a contrastive analysis of performative verbs in english and vietnamese = phân tích đối chiếu động từ ngữ vi trong tiếng anh và tiếng việt

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
……………o0o……………


TRẦN THỊ THU HIỀN



A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PERFORMATIVE VERBS IN
ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE
(PHÂN TÍCH ĐỐI CHIẾU ĐỘNG TỪ NGỮ VI
TRONG TIẾNG ANH VÀ TIẾNG VIỆT)

M.A. MINOR THESIS



Field: English Linguistics
Code: 60 22 15




HANOI - 2011

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

……………o0o……………


TRẦN THỊ THU HIỀN



A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PERFORMATIVE VERBS IN
ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE
(PHÂN TÍCH ĐỐI CHIẾU ĐỘNG TỪ NGỮ VI
TRONG TIẾNG ANH VÀ TIẾNG VIỆT)

M.A. MINOR THESIS



Field: English Linguistics
Code: 60 22 15
Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Võ Đại Quang



HANOI - 2011

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CANDIDATE’S STATEMENT i
ABSTRACT iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

ABBREVIATIONS vi
CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Rationale of the study 1
1.2. Aims and objectives of the study 1
1.2.1. Aims 1
1.2.2. Objectives 2
1.2.3. Research questions 2
1.3. Scope of the study 2
1.4. Method of the study 2
1.5. Organization of the study 3
CHAPTER TWO. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 4
2.1. Speech Act Theory 4
2.1.1. Definition of speech acts 4
2.1.2. Components of speech acts 4
2.1.3. Speech Act Classification 5
2.1.4. Illocutionary force indicating device 6
2.1.5. Felicity conditions 7
2.1.6. The relationship between speech acts and speech act verbs 8
2.1.7. Property of speech act verbs 9
2.2. Performatives 9
2.2.1. Performatives versus Constatives 9
2.2.2. Definition of Performatives 10
2.2.3. Types of performatives 10
2.2.3.1. Explicit performative 10
2.2.3.2. Implicit performative 11
2.3. Performative verbs 12
2.3.1. Definition of performative verbs which 12

v
2.3.2. The function of performative verbs 12

2.3.3. Classification of performative verbs 13
2.3.3.1. Meta-linguistic performative verbs 13
2.3.3.2. Ritual performative verbs 13
2.3.3.3. Collaborate performative verbs 13
2.4. Summary 14
CHAPTER THREE. A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH DIRECTIVE
PERFORMATIVE VERBS AND THEIR VIETNAMESE EQUIVALENTS 15
3.1. Syntactic features of directive PVs 15
3.1.1. Directive PVs in English 15
3.1.2. Directive PVs in Vietnamese 17
3.1.3. Similarities and differences of directive PVs in English and Vietnamese in
terms of syntactic features 19
3.1.3.1. Similarities 19
3.1.3.2. Differences 19
3.2. Semantic features of directive PVs 21
3.2.1. Directive PVs in English 21
3.2.2. Directive PVs in Vietnamese 28
3.2.3. Similarities and differences of directive PVs in English and Vietnamese in
terms of semantic features 31
3.2.3.1. Similarities 31
3.2.3.2. Differences 32
CHAPTER FOUR. CONCLUSION 34
4.1. Recapitulation 34
4.2. Concluding remarks 34
4.2.1. Concluding remarks on objective 1 34
4.2.2. Concluding remarks on objective 2 35
4.2.3. Concluding remarks on objective 3 35
4.3. Limitation of the study 36
4.4. Suggestions for further study 36
REFERENCES vii

APPENDIX ix

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CANDIDATE‟S STATEMENT i
ABSTRACT iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv
ABBREVIATIONS vi
CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Rationale of the study 1
1.2. Aims and objectives of the study 1
1.2.1. Aims 1
1.2.2. Objectives 2
1.2.3. Research questions 2
1.3. Scope of the study 2
1.4. Method of the study 2
1.5. Organization of the study 3
CHAPTER TWO. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 4
2.1. Speech Act Theory 4
2.1.1. Definition of speech acts 4
2.1.2. Components of speech acts 4
2.1.3. Speech Act Classification 5
2.1.4. Illocutionary force indicating device 6
2.1.5. Felicity conditions 7
2.1.6. The relationship between speech acts and speech act verbs 8
2.1.7. Property of speech act verbs 9
2.2. Performatives 9
2.2.1. Performatives versus Constatives 9
2.2.2. Definition of Performatives 10

