter 6: Conclusion
Summary of major findings, the limitations of the study and
suggestions for further research are presented in the last chapter.
15
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter, consisting of two main parts, provides theoretical
background for the whole research. The first part introduces the general
knowledge of tea and tea culture, as well as an overview of social classes in
England and the East India Company, which is necessary for the researcher
to explore further into the subject. The latter one reviews the previous
studies related to tea culture in England.
2.1. A brief history and classification of tea
The Origins of Tea
There is an ancient proverb that “the path to heaven passes through a
teapot”. Hardly anyone knows where this saying comes from, or how
“ancient” it is, but one thing should probably be true – Tea is the oldest
beverage in the world existing until today, next to water. Its history must be
longer than that of coffee, beer and soft drinks put together.
When hearing the word “tea”, people often think of the green liquid
drunk commonly in Asia, the Middle East, the United Kingdom and many of
its former colonies. To be accurately and officially defined, as stated in
Encyclopedia Britannica, tea is “a beverage produced by steeping in freshly
boiled water the young leaves and leaf buds of the tea plant, Camellia
sinensis.”
In regard to the origins of tea, there have been debates whether it
originated in China or India – each of which has their own firm evidence.
However, the most common belief goes to China with the legend of Shen
Nung, also known as the Holy Farmer. It dates back to about 2700 BC in
16
China, as Beverly Dubrin, the author of “Tea Culture: History, Traditions,

Celebrations, Recipes and More” (2012) stated
Emperor Shen Nung was drinking a cup of boiled water. The
Emperor, concerned about hygiene always insisted that water be
boiled before he drank it. Some leaves from a nearby tree fell into his
cup, turning the water a deep shade of brown. The color intrigue the
Emperor and he decided to drink the brownish water. (p.10)
Because of its medicinal effects, tea continued to be drunk in China
for thousands of years later. Not only was tea used as a medicine, but it also
soon spread over the country as a refreshing drink, especially after the
Chinese invented a method to remove the bitterness of brewed tea (Beverly
Dubrin, 2012, p.13).
In the sixth century, tea plants was brought into Japan by Buddhist
monks returning from China, however, tea was not popularly approved there
until 1191 when a Zen Buddhist priest named Eisai used tea as an aid to
prevent sleepiness and to improve concentration during meditation (Keith
Souter, 2013, p.17). Tea then became well integrated into both Chinese and
Japanese culture. It was no longer an exclusive drink, reserved only for
royalty and the wealthy. “Ordinary citizens gathered in teahouses to enjoy
tea, tea snacks, and the company of friends. Special cups and pots for tea
were created, marking the beginning of teaware” (Beverly Dubrin, p.13).
Much later, tea was introduced into Europe when a Portuguese called
Father Jasper de Cruz discovered tea during a mission to China in 1560.
However, thanks to the Dutch rather than the Portuguese, tea trade became a
big business there. “As early as 1610, Chinese tea was being shipped to
Holland. By the mid-1600s, it was being shipped to the American Dutch
colony, New Amsterdam” (Beverly Dubrin, p.14).
17
The meeting of England and tea, which led to The United Kingdom
being the 2
nd

biggest tea-drinker nowadays, was said to take place in 1652,
not by an Englishman but a Dutch. The journey to England of tea and its
spreading popularity to become the national drink are discussed later in
Chapter 4 of the research. However, as soon as it appeared in London, tea
was enjoyed firstly by the Royals and elites and then by the entire population
of England. “The English became so enchanted with tea that they stopped
importing it through the Dutch trading companies and set up their own – the
English East India Company” (Beverly Dubrin, p.17). This company had
much involvement to one of the greatest events leading to the American
Revolution – The Boston Tea Party.
In America, the British colonies were becoming resentful of the taxes
imposed on tea and other commodities shipped from England. In
protest, they boycotted English tea. The Boston Tea Party, on
December 16, 1773, was the colonists’ response to British demands to
accept the tea. They dumped the cargo from three ships, about
120,000 pounds of tea, into Boston Harbor. (Beverly Dubrin, p.17-18)
At first, most countries imported tea from China, but when the
demand for it got bigger, people started to cultivate tea in different countries.
Tea production today can be found in Africa, India, Indonesia, Japan and
more than forty-five countries in the Middle East, South America, the South
Pacific as well as Southeast Asia (Mary Lou Heiss & Robert J. Heiss, 2011,
p.31). The history of the world’s oldest drink seems far from an ending.
Classification of Tea
According to an illustration from emmabridgewater.co.uk, there are
five main types of tea, each of which is different from others by the degree
18
the leaves are allowed to turn from green to brown-black, a process called
oxidation. The five types are:
• White tea: The least processed and rarest tea. New leaf buds are
picked while still unopened.

