a systemic funtional perspective on the meaning and structure of the story the selfish giant by oscar wilde = bình diện ngữ pháp chức năng hệ thống về cấu trúc và ngữ nghĩa của truyện ngắn gã khổng lồ ích kỷ

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF POST – GRADUATE STUDIES



ĐÀO THỊ MINH TÂN




A SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON
THE MEANING AND STRUCTURE OF THE STORY
“THE SELFISH GIANT” BY OSCAR WILDE

BÌNH DIỆN NGỮ PHÁP CHỨC NĂNG HỆ THỐNG VỀ CẤU TRÚC
VÀ NGỮ NGHĨA CỦA TRUYỆN NGẮN “GÃ KHỔNG LỒ ÍCH KỶ”
CỦA OSCAR WILDE

M. A. MINOR THESIS


Field: English Linguistics
Code: 60 22 15

HANOI, 2011






VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF POST – GRADUATE STUDIES



ĐÀO THỊ MINH TÂN


A SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE
MEANING AND STRUCTURE OF THE STORY “THE
SELFISH GIANT” BY OSCAR WILDE

(BÌNH DIỆN NGỮ PHÁP CHỨC NĂNG HỆ THỐNG VỀ CẤU TRÚC
VÀ NGỮ NGHĨA CỦA TRUYỆN NGẮN “GÃ KHỔNG LỒ ÍCH KỶ”
CỦA OSCAR WILDE)

M.A MINOR THESIS

Field: English Linguistics
Code: 60 22 15
Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Hoàng Văn Vân



Hanoi, 2011

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ……………………………………………………………. i
ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………… ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT …………………………………………………. iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ………………………………………………. iv
LIST OF TABLES …………………………………………………………… vii
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1
1. Rationale of the study 1
2. Aims of the study 1
3. Scope of the study 2
4. Methods of the study 2
5. Design of the study 2
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 3
1. Introduction 3
2. Theories of systemic functional grammar 3
2.1. The Transitivity structure ………………………… 4
2.1.1. Material processes 5
2.1.2. Relational processes: …………………… 6

2.1.3. Mental processes……… 7
2.1.4. Verbal processes… 7
2.1.5. Behavioural processes 8
2.1.6. Existential processes 9
2.1.7. Circumstances: …………………………………… 10
2.2. The Mood structure 11
v

2.3. The thematic structure ………………………… 12
2.4. Cohesion ……………… 18
2.4.1. Grammatical cohesion 18
2.4.1.1. Reference……… …… 18
2.4.1.2. Conjunction……… 19
2.4.1.3. Ellipsis…………… 19
2.4.1.4. Substitution: 19
2.4.2. Lexical Cohesion 20
2.4.2.1. Repetition 20
2.4.2.2. Synonymy 20
2.4.2.3. Antonymy…… 21
2.4.2.4. Hyponomy 21
2.4.2.5. Meronymy 21
2.4.2.6. Collocation 21
CHAPTER III: THE MEANING AND STRUCTURE OF THE STORY
“THE SELFISH GIANT”
1. Introduction 22
2. The Context of the Chosen Text 22
3. Clauses and Clause Complexes 22
4. The analysis of the text in terms of Transitivity, Mood and Theme 23
4.1.The Transitivity Pattern 23
4.2.The Mood Pattern 25

4.3.The Theme – Rheme Pattern 26
5. The Cohesion of the Text 27
vi

5.1. Grammatical Cohesion 27
5.1.1. Reference 27
5.1.2. Conjunctive Devices 31
5.1.3. Substitution………… 32
5.2. Lexical Cohesion 32
5.3. Contextual Configuration of the text 38
CHAPTER IV: CONCLUSION 40
4.1. Recapitulation 40
4.2. Implication of the Paper 40
4.3. Suggestions for Further Study 41
References ………………………………………………………………………. 42
Appendix 1 …………………………………………………………………… I
Appendix 2 ………………………………………………………………… … VI
Appendix 3 …………………………………………………………………… XIII
Appendix 4 …………………………………………………………………… XIX
Appendix 5 …………………………………………………………………… XXIV
Appendix 6 …………………………………………………………………… XXIX
Appendix 7 …………………………………………………………………… XXXIX






vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table A: Process types, Category meaning, and key participants
Table B: The main types of circumstances and their features
Table C: Themes and features
Table 1: Clause and Clause Complexes Analysis
Table 2: Clause and Clause Complexes relationship
Table 3: Transitivity pattern of the text
Table 4: the Mood pattern of the text
Table 5: The Thematic pattern of the text
Table 6: Grammatical Cohesive Devices of the Text
Table 7: The analysis of the text in terms of Transitivity, Mood and Theme


