a study on expansion expressed in president barack obama's inauguration speech = nghiên cứu về bành trướng được thể hiện trong diễn văn nhậm chức của tổng thống barack obama

1

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

NGUYỄN THỊ THÚY HẰNG



A STUDY ON EXPANSION EXPRRESSED IN PRESIDENT
BARACK OBAMA’S INAUGURATION SPEECH


NGHIÊN CỨU VỀ BÀNH TRƯỚNG ĐƯỢC THỂ HIỆN TRONG DIỄN VĂN
NHẬM CHỨC CỦA TỔNG THỐNG BARACK OBAMA



MA MINOR THESIS
FIELD: ENGLISH LINGUISTICS
CODE: 60 22 15




Hanoi -2010

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VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

NGUYỄN THỊ THÚY HẰNG



A STUDY ON EXPANSION EXPRRESSED IN PRESIDENT
BARACK OBAMA’S INAUGURATION SPEECH


NGHIÊN CỨU VỀ BÀNH TRƯỚNG ĐƯỢC THỂ HIỆN TRONG DIỄN VĂN
NHẬM CHỨC CỦA TỔNG THỐNG BARACK OBAMA



MA MINOR THESIS
FIELD: ENGLISH LINGUISTICS
CODE: 60 22 15
SUPERVISOR: PROF. DR. HOÀNG VĂN VÂN



Hanoi -2010


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NOTATIONAL CONVENTIONS


 Boundary Markers
||| : clause complex boundary
|| : clause boundary
 Types of dependency
1, 2, 3, … : Parataxis
α, β, γ, … : Hypotaxis
 Logico-semantic relations
Expansion:
= : Elaboration
+ : Extension
× : Enhancement
Projection:
" : Locution
' : Idea
 Others
1
st
, 2
nd
, 3
rd
, ….: number of clause complex in the text
(1), (2), (3), …: number of clause in the text

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

Declaration i
Acknowledgements ii
Abstract iii
Notational conventions iv

Part A: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale 1
2. Aims of the study 2
3. Scope of the study 2
4. Data collection 2
5. Methods of the study 3
6. Design of the study 3

Part B: DEVELOPMENT
Chapter 1: Theoretical background
1.1. An overview of systemic functional grammar 4
1.2. Functions 6
1.2.1. Micro-function 6
1.2.2. Macro-function 6
1.2.3. Metafunction 6
1.3. Three metafunctions of the language 6
1.3.1. Ideational metafunction 6

1.3.2. Interpersonal metafunction 7
1.3.3. Textual metafunction 8
1.4. Clause and clause complex 9
1.4.1. Clause simplex and clause complex in systemic functional 9

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grammar
1.4.2. Relationship between clauses in clause complex 10
1.4.2.1. Taxis 10
1.4.2.2. Logico-semantic relation 12
1.5. Summary 14

Chapter 2: Expansion and its relations between clauses
in clause complexes in English
2.1. Introduction 15
2.2. Expansion 15
2.3. Types of expansion 15
2.3.1. Elaboration 15
2.3.1.1. Paratactic elaboration 15
2.3.1.2. Hypotactic elaboration 16
2.3.2. Extention 18
2.3.2.1. Paratactic extention 19
2.3.2.2. Hypotactic extension 20
2.3.3. Enhancement 21
2.3.3.1. Paratactic enhancement 21
2.3.3.2. Hypotactic enhancement 22
2.4. Summary 25

Chapter 3: Expansion relations between clauses in President Barack Obama’s
inauguration speech

3.1. Introduction 26
3.2. The chosen text 26
3.3. Field, Tenor, Mode 27
3.31. Field 27
3.3.2. Tenor 28

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3.3.3. Mode 29
3.4. Expansion relation in the speech 29
3.4.1. Data 29
3.4.2. Discussion 37
3.4.3. Summary 40
Part C: CONCLUSION
1. Recapitulation 41
2. Implications 41
3. Suggestions for further study 42

REFERENCES 43

APPENDIX 1 The inauguration speech of president Barack Obama I
APPENDIX 2 Classification of expansion relation between VI
clauses in the clause complexes in the speech.

