Designing a supplementary reading syllabus with a view to improving reading skills for the first-year English majors at Hai Phong Private University

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HA NOI UNIVERSITY
OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES


KHỔNG THỊ HỒNG LÊ


DESIGNING A SUPPLEMENTARY READING SYLLABUS WITH A VIEW TO
IMPROVING READING SKILLS FOR THE FIRST-YEAR ENGLISH MAJORS
AT HAI PHONG PRIVATE UNIVERSITY
(Thiết kế chương trình đọc hiểu bổ trợ nhằm cải thiện kĩ năng đọc cho sinh viên
chuyên ngành tiếng Anh năm thứ nhất tại trường Đại học Dân lập Hải Phòng)

M.A MINOR THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60.14.10




HANOI – 2012
iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
Acknowledgment ………………………………………………………… i
Declaration ………………………………………………………….…… ii
Abstract ……………………………………………………………….… iii
Table of contents …………………………………………………… … iv

List of abbreviations ………………………………………………………… viii
Part A: Introduction
1. Rationale ……………………………………… ……………………… 1
2. Aims and objectives of the study ………………………………………….2
3. Research questions ………………………… ………… ……………… 3
4. Scope of the study …………………………… ……… ………………… 3
5. Significance of the study ……………………… …………… ………… 3
6. Methods of the study …………………………… ……… ………… … 4
7. Structure of the study …………………………… ……… ………….… 4
Part B: Development
Chapter I: Literature Review
1.1. Syllabus design
1.1.1. Definition of syllabus …………………………… ……… ….… 5
1.1.2. The role of the syllabus …………………………… ……… … 6
1.1.3. Types of syllabus ……………………………… … ……… … 7
1.1.3.1. Grammatical or structural syllabus ……………………… 7
1.1.3.2. Lexical syllabus ……………………………………….… 8
1.1.3.3. Functional syllabus ………………….………… 8
1.1.3.4. Situational syllabus ……………………………………… 8
1.1.3.5. Topical or content-based syllabus ……………………… 9
1.1.3.6. Competency-based syllabus ……………………………… 9
1.1.3.7. Skill-based syllabus ………………………… …………… 9
1.1.3.8. Task-based syllabus ………………………… ………… … 9
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1.1.3.9. Text-based syllabus ………………………… ………… 10
1.1.3.10. Integrated syllabus …………………………… ………… 10
1.1.4. Approaches to syllabus design
1.1.4.1. The language-centered approach ……… …… ………… 11
1.1.4.2. The skills-centered approach ……… …… …… ……… 11

1.1.4.3. The learning-centered approach ……… …… … ……… 12
1.1.5. Steps in syllabus design
1.1.5.1. Needs analysis
1.1.5.1.1. Definition of needs analysis ……… ……………… …… 13
1.1.5.1.2. Methods of needs analysis ……… ………… …… …… 13
1.1.5.1.3. Types of needs ……… …………………………… …… 14
1.1.5.2. Goal setting ……… ………………… …………………… 15
1.1.5.3. Selecting and grading content
1.1.5.3.1. Selecting the content …………… ………………… …… 16
1.1.5.3.2. Grading the content ……… ………….…………… ……. 16
1.1.5.4. Selecting and grading tasks and activities
1.1.5.4.1. Selecting tasks and activities ……… …… ……… …… 17
1.1.5.4.2. Grading tasks and activities ……… ………….……… … 17
1.2. Supplementary reading syllabus
1.2.1. Rationale for using supplementary reading syllabus in FLT …… 17
1.2.2. The guidelines for selecting a supplementary reading text for the
syllabus ……… ………………………………………………………………… 18
1.3. Reading
1.3.1. The role of reading in second language acquisition ……… … 19
1.3.2. Reading skills ……… …………………………………… … 20
Chapter II: Methodology
The teaching and learning situation with the current reading textbook at
HPU …………………………………… …………… 22
The learners …………………………….…… …………………… 23
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The teaching staff of Foreign Language Department …………… 23
A critical look at the existing syllabus …………………………… 24
The study
The subjects ………………………………………………………… 25