1

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
There are many grammatical paradigms and each of them views language from different
perspectives. And among those, systemic functional grammar is a very new trend which has not
been known much in Vietnam. Up till now, there have been only two works which study
functional grammar. The first is Tiếng Việt – Sơ thảo ngữ pháp chức năng by Cao Xuân Hạo
(1991) and the second is Ngữ pháp kinh nghiệm của cú Tiếng Việt – mô tả theo quan điểm chức
năng hệ thống by Hoàng Văn Vân (2002). Both of them have contributed much to the study of
this field and brought the paradigm which has not yet been highlighted in Vietnamese schools
closer to Vietnamese learners.
In contrast to traditional grammars that place importance on language form, systemic functional
grammar (SFG) emphasizes how language is used to express meaning i.e. it focuses on the
functions of language. Moreover, SFG interprets language as interrelated sets of options for
making meaning and seeks to provide a clear relationship between functions and grammatical

systems (Halliday, 1994). It is closer to our language in daily life, and thus can help us to see and
understand human language more deeply and comprehensively. It can be said without
exaggeration that functional grammar is „an effective tool of analysis, which solves the issues
left out by traditional grammar‟. In addition to that, functional grammar also offers us an
analytical tool of looking at the whole text and the grammatical features which are typical
characteristic of that kind of text. For the above-mentioned reasons, I have decided to choose “A
systemic functional perspectives on the meaning and structure of the story „The selfish Giant‟ by
Oscar Wilde” as the topic of my thesis, using Halliday‟s functional grammar as the theoretical
framework.
2. Aims of the study
Within the framework of the paper, the study attempts to:
 Re-examine some of the most important issues related to the experiential,
interpersonal and textual aspect of language.
 Analyze the meaning and structure of the story “The selfish Giant” by Oscar Wilde
based on the systemic functional module.


2

3. Scope of the study
The study does not attempt to cover all aspects of functional grammar but limits itself to
some main areas of functional grammar. In other words, only issues relating to the analysis of the
text are taken into consideration. These are transitivity structure, mood structure, theme – rheme
system and cohesion. The text used for illustration is the short story “The selfish Giant” by Oscar
Wilde.
4. Methods of the study:
The aim of this paper is to analyze the meanings and structures of a short story. Therefore,
description and analysis are the principle methods of the study. The descriptive method is
concerned with the description of main areas of functional grammar. The analytic method is
concerned with the analysis of the text.

5. Design of the Study
The paper is designed in four chapters
 Chapter one: Introduction – presents the rationale of the study, the aims of the study, scope
of the study, methods of the study and the research design of the study.
 Chapter two: Literature review – provides some fundamental and theoretical concepts for
the study: systemic functional theory, metafunctions, and cohesion analysis.
 Chapter three: The study of the text “The selfish Giant” focuses on the meaning and
structure of the text.
 The last chapter: Conclusion – summarizes the results of the study.











3

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Introduction
This chapter attempts to provide a theoretical orientation for the study. We shall be
concerned with systemic functional theory and some features of systemic functional grammar. In
addition, we shall present briefly three components of meaning in language and cohesion
analysis.
2. Theories of Systemic Functional Grammar
Systemic functional grammar is a grammar model developed by M.A.K. Halliday (1994)