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Part A
INTRODUCTION

1. Rationale
In confirming the importance of grammar in language study, the British linguist, David
Crystal (2004) states:
“Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express ourselves. The more we
are aware of how it works, the more we can monitor the meaning and the effectiveness of the
way we and others use language. It can help foster precision, detect ambiguity, and exploit the
richness of expression available in English. And it can help everyone not only teachers of
English, but teachers of anything, for all teaching is ultimately a matter of getting to grips with
meaning.”
These above sentences show us how important and valuable grammar is. It is one of
the most effective ways to help human understand the nature of language. Therefore, it comes
as no surprise to know that grammar has attracted great attention of many linguistics. As a
result, there are many approaches to grammar and all of them have both advantages and
drawbacks. Among the many trends of grammar, systemic functional grammar, which is
developed by M.A.K Halliday, and other linguists such as R. Hassan, D. Morley, Th. Bloor,
…., is considered to be the most effective one. This kind of grammar is concerned with both
spoken and written language and focuses on functions of language. In comparison with
traditional grammar, which focuses on written language and is concerned with rules of correct
usage, systemic functional grammar is indeed the most useful tool of analysis.

In Vietnam, systemic functional grammar has been studied by many grammarians such
as Cao Xuân Hạo (1991) with Tiếng Việt: Sơ thảo ngữ pháp chức năng, Hoàng Văn Vân
(2005) with Ngữ pháp kinh nghiệm của cú tiếng Việt: Mô tả theo quan điểm chức năng hệ
thống. We, students at Department of postgraduate studies, Vietnam national university -
Hanoi college of foreign language, has also had a chance to learn systemic functional grammar
and discover the interesting features of this new trend of grammar. Systemic functional
grammar, in fact, has given me much impression and inspired me to study about one

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phenomenon in language in terms of functional grammar – that is expansion in clause
complex.
There are two main reasons for my choice of the topic of the thesis –
1. Firstly, expansion is a kind of logico-semantic relation between clause complexes in
English. Therefore, the study of expansion will undoubtedly help us to understand the
features behind a text more deeply and comprehensively. This understanding, actually,
is of great use to the teaching and learning of English.
2. Secondly, Barack Obama is the first African-American president in USA who has
gained much popularity in the world. I would like to choose the inauguration speech of
Barack Obama to analyze from the perspective of functional grammar in order to better
my knowledge of expansion and also to see how the logico-semantic relations in the
speech reflect the speaker‟s intention.

2. Aims of the study
Within the framework of an MA thesis, the study attempts to:
- examine some basic notions in functional grammar and clarify types of expansion
relations in a clause complex.
- study how expansion relations are expressed in President Barack Obama‟s
inauguration speech.
- offer some implications for teaching and suggestions for further study.

3. Scope of the study
This study does not cover all aspects of the relation above the clause due to its complexity.
Only one of the two subtypes of the logico-semantic relations between clauses – expansion- is
taken into consideration.
4. Data collection
Data will be collected from clauses in President Barack Obama‟s inauguration speech.
The examples used in the study are taken from grammar books by famous grammarians like
Halliday (1994), Morley (2000) Thompson (1996)….

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5. Methods of the study
The aims of the study are to investigate the nature of expansion relation in English and
analyze a chosen text from functional grammar perspective. Therefore, the descriptive and
analytical methods will be employed as the principal mothods in the thesis. The descriptive
method is resorted to when mentioning some basic notions. The analytical method is applied
to analyze the chosen text.

6. Design of the study
The study is divided into 3 parts:
Part A – introduction - presents the rationale for choosing the topic, the aims of the study, the
scope and data collecion of the study as well as the design of the study.
Part B- development – is the main part of the thesis, consisting 3 chapters:
Chapter 1, Theoretical Background, provides some fundamental and theoretical concepts
which are relevant to the purposes of the study.
Chapter 2 is aimed at examining the expansion relation in English. In this chapter, expansion
relation is investigated in detail, with a view to formulting a framework for the analysis of the
chosen text.
Chapter 3 deals with the representation of expansion relation in the chosen text – the
inauguration speech of President Barack Obama. The aim of this chapter is to find out how
different types of expansion are used in the text and to see whether they express the intention

of the speaker clearly and accurately.
Part C – conclusion – summarizes the results of the study, provides some implications for
teaching and learning English, and makes some suggestions for further study.