Data collection instruments and procedures
Data collection instruments ………………………………… … 25
Data collection procedure ……………………………… … … 25
Major findings and discussion
2.5.3.1. Needs perceived by the teachers of FLD
2.5.3.1.1. Teachers‟ expectations for the supplementary reading syllabus …. 26
2.5.3.1.2. Necessary topics perceived by the teachers of FLD …………… 27
2.5.3.1.3. Necessary grammar and structures perceived by the teachers of FLD
…………………………………………………………………………… … 27
2.5.3.1.4. Necessary reading skills/ exercises perceived by the teachers of FLD
……………………………………………………………………….………. 27
2.5.3.2. Needs perceived by the learners
2.5.3.2.1. Students‟ expectations for the supplementary reading syllabus … 28
2.5.3.2.2. Necessary topics perceived by the students ………………………. 28
2.5.3.2.3. Necessary grammar and structures perceived by the students … 29
2.5.3.2.4. Necessary reading skills/ exercises perceived by the students … 29
Summary …………………………………………………………… 29
Chapter III: Designing a supplementary reading syllabus
with a view of improving reading skills for the first-
year English majors at HPU
3.1. Proposed objectives of the supplementary reading syllabus ……… …. 30
3.2. Selecting a type of syllabus for the first-year English majors at FLD, HPU
…………………………………………………………………… …………… 31
3.3. Sequencing the content and the tasks in the syllabus
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3.3.1. Selecting the content
3.3.1.1. Reading topics ………………………………………………………… 31
3.3.1.2. Reading skills and reading exercises ………… ……… …………… 32
3.3.1.3. Grammar and structures ………… …………………… …………… 33

3.3.2. Grading the items in the syllabus ………… ……………………….… 33
3.3.3. The organization of the syllabus
3.3.3.1. Time allocation ………… …………………………… …………… 34
3.3.3.2. Quantity and structure of the syllabus ………… …………………… 35
3.3.3.3. Designing tests for the supplementary reading syllabus ……………… 35
3.4. The proposed supplementary reading material for the first-year English
majors at HPU ……………………………………………………… ……… 36
PART C: CONCLUSION ………………………………………………… … 39
REFERENCES ………………………………… ……………………………. 41
APPENDICES …………………………………………………….…………… I













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List of abbreviations

ELT
English Language Teaching
ESP

English for Specific Purposes
ESL
English as the Second Language
E
English
FLD
Foreign Language Department
FLT
Foreign Language Teaching
GE
General English
HPU
Haiphong Private University
N
Number
SLA
Second Language Acquisition
Ss
Students
Ts
Teachers
Us
Units
ULIS
University of Languages and International Studies
V
Vietnamese
VNU
Vietnam National University

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Part A: Introduction

1. Rationale
There is no denying that English is becoming a dominant language over the
past few years, especially in the context of globalization and internationalization as
stated by Crystal (2003: 189) that “there has never been a language so widely
spread or spoken by so many people as English. There are therefore no precedents
to help us see what happens to a language when it achieves genuine world status”.
It is the ongoing process of regional and global integration that has led to the highly
increasing demand for English teaching and learning worldwide. Wallace (2003:
67) adds that “the role of English as a second language has taken on new urgency
with its ever-extending global reach”. Therefore, the need for people with good
English proficiency is undeniable. This requires students in the new era to be
equipped with the most essential knowledge in order that they are able to meet the
society‟s needs.
In Vietnam, English is also given the high priority by many schools and
organizations. However, Vietnamese students hardly have opportunities to use
communicative English outside the classroom. In fact, they can have access to a
great number of specialized documents written in English via electronic or printed