which takes a functional approach to grammar, analyzing language as a social-semiotic of
communicative meaning-making. Language and interaction are defined by context and this
model seeks to show how contextual meaning is expressed in grammar. SFG is „systemic‟ in that
grammar consists of a series of choices that can be made in order to express ideas; in other
words, language represents a system network within which language choices are meaningful in
relation to other choices that are suppressed. It is „functional‟ in that the systems achieve certain
functions which are realized in the lexico-grammar of the language.
There are three „metafunctions‟ which form the basic foundation on which systemic
functional grammar (SFG) is based. These functions are labelled as ideational; interpersonal,
and textual. Each of the three metafunctions is about a different aspect of the world, and is
concerned with a different mode of meaning of clauses. While all three metafunctions act
together to produce meaning, in SFG they each have their own grammatical system.
 The ideational metafunction consists of the experiential and logical metafunction. The
experiential metafunction is about the natural world, that means it shows the way language is
used to express our perception of the world, and explains how we use language to describe
„doings‟ and „happenings‟. Experiential metafunction is concerned with clauses as
representation. The experiential metafunction reflects the field parameter of register. Experiential
meanings are realized through the system of TRANSITIVITY which is realized as „processes‟ in
a verb phrase constituent and its associated participants.
 The interpersonal metafunction is about the social world, especially the relationship
between speaker and hearer, and is concerned with clauses as exchange. As Halliday (1994: 68)
puts it: “The most fundamental types of speech role, which lie behind all the more specific types
that we may eventually be able to recognize, are just two (i) giving, and (ii) demanding”. This
4

means there are two roles in exchange: giving and demanding. He goes on to analyze the nature
of the commodity being exchanged into (a) goods-and-service and (b) information. The MOOD
realizes this metafunction and elements of modality, tense and polarity are taken into account.
 The textual metafunction is about the verbal world, especially the flow of information in
a text. It organizes clauses as messages realized by speakers who arrange the ways in which the

various groups and phrases in the clause are ordered with the THEME system. The THEME
system includes Theme and Rheme. The Theme is the element which serves as the point of
departure of the message, and the Rheme is the part in which the Theme is developed.
2.1. The Transitivity structure
Transitivity is the semantic category which expresses what the clause is about. In
Halliday‟s terms, transitivity is a part of the ideational function of the clause. The ideational
function of the clause is concerned with the “transmission of ideas.” Its function is that of
“representing „processes‟ or „experiences‟: actions, events, processes of consciousness and
relations” (1985:53). The term “process” is used in an…extended sense, “to cover all
phenomena…and anything that can be expressed by a verb- event, whether physical or not, state,
or relation” (Halliday, 1976:159). Halliday further notes that the “processes” expressed through
language are the product of our conception of the world or point of view. He notes “Our most
powerful conception of reality is that it consists of “goings-on”: of doing, happening, feeling,
being. These goings-on are sorted out in the semantic system of the language, and expressed
through the grammar of the clause… The clause evolved simultaneously in another grammatical
function expressing the reflective, experiential aspect of meaning. This…is the system of
TRANSITIVITY. Transitivity specifies the different types of process that are recognized in the
language, and the structures by which they are expressed (Halliday, 1985:101)”
Transitivity processes can be classified into material, relational, mental, verbal, behavioral, and
existential processes, according to whether they represent processes of doing, being, sensing,
saying, behaving, or existing, respectively.
All types of processes are subsumed under the basic semantic framework consisting of
three components:
i) the process itself, which will be expressed by the verb phrase in a clause.
ii) the participants in the process, which refer to the roles of entities that are directly
involved in the process : the one that does, behaves or says, together with the passive one that is
5

done to, said to, etc. The participants are not necessarily humans or even animate; the term
“participant entities” would be more accurate (Halliday, 176:160). The participant entities are

normally realized by noun phrases in the clause.
iii) the circumstances associated with the process, which are typically expressed by
adverbial and prepositional phrases.
This framework has the potential of interpreting one's experience of reality. That is the
speaker's/writer's experience of the external world and the world of his consciousness. So, clause
as process has the function of expressing what reality is all about. This is semantically
categorized as process of doing, happening, feeling etc.
The following sections account for these major processes realized in the transitivity system, and
the participant roles that are involved in the processes.
2.1.1. Material processes
Material processes are processes of doing in the physical world. The basic meaning of the
material process is that some entity does something, undertakes some actions. One identification
criteria for material process is that they can be probed by the question “What did X do?”
Material processes have two inherent participants involved in them. The first of these is the
Actor, which is an obligatory element and expresses the doer of the process. The second is the
Goal, which is an optional element and expresses the person or entity (whether animate or
inanimate) affected by the process.
The following examples illustrate these constructions:
John
kicked
the ball.

John
hit
the man
very hard
The boat
sailed

in the bay.