2.2.3. Types of performatives 10
2.2.3.1. Explicit performative 10
2.2.3.2. Implicit performative 11
2.3. Performative verbs 12
2.3.1. Definition of performative verbs which 12

v
2.3.2. The function of performative verbs 12
2.3.3. Classification of performative verbs 13
2.3.3.1. Meta-linguistic performative verbs 13
2.3.3.2. Ritual performative verbs 13
2.3.3.3. Collaborate performative verbs 13
2.4. Summary 14
CHAPTER THREE. A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH DIRECTIVE
PERFORMATIVE VERBS AND THEIR VIETNAMESE EQUIVALENTS 15
3.1. Syntactic features of directive PVs 15
3.1.1. Directive PVs in English 15
3.1.2. Directive PVs in Vietnamese 17
3.1.3. Similarities and differences of directive PVs in English and Vietnamese in
terms of syntactic features 19
3.1.3.1. Similarities 19
3.1.3.2. Differences 19
3.2. Semantic features of directive PVs 21
3.2.1. Directive PVs in English 21
3.2.2. Directive PVs in Vietnamese 28
3.2.3. Similarities and differences of directive PVs in English and Vietnamese in
terms of semantic features 31
3.2.3.1. Similarities 31
3.2.3.2. Differences 32
CHAPTER FOUR. CONCLUSION 34

4.1. Recapitulation 34
4.2. Concluding remarks 34
4.2.1. Concluding remarks on objective 1 34
4.2.2. Concluding remarks on objective 2 35
4.2.3. Concluding remarks on objective 3 35
4.3. Limitation of the study 36
4.4. Suggestions for further study 36
REFERENCES vii
APPENDIX ix

vi
ABBREVIATIONS

A: Action
CA: Contrastive analysis
EPV: English Performative Verb
EPVs: English Performative Verbs
EPs: Explicit Performatives
H: Hearer
IF: Illocutionary Force
IFIDs: Illocutionary Force Indicating Devices
IPs: Implicit Performatives
PV: Performative Verb
S: Speaker
SA: Speech act
SAs: Speech acts
U: Utterance
Us: Utterances
VPV: Vietnamese Performative Verb
VPVs: Vietnamese Performative Verbs

1
CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Rationale of the study
Language is an inseparable part in people‟s life because it is employed to transmit
information, to state facts, to express thoughts and to get so many things done. It is true
that verbs referring to speech constitute one of the most important areas of the vocabulary
of any language. Every day, we use the verbs of ask, tell, require, apologize, promise,
thank and so on to communicate together. Moreover, we try to interpret what kinds of
speech acts they are performing, that is, when someone says something, we have to
categorize their utterances as this or that kind of speech acts. For instance, is this an
advice? is this a suggestion? is this a request? or is this a warning? Among speech act
verbs, PVs are crucially importance to the way we interpret what other people are saying
because PVs signal the performance of acts.
PVs play a very esential role in communication, so learners of foreign language should pay

much attention to PVs. However, there is a fact that leaners of English have not been well
equipped with a all-sided knowledge of EPVs and the meanings of PVs have never been
systematically investigated. For example, learners of English often make confusion about
the meanings of the verbs “request” and “demand”, “suggest” and “propose”, “ and
“entreat”, etc. As a result, they do not often make proper uses of EPVs in communication
and even may break their real communication.
Recognizing the importance of PVs in communication and the problems learners may face
in using PVs, I decide to carry out a contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese
directive PVs in terms of syntactic and semantic features. With this peculiar function, PVs
that play an essential role in performing speech acts need being further studied to serve
better communication.
1.2. Aims and objectives of the study
1.2.1. Aims
The study is aimed at:
- raising Vietnamese learner‟s awareness of how to realize the meanings of EPVs and use
them appropriately in order to achieve communicative purposes.
- providing teachers of English with useful materials about the knowledge of PVs.