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Part B
DEVELOPMENT
Chapter 1
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
This chapter re-examines some basic concepts of systemic functional grammar and of the
relations in clause complex in order to establish a theoretical framework for the study. The
chapter is divided into 4 parts: (1) an overview of systemic functional grammar, (2) the
concepts of function, micro-function, macro-function and metafunction,(3) three
metafunctions of language and (4) clause and clause complex in English.
1.1. An overview of systemic functional grammar
Systemic functional grammar (SFG) is a model of grammar developed by Michael
Halliday in the 1960s.

It is part of a broad social semiotic approach to language called
systemic linguistics. It is systemic in the sense that it sees grammar as a non-arbitrarily
motivated network (system) of potential choices. Halliday (1994:15) states „language is a
network of systems, or intrrelated sets of options for making meaning'. It is functional in the
sense that it attempts to explicate the communicative implications (function) of a selection

within one of these systems.
In comparison with formal or generative approaches to grammar, functional approaches to
grammar treat language in different way. Systemic functional grammar pays attention to the
communicative aspect of language, meanwhile formal or generative grammar focuses on
lnguage cognition. The roots of Systemic Functional Grammar lie in sociology and
anthropology rather than psychology and computer science.
Systemic functional grammar has two components: Systemic grammar and functional
grammar. They are two inseparable parts for an integral framework of linguistic theory. “
Systemic grammar aims to explain the interal relations in language as a system network, or
meaningful potential. And this network consists of subsystems from which language users
make choices. Functional grammar aims to reveal that language is a means of social
interaction, based on the position that language system and the forms that make it up are
inescapably determined by the uses of functions which they serve” (Hu Zhuanglin, 1988:307)

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Functional grammar has a number of features which make it suitable for studying language
variation.
Firstly, it is based on the notion of choice - it models grammar as a set of options (a
repertoire or resource). This means that it presents grammar to teachers and students as a set of
tools they can use rather than a set of rules about what not to do.
Secondly, functional grammar looks at the way in which grammar is used to construct
texts in their context of use - it is concerned in other words with real language not just with the
made up examples of language that can be found in many language tests, exercises, work
sheets or traditional grammar books. Its application is not restricted to the analysis of isolated
sentences - it explains the way in which sentences are structured to construct whole texts such
as stories, essays and reports which students learn to read and write in primary and seconday
school.
Thirdly, functional grammar is concerned with the way in which grammar is organised to
make meaning. Because it is concerned with meaning, it can be related directly to the concerns
of teachers and students in all subject areas.

Overall, functional grammar is concerned with the way that the different kinds of meaning that
contribute to grammatical structure are comprehensively addressed. It is concerned with
resources for
- analysing experience - what is going on,
- analysing interaction - who is communicating with whom
- analysing the ways in which messages are constructed
Because the study of language structure has not been an explicit part of teacher education for
some decades, a technical approach to language is unfamiliar to many teachers. However the
resources described above are regularly used by speakers and writers to make meaning in
speech and writing. Bringing these resources to consciousness provides a powerful tool for
teachers and students to use in comprehending and composing texts within contexts.


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1.2. Functions
In systemic functional grammar, there are three types of functions: micro-function, macro-
function and metafunction.
1.2.1. Micro-function is the first function/use of a child's protolanguage.
1.2.2. Macro-function can be identified in a child's transition between his/her protolanguage
and adult language
1.2.3. Metafunction
Systemic functional grammar argues for the existence of three main metafunctions which
contribute to the way in which meanings are expressed: ideational metafunction, interpersonal
metafunction and textual metafunction. Each types of metafunctions deals with different
aspect of the world and illustrates different kind of meaning of clauses, but “ forms part of a
different functional configuration, making up a separate strand in the overall meaning of the
clause” (Halliday, 1994:34). According to Bloor (1995:9) “ Newcomers to functional grammar
are sometimes confused by metafunctions because they expect them to operate independently
and discretely. This is a mistaken expectation. In almost any instance of language use, all three
metafunctions operate simultaneously in the expression of meaning. This is because certain