Actor
Process: material
Goal
Circumstance
Material processes take the third participant. It is called Receiver – the one that benefits from the
process. For example:
He
gave
a book
to her
Actor
Process. material
Goal
Receiver
Of course, it is possible to reverse Actor- Goal in a passive form, placing a Goal at an initial
position and Actor at the end of the sentence, such as:
The man
was hit
by John.
6

Goal
Process : material
Actor
2.1.2. Relational processes
Relational processes are concerned with the process of being, being at, and having.
Normally, a relationship that exists between two participants associated with the process is
considered, but unlike the case of material process, a participant does not affect the other
participant in a physical sense.
The types of relational process are quite complex and controversial. The type comes under three

subtypes (i) intensive (ii) possessive and (iii) circumstantial.
 Intensive expresses an “x is y” relationship, one is the other – the relationship between
the two terms is one of sameness.
 Circumstantial denotes an “x is at y” relationship, – the relationship between the two
terms is one of time, place, manner, cause, accompaniment, matter or role.
 Possessive, an “x has y” relationship - the relationship between the two terms is one of
ownership, one entity possesses another.
Each of the three types can appear in two distinct modes: Attributive and Identifying.
i) Attributive mode: “y is an attribute of x”
In the attributive mode a qualitative attribute is assigned to an entity. The structural elements
expressing this mode of process are Attribute and Carrier. The Carrier is always realized by a
noun or a nominal phrase, and the Attribute by an adjective or a nominal phrase The attribute
may be ascribed as a quality (intensive), and as a circumstance (circumtantial), or as a
possession (possessive);
For example:
John
is
talented
John
is
a talented boy
Carrier
Process : relational
Attribute


ii) Identifying : “y is the identity of x”
In the identifying mode, one entity is used to identify another. The relationship between
them varies according to the type of relation process: Token and Value (intensive), of
7

phenomenon and circunstance of time, place etc. (circunstantial), or owner and possession
(possessive). The structural function of the participants in each case are Identified and Identifier.
The identifying process is reversible, because the identifying process involves two independent
nominal participants.
For example:
She
is
the best doctor
Identified / Token
Process: relational
Identifier/ Value
2.1.3. Mental processes
Mental processes encode the meanings of feeling or thinking. Mental processes are
“internalized” processes. Grammatically, all mental processes involve two participants:
Senser - the conscious being who is involved in a mental process by feeling, thinking, or
perceiving and Phenomenon which is felt, thought, or perceived by the conscious Senser.
Mental process verbs can be subcategorized into three types:(l) perception (sensing, hearing,
seeing etc.), (2) affection (liking, loving, fearing etc.) and (3) cognition (thinking, knowing,
understanding etc.)
Examples of each type are as follows.
Cognition
I
don‟t understand
his theory
Affection
I
fear
the coming war
Perception

I
heard
the music in the basement

Senser
Process : mental
Phenomenon
2.1.4. Verbal processes
Verbal processes are processes of saying, and it exists on the borderline between mental
and relational processes. Just like saying and meaning, the verbal process expresses the
relationship between ideas constructed in human consciousness and the ideas enacted in the form
of language (Halliday, 1994:107). Examples of verbal processes are “I said I am happy” and
“The chairperson calls for the meeting.” Note that “saying” is used in an extended sense and the
“speaker” need not be a conscious being (unlike a Senser in mental process), hence a verbal
process includes any kind of exchange of meaning, such as “The booklet tells you how to find a
job” or “The clock says it is ten.” The participant who is speaking is called Sayer, the addressee
to whom the process is directed is Target, and what is said is Verbiage, for example:
8

I
announced
that the new bill will be passed.
Sayer
Process : verbal
Verbiage

I
told
her
how to play the piano

Sayer
Process : verbal
Target
Verbiage
The element “what is said” may be either directly quoted or indirectly reported.
He
said
“I‟m tired.”
He
said
he was tired.
Sayer
Process : verbal
Verbiage
2.1.5. Behavioural processes
Behavioural processes are processes of physiological and psychological behaviours, and
they are on the borderline between material and mental processes. Behavioural processes
“represent outer manifestations of inner workings, the acting out of processes of consciousness
and physiological states” (Halliday, 1994:107). Behavioural processes are the least salient of
Halliday‟s six process types, and the boundaries of behavioural processes are indefinite. The
participant who is behaving is called Behaver. Like the Senser, Behaver is usually a conscious
being, but the process is more like one of doing, as in material processes.
For example:
John
is crying
Behaver
Process : behavioral