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1.2.2. Objectives
To achieve these aims, the research tries to:
- present and describe the structures and the meanings of directive PVs in English and
Vietnamese.
- point out the similarities and differences of directive EPVs and their Vietnamese
equivalents in terms of syntax and semantics.
- suggest some implications for learning and teaching English directive PVs.
1.2.3. Research questions
The objectives are elaborated into the following research questions:
- What are the structures and meanings of directive PVs in English and Vietnamese ?
- What are the similarities and differences of directive PVs in English and Vietnamese?

- What are the possible recommendations for learning and teaching English directive PVs?
1.3. Scope of the study
Due to the limited time and the scale of the minor thesis, the study is focused on directive
PVs which are most frequently used in written discourse in English and Vietnamese.
1.4. Method of the study
The main method in the study is the contrastive analysis (CA) of directive PVs in English
and Vietnamese. The term CA is defined by James, C. (1980:3) as “a linguistic enterprise
aimed at producing inverted (i.e. contrastive, not comparative) two-valued typologies (a
CA is always concerned with a pair of languages), and founded on the assumption that
language can be compared.” According to Richard, J.C et al (1992), CA is “the
comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages”. As far as I know, CA is the
systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying the differences and
similarities. It is considered as a device for predicting and explaining difficult points and
some errors that learners will make in learning a target language.
The author uses the following principles in order to achieve the aims and objectives of the
study:
+ Collecting data containing directive PVs.
+ Choosing data sources from ebook.
+ Choosing type of data: original texts in English and Vietnamese translation equivalents

3
+ Choosing instrumental languages: English is selected as the source language and
Vietnamese as the target language.
Important techniques which are employed in the study include:
+ observing data on translation texts
+systematizing and categorizing data
1.5. Organization of the study
Chapter one: Introduction.
This part presents the rationale, aims, objectives, scope and method of the study
Chapter two: Theoretical Background

This chapter provides the theoretical concepts and terms that are necessary and relevant to
directive PVs.
Chapter three: A contrastive analysis of directive PVs in English and in Vietnamese
This chapter is focused on exploring the structures and meanings of directive EPVs and
their Vietnamese equivalents. Then, some similarities and differences are drawn out to
illustrate the contrastive analysis of the two languages. Last but not least, some
recommendations for learning and teaching will be suggested.
Chapter four: Conclusion
This is the last part of the thesis which summarizes main points, gives concluding remarks
on objectives as well as suggestions for further study.













4
CHAPTER TWO. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

This chapter is aimed at giving a general framework for analysing directive PVs later.
Firstly, the theory of speech acts including the notion, components, classification and
felicity conditions is explored. Secondly, the important matters referring to performative
verbs are presented in order to pave the way for an investigation of directive PVs in

chapter 2 where the forms and meanings of PVs will be examined in terms of syntactic and
semantic features.
2.1. Speech Act Theory
2.1.1. Definition of speech acts
According to an American language philosopher J.R. Searle, speaking a language is
performing speech acts, acts such as making statements, asking questions, giving command
or making promises. Yule, G. (1996, p.47) views that speech acts are actions that are
performed via utterances to serve a function in communication. Speech acts are also
defined as “the basic or minimal units of linguistic communication”. (Searle, 1969, p.16).
In English, there are specific labels of speech acts such as compliment, apology, request,
complaint, invitation, advice and so on.
For example:
When a speaker makes an utterance: “nema tomorrow”. The speaker
makes a promise (a speech act that commits the speaker to do something in the future).
2.1.2. Components of speech acts
The matter of speech acts was pioneered by American language philosopher J.L. Austin. In
the book “How to do things with words” by Austin (1962), there are three related acts in
the action of performing an utterance, including locutionary, illocutionary and
perlocutionary acts. Firstly, locutionary act can be viewed as a mere uttering of some
words in certain language, while the illocutionary and perlocutinary acts convey a more
complicated message for the hearer. Secondly, illocutionary act communicates the
speaker‟s intentions behind the locution. Thirdly, perlocutionary act reveals the effect of
the utterance on the listeners.
Example: Give me an apple