sources in order to broaden their knowledge and update information in their study
day by day. Hence, for these students, “reading by far is the most important of four
skills” for their study as well as their future job (Carrel, 1988: 1). This puts a big
burden on teachers of English in enhancing reading skills for their learners.
The first-year English major students at HPU are no exception. They also
realize the paramount importance of reading in the process of learning English.
Nevertheless, they face problems with the current reading syllabus which does not
appear helpful enough to assist them to improve their English proficiency in terms
of reading skills and grammar structures. They seem to cope with a lot of
difficulties in memorizing and using the language due to the lack of grammatical
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structures. It can be seen that the current reading syllabus mainly focuses on
providing students with numerous vocabularies through a huge number of reading
texts on different fields whereas reading skills and grammar structures are paid little
attention. The existing syllabus undoubtedly proves its failure to meet the students‟
needs. Students do not actively participate in reading activities, which causes
headache for all the teachers at FLD, HPU.
In an effort to find out the solution to this problem, it is advised by many
experts that using authentic materials can help to bring the real world into the
classroom and more importantly, enliven the class or motivate learners in studying
the language because they can provide up-to-date knowledge for learners, expose
them to the world of authentic target language (Martinez, 2002; Kaprova, 1999;
Leloup & Pronterio, 2000; Dumitrescu, 2000). This proves the significance of
authentic materials in general and supplementary materials in particular.
Hence, developing a supplementary reading syllabus which can enrich
learners‟ English vocabularies, strengthen their reading skills and at the same time
consolidate their English grammar is becoming more and more crucial than ever.
Therefore, a lot of attempts have been made to do a research on “designing a
supplementary reading syllabus with a view to improving reading skills for the first-

year English majors at HPU”. The study is conducted with the hope of having a
positive effect on learners‟ motivation and language acquisition, especially in
reading skills.
2. Aims and objectives of the study
The ultimate goal of the study is to propose a supplementary reading syllabus
for the first-year English majors at HPU with a view to improving their reading
skills. In order to achieve this aim, the following objectives will be addressed in the
study:
 To identify the needs perceived by both the first-year English major students
and the teachers towards the supplementary reading syllabus for English
freshmen at HPU
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 To propose a supplementary reading syllabus based on needs analysis
3. Research questions
To achieve the aforementioned aim and objectives, the following research
questions are set out to be answered:
 What objectives do the learners expect to gain through the supplementary
reading syllabus from the perspectives of the teachers and students?
 What knowledge do the learners expect to achieve in terms of vocabulary,
grammar and skill through the supplementary reading syllabus from the
perspectives of the teachers and students?
4. Scope of the study
This study was initiated from the urgent needs to design a supplementary
reading syllabus to supplement the current textbook “Tapestry Reading 1” being
used for the first-year English majors at HPU. It was carried out within FLD at HPU
and the priority was given to reading skill. The subject of the study mainly aimed at
all the freshmen of English major whose English proficiency is at pre-intermediate
level and all the teachers in charge of teaching reading skill. Within the scope of a
minor thesis, this study focused on the designing process itself; only basic theories

concerning syllabus design and reading were presented.
5. Significance of the study
The study is of great significance to both the first-year English major students
and the teachers responsible for teaching reading skill because it may have a great
contribution to ESL teaching and learning. For learners, the study may help them
realize the importance of supplementary reading materials in their study and have a
useful reference source to enhance their reading ability and self-study at home.
Besides, for teachers, the study will be a valuable source for them to apply in
teaching reading skill to their learners without taking too much of their effort and
time. It is expected that the results of the study will enable both teachers and
learners to feel more enjoyable with reading lessons.
6. Methods of the study
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The study takes full advantages of the survey research which involves data
collected by means of questionnaires because the questionnaire is considered as “a
useful and relatively cheap method of rapidly collecting a wide range of views”
(Holmes, 2006: 143). These questionnaires will be delivered to two main subjects,
one aims at the first-year English majors, and the rest aims at the teachers at FLD.
The key purpose of these questionnaires is to identify the teachers and students‟
needs for the supplementary reading syllabus in terms of needed topics, grammar
structures and reading skills/ exercises. Document analysis is also employed in the
process of materials selection for the syllabus.
7. Structure of the study
The study contains three main parts:
Part A: Introduction presents the rationale, aims and objectives, research questions,
scope, significance, methods and structure of the study.
Part B: Development, which is the core of the study, consists of three chapters:
Chapter I reviews the literature regarding syllabus design, supplementary
reading syllabus, and reading theories.