George
sniffed

the soup
Behaver
Process : behavioural
Phenomenon
Some other examples of behavioural processes are sit, dance, sing, lie (down) (near material
processes), think, watch, look, listen (near mental processes), talk, gossip, grumble, chatter (near
verbal processes), smile, laugh, cry, frown (physiological processes expressing states of
consciousness), sleep, breathe, cough, yawn (other physiological processes) (Halliday,
1994:139).
2.1.6. Existential processes
Existential processes are processes of existing and happening. While existential clauses are
not very common in discourse, they make an important, specialized contribution to various kinds
of text. Existential sentences typically have the verb „be‟, and the word „there‟ is necessary as a
9

Subject although it has no representational function. Frequently an existential clause contains a
distinct circumstantial element of time or place. The object or event that is being said to exist is
called Existent. An Existent can be any kind of phenomenon, such as a thing, person, object,
institution or abstraction, action, or event.
For example:
There
was
a little house
on the big prairie

Process : existential
Existent
Circumstance : Place
The writer has discussed all the types of processes in details. The summary of the types of
process together with their general category meaning and the principal participant functions that

are associated with each will be shown in the table below.
Process type
Category meaning
Participants
1. Material:
„doing‟
Actor, Goal
Action
„doing‟

Event
„happening‟

2. Behavioral
„behaving‟
Behaver
3. Mental:
„sensing‟
Sensor, Phenomenon
Perception
„seeing‟

Affection
„feeling‟

Cognition
„thinking‟

4. Verbal
„saying‟

Sayer, Target
5. Relational:
„being‟

Attribution
„attributing‟
Carrier, Attribute
Identification
„identifying‟
Identified, Identifier; Token, Value
6. Existential
„existing‟
Existent
Table A: Process types, Category meaning, and key participants
(Source: Halliday, 1994: 143)
2.1.7. Circumstances
This element functions to provide more information about circumstances in which
participants take part in the process. It adds meaning to a clause by describing the context within
which the process takes place.
10

Circumstance is realized by adverbial groups, prepositional phrases or nominal groups.
Circumstantial elements lie at the end of the continuum and they occur in all types of process and
with the same significance wherever they occur.
Circumstance expresses supplementary information, such as place, time, extent, matter, manner,
duration, condition, means, etc.
The main types of circumstances and their features are shown in the table below:
Type
Specific categories
Example

Extent
Distance, duration
For three hours
Location
Place, time
In June, from Paris
Manner
Means, quality,
comparison
With a hammer
Cause
Reason, purpose
For, for the sake of, because of, thanks
to,
Contingency
Condition, concession,
default
In case of, in spite of, in the absence of
Accompaniment
Addition
with; as well as, besides, instead of,
except [for]
Role
Guise, product
I came here as a friend
Aren‟t you growing into a big girl?
Matter

About, of, concerning
Angle

They are guilty in the eyes of the law
Table B: The main types of circumstances and their features
(Source: Halliday 1994: 151)
Here are some examples of the use of circumstances.
• Ali had slept in the car. (location,place)
• See you in the morning (location,time)
• They pulled the ropes again (extent frequency)
• He pleased her with his gift (means, manner)
11

• She has lived here for eight years (temporal, extent)
2.2. The Mood structure
The mood structure is responsible for the organization of the clause as an interactive
event which involves the speaker/writer and the listener/reader. It is the mood that expresses the
speech role the speaker/writer adopts for himself. By doing so the speaker/writer also assigns the
role the listener/reader is supposed to assume to complement the interactive event. In an
interactive event the speaker will be either giving information or demanding information. Giving
and demanding are defined according to the nature of their commodity exchange: 'goods-&-
service' for offer and command and 'information' for statements and questions. In 'goods- &-
service' the commodity exchanged is strictly non-verbal: what the speaker/writer demands is an
object or action. In this case language is just a means to achieve an end. For example: Bring me
the book or Do your homework first. According to Halliday ( 1985.p.70-71) because the
commodity exchanged in 'goods & service' cannot be affirmed or denied they are not
proposition, so he prefers to label this type of exchange as 'proposal'. 'Proposition' stands for the
exchange of information in which case language is the end as well as the means, and the answer
is always a verbal one. As stated by Halliday, propositions can be affirmed or denied, doubted,
contradicted, insisted on and so forth
Choices in the mood structure realizes the expression of mood in the clause and the mood
component is comprised of the mood element and the residue.