aspects of the grammar realize the ideational function, the other aspects realize the
interpersonal function and yet others realize the textual function.”
1.3. Three metafunctions of the language
1.3.1. Ideational metafunction
The ideational metafunction is the one that helps us understand, organize and express
perceptions of the world and our consciousness. It relates to the field aspects of a text, or its
subject matter and context of use. The ideational metafunction can be classified into two
subtypes: the experiential and the logical. Experiential metafunction, which is the function of
understanding ideas, is distinguished from logical metafunction, which is that of organizing
and correct expressing of ideas.
The experiential metafunction organises our experience and understanding of the world. It is
the potential of the language to construe figures with elements and its potential to differentiate
these elements into processes, the participants in these processes, and the circumstances in

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which the processes occur. The experiential metafunction is realized through the system of
transitivity. According to Halliday, there are six types of process in the transitivity system of
English, namely, material, mental, relational, verbal, behavioral and existential.
The logical metafunction works above the experiential. It organises our reasoning on the basis
of our experience. It is the potential of the language to construe logical links between figures;
for example, "this happened after that happened" or, with more experience, "this happens
every time that happens".
Experiential meanings are associated with the constituency structures whereas logical
meanings are related to the interdependency ones, particularly, the coordination ( or parataxis)
or subordination ( or hypotaxis) between clauses.
The following example illustrates the analysis of a clause with respect to its ideational
metafunction.
Frank
worked
hard

and
he
became
an architect
Actor
Process:
material
Circumstance

Carrier
Process:
relational
Attribute

||| Frank work hard || and he became an architect. |||
1 +2
(Alexander, 1988,11)
1.3.2. Interpersonal metafunction
“ We also use language to interact with other people to establish and maintain relationships
with them, to influence their behaviour, to express our own viewpoint on things in the world,
and to elicit or change theirs” (Thompson, 2004:30). Hu Zhuanglin (1988:313) points out: “
The interpersonal functions embodies all uses of language to express social and personal
relations. This includes the various ways the speaker enters a speech situation and performs a
speech act.”. The interpersonal metafunction represents the text‟s aspects of tenor or
interactivity. Tenor comprises three component areas: the speaker/writer persona (variation),
social distance and relative social status.The speaker/writer persona concerns the stance,
personalisation and standing of the speaker or writer. This involves looking at whether the

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writer or speaker has a neutral attitude, which can be seen through the use of positive or

negative language. Social distance means how close the speakers are, e.g. how the use of
nicknames shows the degree to which they are intimate. Relative social status asks whether
they are equal in terms of power and knowledge on a subject, for example, the relationship
between a mother and a child would be considered unequal.
Concerning interpersonal metafunction of the clause, Halliday points out two components: the
Mood and the Residue. The Mood consists of two parts: (1) the Subject, which is a norminal
group and (2) the Finite operator, which is part of a verbal group. In other words, it shows the
relationship between the grammatical subject of the clause and the finite element of the verbal
group.The Residue, according to Halliday, consists of functional elements of three kinds:
Predicator, Complement, and Adjunct.
The following example is analyzed on the basis of interpersonal metafunction:
Sarah
's
cooking
dinner
for her classmates
Subject
Finite
Predicator
Complement
Adjunct
Mood
Residue

1.3.3. Textual metafunction
„In using language, we organize our messages in ways that indicate how they fit in with other
messages around them and with the wider context in which we are talking or writing‟
(Thompson, 2004: 30). Halliday describes, “Language makes links between itself and the
situation; and discourse becomes possible because the speaker or writer can produce a text and
the listener or reader can recognize one” (Halliday, 1971:334). In other words, the Textual

metafunction accounts for the ways in which clauses are organized to comprise a message.
Depending on the type of message one desires to express, the way in which the text flows will
change. Clauses can be divided into two main functional parts: Theme and Rheme.
The Theme consists of the first functional element of the clause up to and including the first
experiential element. The Theme is a resource for organizing the interpersonal and ideational
meanings of each clause in the form of a message. Each clause will occur at some particular