Chapter II gives a detailed description of the study including its
background, subjects, instruments and procedures for collecting data as well
as the findings of the study.
Chapter III proposes a supplementary reading syllabus for the first-year
English majors at HPU basing on the findings of the study.
Part C: Conclusion includes a summary of the study, limitations and suggestions
for further research.



Part B: Development
Chapter I: theoretical background
1.1. Syllabus design
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1.1.1. Definition of syllabus
Syllabus is a common and familiar notion in language teaching and learning.
Many of the teachers regard syllabus as a standard material orienting them what
should be taught to their learners. In fact, there exist various perceptions on syllabus
by different authors such as Allen (1984), Dubin and Olshtain (1986), Nunan
(1988), Yalden (1987) and Hutchinson and Water (1987). It is important to
distinguish between the narrow and broad approach to syllabus definition. In the
narrow view, some authors believe that syllabus and methodology are separate
notions while others advocating the broader view ague that it is not straightforward
to distinguish between content and tasks.
As a supporter of the narrow approach, Nunan (1988: 5) points out a clear
distinction between syllabus design and methodology: “Syllabus design is seen as
being concerned essentially with the selection and grading of content, while
methodology is concerned with the selection of learning tasks and activities”.
Sharing the same opinions on syllabus with Nunan, Allen (1984: 49) also

states that “Syllabus …is concerned with a specification of what units will be taught
(as distinct from how they will be taught, which is a matter for methodology”.
Hutchinson and Water (1987: 80) give the similar notion on syllabus when they
claim that “a syllabus is a document which says what will (or at least what should)
be learnt”.
In contrast with these authors, Yalden (1987: 14) looks at syllabus from a
broader view and emphasizes that:
The syllabus replaces the concept of “method”, and the syllabus is now seen as an
instrument by which the teacher, with the help of the syllabus designer, can achieve
an agree of „fit‟ between the needs and the aims of the learners (as social being and
as individual), and the activities which take place in the classroom.
Other advocators for the broad view on syllabus are Dubin and Olshtain.
These two scholars (1986: 28) point out that:
Whatever it is called, it is a document, which ideally describes:
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 What the learners are expected to know at the end of the course or the course
objectives in operational terms
 What is to be taught or learned during the course, in the form of an inventory of
items
 When it is to be taught, and at what rate of progress, relating the inventory of items
to the different levels and stages as well as the time constraints of the course
 How it is to be taught, suggesting procedures, techniques and materials
 How it is to be evaluated, suggesting testing and evaluating mechanism
The definition by Dubin and Olshtain seems to be the most detailed and
satisfactory one on syllabus and acts as a guideline for this study on proposing a
supplementary reading syllabus for the first-year English majors at HPU.
1.1.2. The role of the syllabus
Throughout the history, syllabus plays a crucial part in the teaching and
learning process. Hutchinson and Water (1987: 83-84) states the following roles of

a syllabus:
 The syllabus is considered as a practical basis for the division of assessment,
textbooks and learning time. Hence, for an effective teaching and learning, it is
advisable for teachers to break it down into manageable units.
 A syllabus also gives both teachers and learners a moral support in which it makes
the language learning become manageable.
 If learning is compared as a journey, the syllabus can be seen as a statement of
projected routes so that teachers and learners not only have an idea of where they
are going but also how they might get there.
 A syllabus is an implicit statement of views on the nature of language and learning.
It will show the most important aspect of language learning and tell the teacher and
students what is to be learnt and why it is to be learnt.
 A syllabus provides a visible basis for testing, an inevitable part in the process of
language learning and teaching.
Beside its advantages above, a syllabus also exposes some dangers:
7