The mood element consists of two parts: The subject which is a nominal group and the
finite element which is part of a verbal group. The subject is the entity about which the
proposition is made. It is the subject which is held responsible for the clause as exchange. The
finite element has the function of making the proposition finite, it relates the proposition to the
context in the speech event. This may be done either by reference to the time of speaking,
primary tense, in which case it is expressed by means of a modal operator. So, the verbal
operator expressing finiteness is either temporal or modal. Besides expressing tense and
modality, the finite element also expresses polarity, the semantic category specifying whether
something is either positive or negative.
In English, the subject plus the finite element are responsible for the indicative, the grammatical
category which functions as general principle behind the expression of mood. That is, within
12

indicative the order of the subject and the finite element is what in English determines the role
the speaker and listener have in the exchange of information. This is expressed as follows:
a) Subject before Finite realizes 'declarative‟
b) Finite before Subject realizes yes/no interrogative
c) In WH-interrogative
i) Subject before Finite if the WH-element is the Subject,
ii) Finite before Subject otherwise.
The Residue is the element in the mood structure which expresses the remaining part of the
clause. It consists of three elements: the Predicator, the Complement and the Adjunct.
- The function of the predicator is fourfold: (i) It specifies time reference other than
reference to the time of the speech event. (ii) It specifies various other aspects and phrases like
seeming, trying, hoping. (iii) It specifies the voice (active or passive). (iv) It specifies the process
that is predicated of the Subject.
- Complement: A Complement is an element within the Residue that has the potential of
being Subject but it is not. It is typical realized by a nominal group.
- Adjunct: An Adjunct is an element that has not got the potential of being Subject. It is
typically realized by an adverbial group or a prepositional phrase.

She
bought
a new pen
Subject
Finite
Predicator
Complimen
t
Mood
Residue

They
are
cooking
in the kitchen
Subject
Finite
Predicator
Adjunct
Mood
Residue
2.3. The thematic structure
The three systems expressing the major categories of the semantic system have the clause
as entry condition. So, they describe the text in the light of its function in the structure of the
clause. The thematic structure is responsible for the organization of the clause as message. It
consists of two elements: Theme and Rheme. Theme functions as the „starting point for the
message‟ (Halliday, 1985a: 39), the element which the clause is going to be „about‟ has a crucial
13

effect in orienting listeners and readers. Theme is the starting point of the clause, realised by

whatever element comes first. Rheme is the rest of the message, which provides the additional
information added to the starting point and which is available for subsequent development in the
text. The Theme and the Rheme are responsible for the organization of the clause as
communicative event. Hence, the thematic structure is the category which gives the clause its
character as message.
The different choice of Theme has contributed to a different meaning and English uses first
clausal position as a signal to orient a different meaning of the sentences. For example:
An
A very good book,
Last night
What An read
An,
read a very good book last night
An read last night
An read a very good book
last night was a very good book
he read a very good book last night
Theme
Rheme
In each case above, the writer starts the message from a different point, that is, to choose a
different Theme for the clause. And also, the different choice of Theme has contributed to a
different meaning. What makes these sentences different is that they differ in their choice of
theme and they tell us what An, A very good book, Last night, What An read is going to be about.
The Theme may be expressed as follows:
2.3.1. Simple Theme
Simple theme contains only topical theme which expresses the main topic of the clause.
Simple theme can be expressed by one constituent which may be a nominal group, adverbial
group or prepositional phrase. For example:
On the wall
there are two pictures

The man in the wilderness
said to me
Very carefully
she put him back on his feet again
Theme
Rheme
Theme can also be represented by two or more groups or phrases forming a 'complex' (group
complex or phrase complex).
The Walrus and the carpenter
were walking close at hand
14