5
+ Locutionary act: the utterance is an imperative
+ Illocutionary act: Request from the part of the speaker
+ Perlocutionary act: Hearer passes Speaker an apple
Among three acts, the illocutionary act/force appears to be the most crucial and

predominant one. The illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an
utterance which is known as the illocutionary force of the utterance. The illocutionary
force of the utterance is what it “count as”. The same locutionary act can have different
illocutionary forces.
Example:
 (Yule, 1996:49)


.
In this example, illocutionary forces can count as a prediction, a promise or a warning.
2.1.3. Speech Act Classification
On the basis of Searle‟s theory, a general classification system includes five types of
functions performed by speech acts: representatives, directives, commissives, expressives
and declarations.
Representatives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker believes to be
the case or not. In using a representative, the speaker makes words fit the world. They may
be statements of fact, assertions, conclusions and descriptions.
E.g:
The earth is flat. (Yule, 1996:53)
It was a warm sunny day. (Yule, 1996:53)
Directives are those kinds of speech act that the speaker uses to get the hearer to do
something. They express what the speaker wants. They are orders, commands, requests,
suggestions.
E.g:
. (Yule, 1996:54)
Could you lend me a pen, please? (Yule, 1996:54)

6
Commissives are those kinds of speech acts that the speaker uses to commit themselves to
some future action. They express what the speaker intends. They are promises, threats,

refusals, pledges.
E.g:
. (Yule, 1996:54)
. (Yule, 1996:54)
Expressives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker feels. They express
psychological states and are about the speaker‟s experience. They are apologies,
congratulations, thanks.
E.g:
! (Yule, 1996:53)
What a great day! (Hoa, 2004:73)
Declarations are those kinds of speech acts that change the world via their utterance.
When the speaker performs declarations appropriately, he has to have a special
institutional role, in a specific context. They are christening, declaration, naming.
E.g:
Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife. (Yule, 1996:53)
I declare the meeting open. (Hoa, 2004:73)
2.1.4. Illocutionary force indicating device
The most obvious device for indicating the illocutionary force (the illocutionary force
indicating device or IFID) is a piece of language that signals what kind of speech act is
being performed.
Some useful IFIDs are mood, word order, lexicon (modal, expletive, function words),
stress, intonation, tone of voice and performative verbs. Among them, PVs are always the
prominent signals and alone can imply the intended communicative force.
Look at the telephone conversation between a man trying to contact Mary and Mary‟s
friend: (Yule, 1996:50)
Him: Can I talk to Mary?
Her: 
Him:  can I talk to her?
Her:  !

7
In this scenario, each speaker has described and drawn attention to the illocutionary force
(„ask‟ and „tell‟) of their utterances. PVs „ask‟ and „tell‟ are clear IFIDs.
Other type of IFID which can facilitate the hearer recognize the intended illocutionary
force are felicity conditions.
2.1.5. Felicity conditions
Austin (1962:14-15) defines the felicity conditions as follows:
- There must exist an accepted conventional procedure having a certain conventional effect,
that procedure to include the uttering of certain words by certain persons in certain
circumstances.
- The particular persons and circumstances in a given case must be appropriate for the
invocation of the particular procedure invoked.
- The procedure must be executed by all participants both correctly and completely.
- Where, as often, the procedure is designed for use by persons having certain thoughts or
feelings, or for the inauguration of certain consequential conduct on the part of any
participant, then a person participating in and so invoking the procedure must intend so to
conduct themselves, and further must actually so conduct themselves subsequently.
According to Yule (1996:50), felicity conditions cover certain expected or appropriate
circumstances for the performance of a speech act to be recognized as intended. Basing on
the original Searle‟s assumption, Yule (1996:50) proposes a classification of felicity
conditions into five classes: general condtions, content conditions, preparatory conditions,
sincerity conditions and essential conditions. He defines that general conditions
presuppose the participant‟s knowledge of the language being used and his non-playacting,
content conditions concern the appropriate content of an utterance, preparatory conditions
deal with differences of various illocutionary acts, sincerity conditions count with
speaker‟s intention to carry out the future action and finally, essential condition “combines
with a specification of what must be in the utterance content, the context, and the speaker‟s
intentions, in order for a specific speech act to be appropriately (felicitously) performed”
(Yule, 1996:51).
For example, in order to felicitously perform the speech act of promising, the following