 A syllabus can never be more than a statement of a teaching ideal. It can tell the
teacher what will be taught, but can predict very little about what will be learnt by
the learners.
 A syllabus can not show intangible factors which are vital for learning like
emotions, personalities, subjective views and motivation.
 A syllabus can not take individual differences into consideration.
It can be seen that the syllabus has a complicated role in language teaching
and learning. Thus, the awareness of its role will help teachers and students to be
able to use it in an appropriate way.
1.1.3. Types of syllabus
Over the past few years, a great deal of attention has been paid to the types of
syllabuses. In fact, there exist many approaches to syllabus types by different
authors. According to Dublin and Olshtain (1986: 37), “there are four major

syllabus types: the structural-grammatical syllabus, the semantico-notional syllabus,
the functional syllabus and the situational syllabus”. Nunan (1988) divide syllabuses
into two main types which are product-oriented syllabuses (including grammatical
syllabus, functional-notional syllabus and analytic syllabus) and process-oriented
syllabuses (involving procedural syllabus, task-based syllabus, and content
syllabus). In this study, the detailed classification by Richards (2001) is chosen. He
classifies syllabuses into 10 subtypes, namely, grammatical or structural syllabus,
lexical syllabus, functional syllabus, situational syllabus, topical or content-based
syllabus, competency-based syllabus, skill-based syllabus, task-based syllabus, text-
based syllabus and integrated syllabus. Following is the concise description of each
syllabus type.
1.1.3.1. Grammatical or structural syllabus
This kind of syllabus is based on the theory that the grammatical or structural
aspects of language are the most basic or useful. The syllabus is designed through
the selection of grammatical structures such as tenses, grammatical rules or
sentence patterns. The main advantage of this syllabus is that it follows the principle
of working from the familiar to the unfamiliar and using the familiar to teach the
8

unfamiliar, as shown by McDonough (1981: 21): “the transition from lesson to
lesson is intended to enable material in one lesson to prepare the ground for the
next; and conversely to grow out of the previous one”. However, one weak point of
this approach is that it only puts a focus on one aspect of language, that is, formal
grammar and “it is difficult to isolate and present discrete items outside a context
and the links of grammatical structures can be rather tenuous” (Nunan, 1988: 30).
1.1.3.2. Lexical syllabus
This type of syllabus identifies a target vocabulary which should be taught to
learners based on their levels. The range of vocabulary is normally from 500, 1000,
1500 to 2000 depending on students‟ competence. “Typical targets of a general
English course are: Elementary level: 1000 words; Intermediate level: an additional

2000 words; Upper Intermediate level: an additional 2000 words; Advanced level:
an additional 2000 + words” (Hindmarsh, 1980; Nation 1990 cited by Richards,
2001: 154). As a matter of fact, vocabulary is often presented in any language
content. Thus, a lexical syllabus can only be regarded as “one strand of a more
comprehensive syllabus” (Richards, 2001: 154).
1.1.3.3. Functional syllabus
The functional syllabus mainly focuses on learning to recognize and express
the communicative functions of language like requesting, agreeing, apologizing, etc
(Nunan, 1988: 35). Unlike the grammatical one, this type of syllabus produces a
communicative competence without losing the grammatical factors. Nevertheless, it
is often restricted to short utterances or exchanges in combination with the problem
of complex grading content input.
1.1.3.4. Situational syllabus
This syllabus is designed by collecting “real imaginary situations in which the
language occurs is uses” (Wilkins, 1976: 36). Some vivid illustrations for situations
are seeing the doctor, buying clothes at the fashion shop, meeting a client, and etc.
The key purpose of this syllabus is to teach the language used in the real situations,
9