Tom, Tom, the piper‟s son
stole a pig and away did run
Theme
Rheme
When the thematic structure is represented by two or more elements which are explicitly grouped
within the clause to form a single constituent of the thematic structure, we call it Thematic
equatives. This element is typically the Theme but it may function as Rheme.
For example:
What the duke gave to my aunt
The one who gave to my aunt that teapot
The way Mary washed her children‟s face
was that teapot
was the duke
was this
Theme
Rheme
2.3.2. Multiple Themes
From the Theme theory, the first position in the clause is important and the kernel sentence

structure may be altered to bring elements to the front of the sentence when the speaker or writer
decides where to start the sentence and the beginning of each sentence is its theme. In English
three possible themes are found: Textual theme (discourse markers and conjunctions); +
Interpersonal theme (vocatives); + Topical theme (SVOA elements). And this clause is said to
have multiple Themes.
- Textual theme, functioning to relate the meaning of the particular clause to other parts of
the text;
- Interpersonal theme, often functioning to code the speaker‟s or writer‟s personal
judgement on meaning;
- Topical theme, functioning as the point of orientation for the experiential meanings of the
clause;
Textual
- Continuative (discourse signallers/ Markers:
yes, no, well, oh, now, which signal that a new
move is beginning)
- Structural (conjunction: and , or,
nor, either, neither, but, yet, so, then, when,
while, before, after, until, because, even, in
case… or WH relative: which, who, whose,
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when, where, that…)
- Conjunctive: relate the clause to the
preceding text such as that is, for instance;
rather; in any case; in fact; in short;
actually; and, also, moreover; but, on the other
hand; instead; meanwhile, then; likewise; so;
if; yet; as to that;
Interpersonal
- vocative: any item used to address such as a

personal name.
- modal: any of the model Adjunct
which expresses the speaker‟s judgment
regarding to relevance of the message such
as probably, possibly, certainly, perhaps,
maybe; usually, sometimes, always;
occasionally, generally regularly; of course…;
I think, in my opinion, personally; frankly,
to be honest; honestly; please, kindly;
evidently; hopefully; in general; strictly
speaking; wisely; to my surprise…
- mood-making: a finite verbal operator
- WH (interrogative or relative)
Experimental
Topic: participant, circumstance, process
Table C: Themes and features
(Source: Halliday 1994: 54)
Below are some examples of multiple theme:
Oh
soldier, soldier
won‟t
you
marry me
continuative
Vocative
finite
topical


Rheme

textual
interpersonal
experiment
al
Theme

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Please
doctor
don‟t
give
me any more of that nasty medicine
modal
vocative
finite
topical


Rheme
interpersonal
experiential
Theme

On the other hand
maybe
on a week day
it would be less crowded
conjunctive
modal

topical


Rheme
textual
interpersonal
experiential
Theme
2.3.3. Theme in clause complexes
We have known the position of themes in single clauses and now we will have a look at
themes in clause complexes, clauses consisting more than one clause. Let‟s take the following
sentence as an example:
As the universe expanded, the temperature of the radiation decreased.
There are two different ways of analysing of the dependent clause and each captures
different aspect of what is going on.
As the universe
expended,
the temperature of the radiation
decreased.
Theme
Rheme
Theme
Rheme
Theme
Rheme
2.3.4. Theme and Mood
The choice of Theme depends on the choice of Mood.
2.3.4.1. Theme in declarative clauses:
i) Unmarked Theme - the Theme is conflated with the Subject.
E.g:

The two Indians stood waiting.
The Indian who was rowing them was working very hard.
Of course it's an accident.
ii) Marked Theme - In this case, the theme is something other than the subject. It may be an
adverbial group or a prepositional phrase which function as adjunct in the clause. The most
marked type of theme is said to be the one functioning as complement.
E.g:
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Across the bay they found the other boat.
And when they got down there you find he hasn't actually got any.
What she had felt he never knew.
2.3.4.2. Theme in interrogative clauses
In an interrogative clause the natural theme of a question is 'what I want to know'.
- Polarity (yes/no) questions: unmarked theme = finite + subject (What the speaker wants
to know is the polarity „yes or no?‟). Normally, the first word (finite operator) of verbal group
together with nominal group functions as subject.
E.g:
Are you interested in syntax?
Would you like a cup of tea?
By the way, were you serious about moving to London?
- Wh-questions: unmarked Theme = Wh-word (What the speaker wants to know is the
identity of some element in the content.) Nominal group, adverbial group or prepositional phrase
functions as interrogative (WH-) element.
E.g:
What are you doing here?
Where has my little dog gone?
How many miles to Boston?
Marked Theme choices are relatively rare with questions, please see the following
sentence.