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point in the unfolding of the text; this is its textual environment. The system of THEME sets
up a local environment, providing a point of departure by reference to which the listener
interprets the message. With this system the speaker specifies the place in the listener's
network of meanings where the message is to be incorporated as relevant. The local
environment, serving as point of departure, is the Theme; what is presented in this local
environment is the Rheme. The clause as a message is thus a configuration of two thematic
statuses, Theme + Rheme. The Theme is what the clause is about while the remainder of the
clause (the Rheme) provides the actual content. Identifying the Themes of a text helps us see
the development of the text.
In English, thematic status is expressed by position in sequence. The Theme is realized by
initial position and the Rheme is realized by non-initial position.
In 1983
Jack arrived in Sydney
Theme
Rheme

As mentioned above, three kinds of metafunction are of equal importance and closely related.
“They all contribute to the overall meaning of the structure of the text” (Morley, 2000:16).
The following example will illustrate their simultaneous operation in the expression of
meaning.
Metafunction
system

In the garden
the Prince
danced
with his
girlfriend
Textual
THEME
Theme
Rheme
Interpersonal
MOOD
Adjunct
Subject
Finite/
Predicator
Adjunct
Residue(1)
Mood
Residue (2)
Ideational
TRASITIVITY
Location
Actor
Material
Process
Accompaniment

1.4. Clause and clause complex
1.4.1. Clause simplex and clause complex in systemic functional grammar

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The term “clause” in systemic functional grammar is identical with „sentence‟ in the formal
grammar. Clause or clause simplex equals simple sentence in formal grammar and clause
complex equals complex sentence. Clause in SFL is a grammatical unit that consists of three
main components, i.e. (1) process, (2) participant, and (3) circumstance. Process equals verb
in formal grammar, Participant equals subject or object, whilst circumstance equals
complement. In functional grammar, clause is the point of origin of the systems of Trantivity,
Mood and Theme, and is realized by three simultaneous structural layers (transitivity structure,
modal structure and thematic structure).
1.4.2. Relationship between clauses in clause complexes.
As mentioned above, ideational metafunction consists of two components: the logical meaning
and the experiential meaning. The relationship between clauses in clause complexes is just the
realization of the logical metafunction.
In Halliday‟s grammar, clauses in a clause complex are interrelated in terms of two systems:
One is the system of interdependency, or “taxis” and the other is the logico-semantic system.
The former is “general to all complexes – word, group, phrase, and clause alike”
(Halliday,1994:216) meanwhile the latter is “specifically an inter-clausal relation”
(Halliday,1994:216). These two systems together provide a functional framework for
describing the clause complexes.
1.4.2.1. Taxis
Taxis or the system of interdependency specifies the relative status of the two clauses in a
nexus. Taxis tells us whether the clauses are of equal or unequal status. Therefore, Taxis is
divided into two kinds: parataxis and hypotaxis.
“Parataxis handles the linking relationship between units of equal grammatical status, for
example, coordinating two free clauses, coordinating two bound clauses of equal status or
linking two phrases with the same function” (Morley, 2000:87). In other words, parataxis is
“the relation between two like elements of equal status, one initiating and the other
continuing” (Halliday, 1994:218). Since clauses in paratactic relation are equal in status, the
clauses are numbered sequentially, that is, "1" is used for the first clause, followed by "2" for
the second clause, and so on.