which is very relevant to learners‟ needs and interests even if there are still some
unpredictable situations.
1.1.3.5. Topical or content-based syllabus
A topic-based syllabus is developed on the basis of themes, topics or other
units of contents. Robinson (1991: 37) states that “it motivates the students as a
basis for the „real syllabus‟ of language forms, functions or whatever the course
designers wish to focus on”. For ESP, it is more significant because it can “delay
the content of the students‟ work or specialist study. One objective of the ESP
course may in fact be to teach this specialist content”. (Robinson, 1991: 36)
1.1.3.6. Competency-based syllabus
The competency-based syllabus bases on a specification of learners‟

competences or proficiencies which they are expected to master in connection to
particular situations and activities. In this case, the term “competence” refers to
necessary skills, knowledge and attitude for successful performance of specific
tasks or activities. Richards (2001: 159) also states that this type of syllabus is
“widely used in social survival and work – oriented language programs”
1.1.3.7. Skill-based syllabus
The skill-based syllabus provides learners a chance to develop necessary skills
or strategies for their study. In a typical skill-based syllabus, the emphasis is often
put on “one of the four traditional language skills … The actual content of the
course, however, might be language form or function” (Robinson, 1991: 37). For
instance, one macro-skill, reading, can be subdivided into smaller micro-skills like
skimming, scanning, or summarizing, etc.
1.1.3.8. Task-based syllabus
The content of a task-based syllabus often includes a variety of complex and
purposeful tasks which students want or need to perform in the process of language
learning (Tickoo, 1988: 175). The tasks may be applying for a job, answering the
telephone, interviewing a celebrity, etc. This type of syllabus is obviously important
for ESP because the basic need of ESP students is that: “using the medium of
10

English, they should successfully perform a work or study task” (Robinson, 1991:
40). Nonetheless, according to Shavelson and Stern (1981), designing a task-based
syllabus seem to be demanding, time and effort consuming because it takes many
things into account such as subject matter, materials, activities, goals, needs,
interests, and learners‟ competence.
1.1.3.9. Text-based syllabus
A text-based syllabus is like an integrated syllabus which is a combination of
elements of different syllabus types. Feez (1998: v, cited by Richards, 2001: 164)
points out some merits of a text-based syllabus as shown below:
 It teaches explicitly about the structures and grammatical features of spoken and

written texts.
 It links spoken and written texts to the social and cultural contexts of their use.
 It allows for the design of units of work that focus on developing skills in relation
to whole texts.
 It provides students with guided practice as they develop language skills for
meaningful communication through texts.
Despite the advantages above, a text-based syllabus also reveals some
disadvantages. It mainly concentrates on certain skills rather than a more general
language competency. In addition, it appears to be impractical in some situations.
1.1.3.10. Integrated syllabus
An integrated syllabus is sometimes under the name of “mixed/ layered
syllabus” by Brown (1995) or “multi-dimensional syllabus” by Wilkins (1981a: 88,
cited by Read, 1984). The integrated syllabus is initiated from the idea of combining
different language types which are listed above. There exist many different syllabus
strands in English courses, for instance, grammar linked to skills and texts, tasks
linked to topics and functions or skills linked to topics and texts, etc (Richards,
2001: 164).
To sum up, there are many types of syllabus. Each one has its own strengths
and weaknesses. It is very difficult to decide which one is better than the other. In
arriving at a decision on what type of syllabus is suitable for students, the course
11

planners need to decide between macro-level and micro-level planning units in the
course as suggested by Richards (2001: 164). Besides, White (1988: 109) adds that
decisions related to the syllabus selection “are subject to the values and aims of the
learning system”. Robinson (1991) also stresses that the decision on the type of
syllabus must base on a judicious consideration of the students‟ needs, the
objectives of the course together with the teaching context.
1.1.4. Approaches to syllabus design
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987), there are three main approaches