After the party, where did you go?
2.3.4.3. Theme in imperative clauses.
In an imperative clause, the basic message is 'I want you to do something'. The imperative
is the only type of clause in which the Predicator (the verb) is regularly found as Theme. Verbal
group functions as Predicator, plus preceding don't if negative.
E.g:
Wake me up before the coffee break.
Don't disturb me while I'm taking a nap.
Let's have a look at recipe (let's, plus preceding don't if negative)
2.4. Cohesion
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The concept of cohesion is a semantic one which refers to relations of meaning that exist
within the text, and that define it as a text. Cohesion occurs where the interpretation of some
elements in the discourse is dependent on that of another. The one presupposes the other, in the
sense that it cannot be effectively decoded except by resource to it. When this happens, a relation
of cohesion is set up, and the two elements, the presupposing and the presupposed, are thereby at
least potentially integrated to a text.
Cohesion is expressed partly through the grammar and partly through vocabulary. We can refer
therefore to grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion.
2.4.1. Grammatical cohesion
Grammatical cohesion refers to the structural content. In Cohesion in English, M.A.K.
Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan identify five general categories of cohesive devices that create
coherence in texts: reference, ellipsis, substitution, lexical cohesion, and conjunction.
2.4.1.1. Reference
Reference expresses the relationship of identity which exists between units in discourse.
There are four main types of reference: (1) anaphoric, cataphoric, and exophoric reference; (2)
personal reference; (3) demonstrative reference; and (4) comparative reference.
Anaphoric reference occurs when the writer refers back to someone or something that has
been previously identified, to avoid repetition.

For example:
A man was walking on the street. He seemed to be looking for something.
Cataphoric reference is the opposite of anaphora: a reference forward as opposed to
backward in the discourse. Something is introduced in the abstract before it is identified. For
example:

"Here he comes, our award-winning host it's John Doe!"
Exophoric reference is used to describe generics or abstracts without ever identifying them.
e.g."everything". The prefix "exo" means "outside", and the persons or events referred to in
this manner will never be identified by the writer. For example:
The picture has just been painted
Personal reference is reference by mean of function in the speech situation, through the
category of person.
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E.g. Mary and Peter are on holiday. They have three days off.
Demonstrative reference is the reference by mean of location, on a scale of proximity. It is
expressed through determiners: this/ that; these/ those and adverbs: here / there.
E.g. Leave that there and come here.
2.4.1.2. Conjunction
2.4.1.2.1. Adversative
The basic meaning of the adversative is “contrary to expectation”. The expectation may be
derived from the content of what is being said or from the communication process, the speaker-
hearer situation. It is signaled through yet, though, but, however, in contrast …
2.4.1.1.2. Additive
The additive relation expressed by and at the beginning of a new sentence and it holds the
relation within or between sentences. It is signaled through and, also, additionally, nor …
2.4.1.2.3. Temporal
Clauses are tied in accordance with the sequence of time. It can be presented by then, next,
finally, at once …

2.4.1.2.4. Causal
Causal conjunctions deal with cause and effect, reason and result. Causal conjunctions are
expressed by so, hence, thus, therefore, …
2.4.1.3. Ellipsis
Ellipsis is an omission of certain elements from a sentence or clause and can only be
recovered by referring to an element in the preceding text. Like substitution, there are 3 kinds of
ellipsis: nominal, verbal and clausal ellipsis.
E.g1: A: I think you are right.
B: I am sure I am (right).
E.g2: A: Lan has gone to Ho Chi Minh city this morning.
B: Has she? She didn‟t tell me. ( that she had gone to Ho Chi Minh)
2.4.1.4. Substitution:
Substitution is a process of replacing one item with another within a text. Halliday and
Hassan (1976:88) also states that “substitution is the relation between linguistic items, such as
words or phrases and in terms of linguistic level, it is a relation on the lexico-grammatical level,
the level of grammar and vocabulary”.