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Example:
|||Jim speaks Spanish,||but his wife speaks French. |||
1 2
(Alexander, 1988, 11)
The notion of hypotaxis, as Morley (2000:87) defines, “is concerned with the binding
relationships between units of unequal grammatical status, for example, between a free and a
bound clause or between two bound clauses of unequal status”. In hypotactic relationship,
there always exist a dependent clause and its dominant, the element on which it is dependent.
According to Halliday, the dominant element is free, but the dependent one is not. Greek
letters are used to signal hypotaxis. The symbol α is always reserved for the main or dominant
clause. All other symbols, from β onwards are used for clauses dependent on the
main/dominant clause. Here's a simple example:
|||This fish isn’t cooked || as I like it. |||
α β
(Alexander, 1988,25)
One striking feature that differentiate hypotaxis from parataxis is that: Paratatic relation is
logically symmetrical and transitive whereas hypotatic relation is logically non-symmetrical
and non-transitive. The following examples will illustrate it clearly. In the clause complex: “
He watched TV and she listened to music”, the relationship between clauses is paratactic. We
can change the position of the two clauses without changing meaning: “She listened to music
and he watched TV”. Thus, parataxis is symmetrical.
However, the clause complex “I went to school although it rained” does not imply “It rained
although I went to school”. Therefore, non-symmetrical is one of the features of hypotactic
relationship.
When we say “Jack planted trees and John dug a hole” and “John dug a hole and Mike
painted the house”, these sentences imply “Jack planted trees and Mike painted the house”.
The parataxis is transitive. Nevertheless, “I fret when I have to drive slowly” and “I have to
drive slowly when it’s been raining” ( Halliday, 1994:221) do not imply “I fret when it’s been

raining”. Obviously, the relation here is non-transitive.

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1.4.2.2. Logico-semantic system
The system of logical-semantic relations specifies what its name suggests: the particular kind
of logical interconnection. This basically refers to the nature of the relation between clauses,
which is both logical and semantic. The logico-semantic relationships are of two broad kinds -
- Expansion (comprising Extension, Enhancement, and Elaboration), and Projection
(comprising Locution or Idea).
According to Halliday (1994:219), in expansion, the secondary clause expands the primary
clause by elaborating it, extending it or enhancing it. In other words, in expansion “one clause
expands on the meaning of another in various ways” (Thompson, 1996:200).
In elaboration, the elaborating clause restates, comments, exemplifies, or specifies in greater
detail. In the case of hypotaxis, elaboration is typically realised by non-restrictive relative
clauses. The symbol "=" is used to signal elaboration.
Example:
|||I married Peter, || which surprised everyone|||
α = β
|||He looked tired, |||his face was pale|||
1 =2
In extension, the extending clause adds something new, provides an exception, or offers an
alternative. The symbol "+" is used to signal Extension, as shown below for both paratactic
and hypotactic constructions:
||| She sang poorly, // and was booed off the stage. |||
1 +2
||| She sang poorly, // being booed all the way. |||

α +β

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In enhancement, the enhancing clause provides circumstantial features of time, place,
cause/reason, condition, result, etc. The symbol "x" is used to signal Enhancement:
||| Peter wanted a band, // so he formed Boney. |||
1 x2

||| Peter formed Boney, // because he wanted a band. |||

α xβ

In a nexus related by projection, “the secondary clause is projected through the primary clause,
which instates it as (a) a locution or (b) an idea. (Halliday, 1994:219)
Locution is quoted or reported speech. The symbol (") is used to signal Locution. The quoted
or reported speech must be projected from a verbal process. In other words, locution is
projected verbal events.
||| "Let's go out tonight!"// Alvin said. |||
"1 2
||| Alvin said // that we should stay at home. |||
α "β
Idea is quoted or reported thought. The symbol (') is used to signal Idea. The quoted or
reported thought must be projected from a mental process.
|||"When will we leave for New York?" // Mary wondered. |||

'1 2
||| Mary wondered // when they would leave for New York. |||

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α 'β

As can be seen from the examples above, projection can be either paratactic or hypotactic.

Paratactic projection is typically “direct speech”. In this case, projecting and projected clauses
may occur in any order.

||| “ He was a naughty boy”,// the teacher said |||
"1 2

||| The Prime Minister declared, // “ We won” |||
1

"2
Hypotactic projection is typically “reported speech” and in this case, the projecting clauses
usually precede the projected ones.

||| The police said// that he had killed his wife|||
α
"
β
||| He thought// he could finish it in time|||
α
'
β
1.5. Summary
In this chapter, I have been concerned with the main concepts of systemic functional theory:
micro-function, macro-function, three metafunctions. I have also devoted a small section to re-
examining the notions concerning the logical metafunction of the clause – the clause complex.
The relationship between clauses is expressed through two systems: taxis, or interdependency
and logico-semantic. Taxis is made up of two kinds: paratactic (equal status) and hypotactic
(unequal status). Logio-semantic relations are also classified into two types: expansion and
projection. The next chapter will focus on the relations of expansion in clause complexes.