• Green tea: New leaves are heated immediately after picking;
this stops them from oxidizing or going black. Green tea has
long been used in China as a remedy for depression and
headaches.
• Oolong tea: Mid-way between green and black tea. Leaves are
partially oxidized. Oolong tea helps to reduce blood sugar in
diabetes.
• Black tea: Leaves are rolled and crushed, and left to turn black.
It is the most popular tea in the Western world. Black tea is a
rich source of antioxidants that some scientists believe they
may help to prevent certain types of cancer, as well as to reduce
clogged arteries and lower risk of heart attacks and strokes.
• Pu-erh tea: Dark tea, aged and fermented in a process that can
take up to a year.
According to an article named “Cup of Tea: Mastering the Art of the
Perfect Brew” on BBC website by Hannah Briggs (2013), black tea is
favored by a great number of Englishmen, although recently there has been
some growth in the consumption of herbal and green teas. Some say they
like green tea but it is a little bit too bitter. The trend in tea drinking habits of
19
people in England is discussed later in Chapter 4, both in the past and at the
present time.
2.2. Brief overview of tea cultures around the world
The term “tea culture” is rarely used in England, unlike the famous
Chinese or Japanese tea ceremony. However, when tea is drunk as much as
over 60 billion cups per year and through different customs like Low Tea or
High Tea, there is no doubt that tea-drink should be considered as a part of
the English culture. In this section, the researcher is giving definitions of tea
culture as well as a brief overview of some tea cultures, so that later on in
the study, it is possible to compare and contrast between English tea culture

and others.
Wikipedia, a free encyclopedia online, has defined “tea culture” as
“the way tea is made and consumed, by the way the people interact with tea,
and by the aesthetics surrounding tea drinking, it includes aspects of: tea
production, tea brewing, tea arts and ceremony, society, history, health,
ethics, education, and communication and media issues”.
On hearing about tea culture, China, Japan and Korea are the top three
countries that come to mind because of the sophisticated ceremonies they
have. In fact, tea customs exists in several regions all around the world.
For example, in Tibet, people commonly drink “Po cha” and follow
quite a few rules while drinking tea:
One such concerns an invitation to a house for tea. The host will first
pour some highland barley wine. The guest must dip his finger in the
wine and flick some away. This will be done three times to represent
respect for the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. The cup will then be
refilled two more times and on the last time it must be emptied or the
20
host will be insulted. After this the host will present a gift of butter tea
to the guest, who will accept it without touching the rim of the bowl.
The guest will then pour a glass for himself, and must finish the glass
or be seen as rude.
(Source: />Morocco is also a country where tea is widely consumed with food.
Life there is accompanied by tea ceremony, in which a set of a silver teapot
with a long spout, a brass hammer to break chunks of sugar from a sugar
cone, silver boxes of tea, mint and sugar cubes are placed on a low round
table. Tea is served in glasses here and the pot is raised high above the glass
while pouring. (Beverly Dubrin, p.22)
Russian tea culture may not be usually mentioned along the country,
however, surprisingly, it appeared even before the advent of tea in England.
In old world Russia, tea was sipped from a glass. In Russian

households, the water was kept hot in a large cauldron called a
samovar. A small teapot was perched on top of the samovar to keep it
warm. The tea was prepared, according to taste, by immersing it in the
hot water. (Beverly Dubrin, p.23)
There are tea traditions around the world. Some can be named, like
Cha Dao, afternoon tea, Teddy Bear tea and Mad Hatter tea. Some are
probably unknown to the most people. However different roles tea plays in
each country, it is still the one thing the world has in common.
2.3. The social classes existing in England now and then
During the history of England, there were basically four classes in the
society: the upper class, middle class, working class and underclass. In 2013,
a report on current social classes in England, resulted from a major survey
21
conducted by BBC, was published. According to this, there are seven classes
which are:
• Elite - the most privileged group in the UK, distinct from the other six
classes through its wealth.
• Established middle class - the second wealthiest, scoring highly on
all three capitals. The largest and most gregarious group, scoring
second highest for cultural capital
• Technical middle class - a small, distinctive new class group which is
prosperous but scores low for social and cultural capital.
• New affluent workers - a young class group which is socially and
culturally active, with middling levels of economic capital
• Traditional working class - scores low on all forms of capital, but is
not completely deprived.
• Emergent service workers - a new, young, urban group which is
relatively poor but has high social and cultural capital
• Precariat, or precarious proletariat - the poorest, most deprived
class, scoring low for social and cultural capital