to syllabus design, namely, language-centered, skill-centered, and learning-
centered.
1.1.4.1. The language-centered approach
This approach is aimed at drawing “as a direct connection as possible between
the analysis of the target situation and the content of the ESP course” (Hutchinson
and Waters, 1987: 65). Though it appears to be very logical and easy to do, it
reveals some weaknesses. First, it is not a learner-centered approach, thus, it does
not start from the learners and their needs. Second, it is a static and inflexible
procedure, paying little attention to the conflicts and contradictions that are inherent
in any human endeavor. Besides, it gives no acknowledgement to factors which are
needed in the creation of any course. Finally, the language-centered analysis of
target situation data is often at the surface level, taking little account of the
competence that underlies the performance.
1.1.4.2. The skills-centered approach
Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 69) set the theoretical hypothesis for this
approach when stating that “underlying any language behavior are certain skills and
strategies, which the learner use in order to produce or comprehend discourse”. In
this approach, the learner factor is paid more attention than the former. Furthermore,
it aims to get away from the surface performance data and look at the competence
that underlies the performance. Nonetheless, this approach still regards the learner
as a language user rather than a language learner and it is concerned with the
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process of language use, not of language learning. This is considered as its
limitation.
1.1.4.3. The learning-centered approach
The core of this approach is to maximize the potential of the learning situation.
It is based on the recognition of the complexity of the learning process as claimed
by Hutchinson and Water (1987: 72) that “we would reject the term a learner-
centered approach in favor of a learning-centered approach to indicate that the

concern is to maximize learning”. It can be said that this approach overcomes all the
limitations mentioned in the two former approaches above because it fully takes the
learner into consideration. The learner factor is always paid full attention at every
stage of the learning process. This means that the learner plays a vital part in
determining the content of the course.
In this study, the learning-centered approach is chosen as the basis for
designing the supplementary reading syllabus for the first-year English majors at
HPU.
1.1.5. Steps in syllabus design
Designing a language syllabus is widely known as a complex process. Each
researcher has different view on this issue. Hughes (1983: 7) considers the choice of
aims and objectives as the first important steps in syllabus design whereas Crookes
and Long (1993: 12) recommend that tasks should be the first step. Other
researchers share the same opinion that needs analysis should be the initial step
(Yalden, 1987; Nunan, 1988; & Brown, 1995). Nunan (1988) gives a detailed
model of syllabus design including the following steps:

Figure 1: Model of syllabus design (Nunan, 1988)
In this study, the supplementary reading syllabus for the first-year English
majors at HPU will be designed basing on four steps suggested by Nunan (1988):
Needs
analysis
Selecting &
grading
tasks
Selecting &
grading
content
Goal setting
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needs analysis, goal setting, selecting and grading content, selecting and grading
tasks or activities.
1.1.5.1. Needs analysis
1.1.5.1.1. Definition of needs analysis
It is said that needs analysis is a crucial first step in syllabus design (Howard &
Brown, 1997: 68). Ritchterich (1983: 2, cited by Howard & Brown, 1997: 70)
points out the difficulty of reaching an agreed definition of needs analysis as he
concludes that “the very concept of language needs has never been clearly defined
and remains at best ambiguous”. Nonetheless, many scholars have spent their effort
in defining needs analysis during the past few years. Brown (1995: 35) defines
needs analysis (also called needs assessment) as “activities in gathering information
that will serve as the basis for developing a curriculum that will meet the learning
needs of a particular group of students”. He also adds that “in the case of language
programs, those needs are language related”. Dudley-Evans and St John (1998: 125)
give a thorough definition on needs analysis which includes the following aspects:
A: target situation analysis and objective needs; B: wants, means, subjective needs;
C: present situation analysis; D: learners‟ lacks; E: learning needs; F: linguistic and
discourse analysis; what is wanted from the course; need analysis
As the foundation of any language course, needs analysis is undoubtedly of great
importance in designing any syllabus as Richards (2001: 5) stresses that
Needs analysis serves three main purposes it provides a means of obtaining wider
input into the content, design and implementation of a language program; it can be
used in developing goals, objectives and content; and it can provide data for
reviewing and evaluating an existing program
1.1.5.1.2. Methods of needs analysis
The main data collection methods for needs analysis are questionnaires,
discussions, interviews, observation and assessment (Dudley-Evans & St John,
1988: 132). Jordan (cited by Howard & Brown, 1997: 73) mentions a variety of
methods for needs analysis which are shown in the table on the next page.