conditions have to be met:
 Propositional content: the speaker said he would perform a future action

8
 Preparatory conditions:
- He intends to do it
- He believes he can do
- He thinks he wouldn‟t do it anyway, in the normal course of action
 Sincerity conditions:
- He thinks the addressee want him to do it (rather than not to do it)
- He intendents to place himself underan obligation so to it by uttering U
 Essential condition: The utterance U contains some IFID which is not only properly
uttered if all of the appropriate conditions obtain.
- Both speaker and addressee comprehend U
- They are both conscious, normal human beings
- They are both in normal circumstances – not e.g. acting in a play.
- The uttering U contains some IFID which is only properly uttered if all the
appropriate conditions obtain.
2.1.6. The relationship between speech acts and speech act verbs
According to Searle (1979), illocutionary acts are “natural conceptual kinds”. “The
illocutionary acts carried out by the speaker making utterances are the acts viewed in
.”
(James, 1983:244). As Wittgenstein (1953) mentions, there are countless kinds of speech
acts. For example, the following three utterances illustrate three different kinds of speech
acts:

Why not do X?
How about doing X?
Speech act verbs such as apologize, thank, congratulate, request, beg, promise, etc reflect
the certain interpretation of the world of human action and interaction. In other words,

speech act verbs are the importance to the way we perceive the world we live in – the
world of human relationships and human interaction.
In the scope of thesis, the directive acts are invesitgated. Directive acts are illocutionary
acts which essentially involve the speaker trying to get the hearer to behave in some
required way.

9
2.1.7. Property of speech act verbs
It is pointed out that many speech act verbs can be used “performatively”, i.e that they can
be used in the first person, present tense to indicate the nature (or the so-called
“illocutionary force”) of the utterance in which they occur. Performative verbs are
particular cases of speech act verbs in indicating the illocutionary forces.
For example, while an “order” can be performed by means of a bare imperative (e.g. “Stop
it!”), it can also be performed using the formula “I order you” (e.g. “I order you to stop
it”.)
2.2. Performatives
2.2.1. Performatives versus Constatives
Considering the utterances such as: “I pledge my absolute support for the new President”
or “I promise to meet him” (Hoa, 2004:234), we find that they seem to be doing something,
rather than merely saying something. Such sentences Austin dubbes performatives in
contrast to constatives.
Austin(1962) posits that constatives are utterances employed to make true or false
statements or assertions meanwhile performatives are utterances used to change the world.
Performatives are ordinary declarative sentences which are, not truth-evaluable, but instead
'happy' or 'unhappy' not used with any intention of making true or false statements, so they
are not true or false.
E.g:
Britain has no written constitution (Hoa, 2004:234)
→ constative
I ask you to help me (Hoa, 2004:234)

→ performative
By Austin‟s proposal, it is interesting to note that constatives fail when they are false;
whereas, performatives are not false, but rather improper, unsuccessful. In other words,
they are infelicitous.