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Chapter 2
EXPANSION AND EXPANSION RELATIONS BETWEEN CLAUSES IN CLAUSE
COMPLEXES IN ENGLISH

2.1. Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to re-examine expansion and its relations between clauses in
clause complexes in greater detail. The writer hope that a thorough investigation into
expansion will provide the framework for the analysis in the next chapter.
2.2. Expansion
Expansion is one of the two types of logico-semantic relations between clauses in clause
complexes in English. In a nexus related by expansion, the secondary clause picks up the
message of the primary one and expands on it. It may do this in any one of three ways: by
elaborating, by extending, or by enhancing. In other words, expansion embraces three
subtypes: elaboration, extension and enhancement.
2.3. Types of expansion
2.3.1. Elaboration
In elaboration, one clause elaborates on the meaning of another by saying the same thing over
again, either by repeating it directly or by rewording it, clarifying it, or giving an example.
Therefore, when elaboration occurs, the secondary clause „does not introduce a new element
into the picture but rather provides a further characterization of one that is already there‟
(Halliday, 1994:225). Elaboration might be paratactic or hypotactic. The equal sign ( =) is
used to denote this relation.
2.3.1.1. Paratactic elaboration (1=2)
In paratactic elaboration, the secondary clause expands on the primary clause by “refining in
some way what has been said in it” (Morley, 2000:87). According to Halliday (1994:225) „the
combination of elaboration and parataxis yields three types‟: exposition, exemplification and

clarification.
In exposition, the secondary clause restates in different words the proposition in the initial
clause. For example,

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I shan’t be going on Saturday; I’ve decided to give it a miss.
(Morley, 2000:87)
In this example, “I‟ve decided to give it a miss” rephrases the meaning of “I shan‟t be going
on Saturday” from a different angle.
This type of expansion represents the relationship “X, i.e. Y” and may be introduced by
expressions such as or (rather), in other words or that is to say or in writing, i.e.
In exemplification, the proposition in the first clause is specified further, often by giving an
actual example. The conjunctives used in this type are for example, for instance, in particular,
or in writing, e.g.
We used to have races – we used to have relays.
(Halliday, 1994:226)
In clarification, the thesis of the primary clause is clarified with further detail, being backed up
“with some form of explanation or explanatory comment” (Halliday, 1994: 226). Expressions
such as in fact, actually, to be precise, indeed, at least are frequently used in this relation. In
writing, the abbreviations i.e and viz. are common. This relationship can also be implicitly
signalled by juxtaposing and in writing, by a colon (:) or a semicolon (;).
I like fish; I try to buy some once a week.
(Morley, 2000:87)
Alice could only look puzzled: she was thinking of the pudding.
( Halliday, 1994:226)
2.3.1.2. Hypotactic elaboration (α = β)
In hypotactic elaboration, the dependent clauses, usually non-defining relative clauses, provide
an optional comment on the superordinate clauses. “These relate either to the whole of the
foregoing clause or just to a nominal phrase” (Morley, 2000:88).
For example:

I could eat a bar of chocolate everyday, which would probably be unhealthy.
( Morley, 2000:88)
Lagos, which is the capital of Nigeria, is a port.
(Deivities, 1989:65)