(Source: />In this paper, in order to analyze the spreading popularity of tea in
England, from a luxury commodity to the national beverage, the researcher
focuses mainly on upper class or elite, middle and working class. In
addition, the differences in the way these three classes drink tea are hoped to
be presented in the next chapters.
22
2.4. East India Company – The rise and fall of the most powerful
commercial organization
On discussing about tea and its journey to England, one name cannot
be ignored in any thorough analysis of the topic: the East India Company
also called British East India Company. Before 1600, Portugal controlled
most European trade with India and the Far East (an area known then as the
Indies). But in 1600 Queen Elizabeth I gave a royal charter to a new trading
company, the East India Company, by which it was given a monopoly over
all British trade with the Indies. The East India Company's first main base
was in western India, where it found a rich source of raw materials, which
could be exported back to Britain or exchanged for spices.
When tea was introduced into England and gradually became a
fashionable drink in courtly and aristocratic circles, the East India Company
placed its first order for tea in 1664 - for 100lbs of China tea to be shipped
from Java for import into Britain. Tea drinking then became popular among
the whole population, and the East India Company's imports rocketed.
(Pettigrew, p.15)
Because of the company’s monopoly on tea, the price was extremely
high. This led to several people’s questioning the East India Company’s sole
domination on British trade with the East. Adding to the heated argument at
that time, the company established its own army and attempted to impose
governmental control over many regions in India. Many people in Britain
were not happy with the dual roles of the company – being a merchant and a
ruler at the same time. Facing such a powerful disagreement, the British

government started to abolish the company’s trading functions. The East
23
India Company became an agent of the government, but in fact, no longer
had rights with foreign trades. It was also no more the tea dealer with China.
The company lost its trading rights, but its desire to make money in
India remained. It kept exploiting the Indian people, until the soldiers in the
company’s army there rebelled, which became a dramatic turn for the fate of
the company. The rebellion lasted for one year before the British forces put it
down and decided that it was enough and the company had to cease its
activities. (Day, p.50)
The company was officially dissolved in 1874. Its functions had been
absorbed into the official government machinery of British India and its
private presidency armies had been nationalized by the British Crown.
Although the East India Company received a lot of criticism during its
existence, especially on tea imports, it cannot be denied that the company
played a significant role in bringing tea closer to the English. Moreover, its
monopoly on tea trades is one of the main reasons why the price of tea at
that time was extremely high and tea was solely consumed by the elite and
the wealth. The analysis on the company would provide an explanation to
how tea was not common throughout the nation when it first came to
England.
2.5. Review on previous studies related to the research subject
With the popularity of tea in England, it is surprising that there are a
small number of books and articles written about English tea culture, most of
which detail the history of tea as well as dramatize legends and keep cultural
analysis to a minimum. Many publications about tea were sponsored by tea
companies and a very little amount of research has been done on the
24
significance of tea in cultural context of England. As Anthony Burgess stated
in The Book of Tea (1992), “Perhaps tea is so woven into the stomach linings

of the British that they cannot view it in either a scholarly or an aesthetic
manner. It is a fact of British life, like breathing.”
A well-received book about tea in England is A Social History of Tea
by Jane Pettigrew (2001). It covers both the long history of tea in England
and its social perspectives, which become important reference for this study.
However, the book does not pay enough attention to cultural context and is
rather lengthy. Another book which gives a detailed, scholarly, historical
treatise on the use of tea and its social ramifications is A Necessary Luxury:
Tea in Victorian England by Julie E. Fromer (2008). A thorough description
of tea during the Victorian Era is given as well as the development of tea in
the past. This book pays much attention to how different classes in England
drank tea in their own ways. Nevertheless, because it focuses only on the
history of tea, there is a lack of comparison between the past and present as
well as tea nowadays.
There are some other books that mention tea in England in passing,
such as Tea: The Drink that Changed the World (Martin, 2007) and The
Story of Tea: A Cultural History and Drinking Guide (Mary Lou Heiss &
Robert J. Heiss, 2011), but these books only bring up the origin of English
tea or how tea journeyed to England.
Some food and drink magazines also have their special issues on tea
in England. One of them is Appetite the British Issue (June 2012) featured a
story narrated Stephen Twining, 10
th
generation of the famous English tea
family. Another magazine about tea in England is Tea a Magazine (Autumn
25