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2.2.2. Definition of Performatives
Austin defines a performative as an utterance which contains a special type of verb (a
performative verb) by force of which it performs an action. Or “a performative utterance is
one that actually describes the act that it performs”. (James, 1983:235)
For example, when Peter says "I promise to do the dishes" in an appropriate context then
he thereby does not just say something, and in particular he does not just describe what he
is doing; rather, in making the utterance he performs the promise. Since promising is an
illocutionary act, the utterance is thus a performative utterance.
2.2.3. Types of performatives
Having defined performatives, Austin then distinguishes two general groups: explicit and
implicit performatives.
2.2.3.1. Explicit performative
An explicit performative is one in which the utterance contains an expression that makes
explicit what kind of act is being performed (Lyons, 1981:175). An explicit performative
includes a performative verb and mainly therefore, as Thomas (1995:47) asserts, it can be
seen to be a mechanism which allows the speaker to remove any possibilities of
misunderstanding the force behind an utterance.
In order for an utterance to be explicit, Austin (1975:32) explains, it has to “begin with or

bequeath‟”. An explicit performative utterance “makes explicit both that the utterance is
performative, and which act it is that is being performed” (1975:62); in performing an
illocutionary act by means of an explicit performative.
In English, explicit performatives are marked by performative verbs. The explicit
performative has the following normal form:

I + Vp + (you) + (that) + U
E.g: I warn you the bull will charge. (Levinson, 1983:235)
I thank you for being here. (Hoa, 2004:227)
The explicit performatives are those which take the following characteristics:
- They tend to begin with a verb in simple present tense and the subject of this verb is in
the first person: I order, I promise, I advise, I warn, I declare, etc.

11
- The main verb belongs to a special class describing verbal activities, for example:
promise, declare, warn, order, etc.
- Generally, the performative nature can be emphasized by inserting the adverb “hereby”,
for example: I hereby advise you to leave from the country.
2.2.3.2. Implicit performative
We regularly meet these utterances like those below:
a. (Hoa, 2004:234)
b. You must report your supervisor next Tuesday at 10 a.m. (Hoa, 2004:233)
We can provide these sentences above with the corresponding explicit performatives as
below:
A. I promise to meet him. (Hoa, 2004:234)
B. I order you to report to your supervisor next Tuesday at 10 a.m. (Hoa, 2004:233)
It seems reasonable to say that these sentences (a) and (b) could be uttered to perform the
same speech acts as those in (A) and (B). In fact, none of special characteristics of
performative utterances is indispensable to their performance. The utterances (a) and (b)
are called implicit performatives. Implicit performatives do not make explicit the
illocutionary act performed in making the utterance. Further examples of implicit
performatives are “Go!” (Austin, 1975:32) (ordering someone to go), as well as “Turn
right!” (Austin 1975:58) (ordering someone to turn right).
There are various linguistic means by which more implicit performatives could be marked,
like the mood of the verb, as in “shut it”, instead of “I order you to shut it”; or an adverb as
in “I will be there without fail” instead of “I promise I will be there”, or particle like

“therefore” instead of “I conclude that X”.
According to Levinson (1983), the imperative, interrogative or declarative sentences are
implicit performatives which can be changed into explicit performatives with the explicit
performative prefixes such as “I order 
The explicit performatives in declarative form, have the force associated with
the overt performative verb in each case.

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2.3. Performative verbs
2.3.1. Definition of performative verbs which
James R.Hurford (1983:237) defines that “a performative verb is one, when used in a
simple positive present tense sentence, with a 1
st
person singular subject, can make the
utterance of that sentence performative.”
In the book “Đại cương ngôn ngữ học: tập 2 – ngữ dụng học”, (2006:97) GS.TS Đỗ Hữu
Châu gives the notion of performative verbs: “ng t ng  ng t 
i biu thc ng u thc ng 
c hi lu th”.
E.g:
I sentence you to be hanged by the neck. (James, 1983:237)
I punish you. (James, 1983:237)
Sentence is a PV because it appears in a performative utterance. Punish is not a PV
because “I punish you” is not a performative utterance.
2.3.2. The function of performative verbs
In speech act theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning including propositional
meaning and illocutionary meaning.
Propositional meaning, known as locutionary meaning, is the basic literal meaning of the
utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structures which the utterances
contain.