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The dependent clause may be finite or non-finite.
 Finite
The finite dependent clause in this type “has the same form as a defining relative clause of the
WH-type” (Halliday, 1994:227). However, it is obvious that there are differences between
defining (restrictive) and non-defining (non-restrictive) relative clauses in terms of meaning
and expressions both in speech and in writing.
Take meaning into consideration, the non-defining relative clauses “do not define subsets, in
the way that a defining clause does” (Halliday, 1994:227). They merely add something to the
subsets by giving more information. Non-defining relative clauses provide interesting
additional information which is not essential to understanding the meaning of the sentence.
However defining relative clauses is crucial in understanding the meaning of the whole
sentence. If we remove them, the sentence has a different meaning or no meaning.
For example, in “The woman who lives next door is a famous writer”, the defining clause
“who lives next door” specifies the noun “the woman”. Compared with the sentence “Hanoi,
which is the capital of Vietnam, is very special”, the non-defining clause “which is the capital
of Vietnam” adds a further characterization to Hanoi which is taken to be already fully
specific. In fact, the defining clauses restrict the scope of their antecedents, whereas the non-
defining clauses provide additional information or give a comment on the antecedents.
According to Halliday (1994:227), “the domain of a non-defining clause may be a whole
clause”, for example:
He didn’t pass the exam, which surprised his teachers.
or any of its constituents, for example:
Mary, who is standing overthere, is my best friend (1)
Tonight’s speaker, who comes from my hometown, should be very interesting (2)

(Morley, 2000:88)
Have you ever been to Ha Long Bay, where your boyfriend was born (3)
That year, where Giuliance studied with Carapetto, changed her whole life (4)
(Jacobs, 1996:314)

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The domain of non-defining clauses in (1), (2), (3), (4) are proper noun, nominal group,
expression of place and exprression of time respectively. The non-restrictive clause might be
at the end of the primary one or be enclosed in the primary clause. When enclosure occurs, the
angle brackets are used to denote the relation.
Inflation, which was necessary for systems, became also lethal.
(Halliday, 1994:227)
α <<=β>>
As far as the expression is concerned, non-defining clauses differ from defining clauses both
in speech and in writing. In written form, the former is marked off by punctuation - usually
commas, sometimes dash, meanwhile the latter is not marked off by any punctuation. In
spoken form, “whereas a defining relative clause enters into a single tone group together with
its antecedent, a non-defining relative clause forms a separate tone group” (Halliday,
1994:228).
 Non-finite
The non-finite restrictive clauses have the same semantic relationship as with the finite ones.
They also refer to either the whole primary clause or one element of that clause.
For example:
I worked for a local firm at that time, selling office equipment.
(Halliday, 1994:229)
Mary, standing overthere, is my best friend.
Also, the non-finite non-restrictive clauses form a separate tone group and again, are signalled
by punctuation. It is obvious that in the non-finite clauses, there is neither WH-form nor any
preposition acting conjuntively and the subjects, in most cases, are implicit. Therefore, it
causes some difficulties when interpreting these clauses.

2.3.2. Extension
Extending means adding something new, giving an exception to it or offering an alternative.
According to Morley (2000:87), “clauses of extension expand on the previous clause in one of
two ways. With many of them, it is merely a matter of addition, but with others the extension
involves some forms of variation of the content expressed in the first clause”. Basically,

28
extension is classified into two subtypes: addition and variation. As in the case with
elaboration, extension might also be paratactic and hypotactic. The notation (+) is used to
denote this relation.
2.3.2.1. Paratactic extension (1+2)
The combination of extension with parataxis “covers most of what is traditionally called
coordination” (Thompson, 1996:203). Therefore, conjunctions and, or, nor, but are commonly
used.
 Addition
Addition means adjoining one process to another. The relationship may be:
 Positive addition: (X and Y)
The window in the room was open and half noises came from the street.
(Horton, 1996:242)
 Negative addition: ( not X and not Y)
Jane does not drink coffee nor does he eat eggs.
 Adversative addition: ( X and conversely Y)
Jill does not drink milk but she does eat eggs.
(Morley, 2000:87)
In addition, moreover, on the other hand, yet, also are cohesive expressions in addition
relation.
 Variation
In variation, the secondary clause is presented as a total or partial replacement of the primary
clause or it presents an alternative to the initial one. The second clause may be:
 Replacive: ( not X but Y, X instead Y)

She didn’t come by bus but instead took a taxi.
(Morley, 2000:88)
 Subtractive: ( X, except Y)
They did a good job, only they were so slow about it.
(Halliday, 1994:230)
 Alternative: ( X, or Y)