Illocutionary meaning, also known as illocutionary force, is the effect the utterance has on
the hearer.
All utterances, in addition to meaning whatever they mean, perform special actions (or do
things) through having specific force. The same utterance can potentially have quite
different illocutionary forces.
Example: The sentence “I will see you later” can count as a promise, a warning, or a
prediction in the following cases:
I promise you that I will see you later
I warn you that I will see you later
I predict that I will see you later

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PVs identify a particular kind of speech act that can be performed by virtue of uttering a
sentence containing the verb. The function of PVs is to make explicit and precise the
illocutionary force of the utterances of the sentences containing them.
2.3.3. Classification of performative verbs
Performative verbs appear in explicit performatives and do not exist in implict
performatives. Based on the relations of utterances, Performative verbs can be classified
into three types as follows:
2.3.3.1. Meta-linguistic performative verbs
Metalinguistc performatives are verbs that help hearers realize what kind of speech act is
uttered and help perform meta-linguistic functions through self-referential way (the verb
refers to what the speaker of the utterance is doing). The structure of utterances containing
meta-linguistic performative verbs is:
Meta-linguistic per formative verbs + primary performative clause
Meta-linguistic PVs include say, speak, tell, protest, object, apologize, reject, etc
E.g:
I say it is the rising sun. (Hoa, 2004:184 )
I hereby tell you that work was done by Elain and myself. (James, 1983:53)
I apologize to you for buming into you. (Palmer, 1990:148)

2.3.3.2. Ritual performative verbs
Ritual performatives do not explain actions but express the performance of actions. This
kind of verb often appears in declarative sentences, such as name, baptize, sentence.
Absolve, pronounce, appoint, etc
E.g:
I sentence you to ten years of hard labor. (Levinson, 1983:228)
I now pronounce you man and wife. (James, 1983:53 )
I appoint you chairman. (Verschuren, 1999:52)
2.3.3.3. Collaborate performative verbs
Some performatives do not have felicity conditions in the sense that a specified person
must utter the words in particular circumstances but nevertheless their success is not

14
guaranteed. They require, for their success, the 'collaboration' or particular uptake of
another person. Collaborate PVs may be bet, challenge, dare, force, compel, etc.
E.g:
I bet you five (Levinson, 1983:232)
I challenge you to prove your innocence. (Partridge, 1982:92)
2.4. Summary
The chapter two has provided basic concepts and terms related to performative verbs in
order to give better understanding of the rest of the study.


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CHAPTER THREE. A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH DIRECTIVE
PERFORMATIVE VERBS AND THEIR VIETNAMESE EQUIVALENTS
This chapter is focused on the forms and meanings of most frequently directive PVs which
are employed in written discourse. Basing on the Dictionary “English speech act verbs”
(Wierzbicka, 1987), I will investigate the syntactic features and semantic features of
directive PVs in both language in turn. First of all, directive PVs in each language will be

presented, and then similarity and difference between them will be pointed out.
3.1. Syntactic features of directive PVs
3.1.1. Directive PVs in English
Directive PVs in English include ask, advise, beg, beseech, challenge, command, dare,
defy, demand, dictate, direct, forgive, implore, insist, order, petition, propose, recommend,
request, require, tell, suggest, urge, warn.
They normally occur in the constructions below:
I + Vp + (you) + that X or I + Vp + (you) + to Y
In which:
- V
p
: is a PV in directive clause
- that X: is that-clause which contains a subjunctive or a modal like “should”. “That” is a
conjunction and can be omitted.
- to Y: is an infinitive clause or to infinitive
E.g:
- I suggest that you be there on time. (Hoa, 2004:233)
Tđề nghị t  .
- I recommend that you go to that restaurant. (Hoa, 2004:233)
gợi ý anh .
Directive PVs may be taken into the following classes:
 The “order” group
The “order” group consists of order, command, demand, direct, tell, require. Commonly,
these verbs belonging this group permit a non-indicative that clause and take to-infinitive.
E.g:
- I demand that you release me at once. (Partridge, 1982:94)

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yêu cầu anh th p tc.
- I order you to wash the dishes. (Levinson, 1983:224)

yêu cầu bn r.
- I tell you to turn on the heating. I feel cold. (Patterson, 1997:92)
bảo anh bi m thy lnh.
- I hereby order you that you clean up this mess. (Yule, 1996:51)
yêu cầu bn dn m ba b.
However, it is necessary to notice the way of using some directive PVs when these verbs
go with an object as follows:
- “order” can take an action noun as its direct object meanwhile “command” does not
precede an action noun. One can say “The Prime Minister ordered a survey/an
investigation/a search” but not “The Prime Minister commanded a survey/an
investigation/a search”(Wierzbicka, 1987:39).
- “Demand” takes a direct object when the object is something, not someone. We can say
“he demanded money” or “he demanded an investigation”, etc. One can say “He ordered/
commanded her to do it” rather “He demanded her to do it”. (Wierzbicka, 1987:40)
 The ask
1
group
This group includes ask, beg, beseech, entreat, request, suggest, recommend, warn. Like
the “order” group, the “ask” group can go with a non-indicative clause or can take to-
infinitive with or whithout the surface object “you”.
E.g:
- I ask you to shut the door. (Levinson, 1983:265)
nhờ a li.
- I beg you to stay away from my daughter. (Hoa, 2004:233)
xin 
- I entreat you to spare me. (Partridge, 1982:96)
cầu xin anh tha th 
- I hereby request of you that you close the door. (Yule, 1996:55)
đề nghị ba li.
There are some special cases of using directive PVs as follows:

- The speaker does not request for something, instead he can ask or beg for something. In
other words, ask or beg permit a preposition “for” with a direct object.

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- One can not “beseech for mercy” or “beseech for money” but one can “beg for mercy” or
“beg for money”.
 The ask
2
group
This group comprises ask, inquire, question, interrogate, query.
- Inquire, unlike ask or question, can not take the addressee phrase as its direct object. One
does not inquire John, one can only inquire of John because the speaker does not attribute
to the addressee a central role in fulfilling the purpose of the act like in the case of asking.
- One can not query a person in contrast one can ask, question or interrogate a person.
 The “advise” group
- The verb “advise” takes to-infinitive with a surface object “you”. A non-indicative that
clause or gerund are unacceptable.
I advise you to be nice to her. (Hoa, 2004:233)
khuyên anh i x tt vy.
- The verbs suggest, recommend can go with a non-indicative that clause or to-infinitive or
a gerund. In the case of a non-indicative that clause, they admit a direct or indirect object.
Both verbs require the preposition “to” when they go with a direct object.
E.g:
- I suggest that you should do it tomorrow. (Partridge, 1982:98)
đề nghị b.
- I suggest to you to do it tomorrow. (Partride, 1982:98)
đề nghị b.
- I recommend to you that you should lay off it tomorrow. (Partride, 1982:98)
đề nghị b
3.1.2. Directive PVs in Vietnamese

The structures of directive PVs in Vietnamese are not as complicated as ones in English.
Directive PVs in Vietnamese often occur in complex sentences.
A complex sentence is a sentence containing two clauses or more than one clause, in which,
there is only one main clause. The other clauses are subordinate clauses modifying the
main clause.
The construction of a complex sentence that has a PV in the main predicate as follow:
S1

– V
1(p)
(conjunction) S2

- V


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In which:
- S1: is the subject of the main clause
- V
1
: is PV (the predicate of the main clause)

- S
2
: is the subject of the subordinate clause
- V
2
: is predicate of the subordinate clause
Between two clauses, there are often conjunctions such as “ng”.
 khuyên  b thu (Chau, 2006:101)

S1 V
p
S2 V
2




In fact, this sentence can be written again:
T anh (rng)  thu
S1 V
p
S2 (S2) V
2




In this case, the subject S2 “anh” in the subordinate clause (is also the object of the main
clause) is omitted.
To sum up, the syntactic structure of sentences containing performative verbs is
S1 + Vp1 + (± conj) + (± S2) + V2
E.g:
T xin anh cho t l. (Giap, 2004:18)
S1 Vp S2 V2



Tao ra lệnh  . (Giap, 2004:18)
S1 Vp S2 V2