14

1
Pre-course placement/ diagnostic tests
6
Structured interviews
2
Entry tests on arrival
7
Learner diaries
3
Self-placement/ self-diagnostic tests
8
Case studies
4
Observation of classes
9
Final evaluation and feedback
5
Questionnaires
10
Previous research
Table 1: Methods of needs analysis, Jordan (cited by Howard & Brown, 1997:73)
In this study, the questionnaire is chosen as the main method to analyze the
needs of both teachers and students at HPU.
1.1.5.1.3. Types of needs
Needs are differently classified by different authors. Brindley (1984: 31, cited
by Nunan, 1988: 44) divides needs into objective needs and subjective needs. He
explains that objective needs are those which teachers can diagnose based on
analyzing personal data related to learners in corporation with information about

learners‟ language proficiency and patterns of language use; meanwhile, subjective
needs including wants, desires, expectations, etc can not be easily diagnosed, even
identified by learners themselves. Moreover, Hutchinson and Water (1987)
subdivide needs into two main types which are target needs and learning needs.
In terms of target needs, Hutchinson and Water (1987: 54) define that “target need
is what the learner needs to do in the target situation”. They also split target needs
into necessities, lacks and wants.
 Necessities: this type of need is determined by the demands of the target
situation and the learner
 Lacks: the gap between the target proficiency and the existing proficiency of
the learner
 Wants: what the learners perceive to be important for their language
development.
As far as learning needs is concerned, Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 54)
explain that learning needs are “what the learner needs to do in order to learn”.
Hutchinson compares the ESP course as a journey in which “lacks” is identified as
15

the starting point, “necessity” as the destination and “how we are going to get from
the starting point to destination” is “learning needs”. In this sense, learning needs
can be understood as the route. There are many constraints emerging on the route in
designing syllabus.
In the study, both target and learning needs are taken into account to determine
the aims and objectives of the syllabus.
1.1.5.2. Goal setting
Goal setting is known as an important step in the development of a language
program. Brown (1995: 71) defines goal setting as “general statements concerning
desirable and attainable program purposes and aims based on perceived language
and situation needs”. From this definition, it can be understood that the focus of
goals is on what the program hopes to achieve in the future and especially on what

the learners can do at the end of the program. Goals are considered as the basis for
developing specific objectives of the program.
Brown (1995) also emphasizes that goals can exist in many shapes. They may
be language and situation-centered, functional or structural. Nunan (1988: 79)
shares the same opinion when he points out that “goals come in many shapes and
forms. They can refer to cognitive and affective aspects of the learner‟s
development, what the teacher hopes to achieve in the classroom, what the teachers
hopes the learners will achieve in the classroom…” If goals are defined as general
statements of the program‟s purposes, objectives are defined “as specific statements
that describe the particular knowledge, behaviors and/ or skills that the learner will
be expected to know or perform at the end of a course or program” (Brown, 1995:
73). In fact, any curriculum is created and organized around its goals and objectives.
In short, it is crucial for syllabus designers to develop clear goals and objectives for
their syllabus in the process of designing syllabus.



16

1.1.5.3. Selecting and grading content
1.1.5.3.1. Selecting the content
After setting the goals for the course, the next step is to specify the ways in
which the goals are achieved. This is still a controversial issue because selecting
interesting and relevant content for learners is not a straightforward task. Nunan
(1988: 23) mentions one of the problems in syllabus design which is the difference
in the learners‟ interests in a given group. What is considered as interesting to one
learner may be uninteresting to another. Nonetheless, this problem can be overcome
by means of needs analysis and goal setting. Because of the difficulty in selecting
suitable content for the learners, most of course and material writers often base on
their intuition in making decision on the syllabus content.

1.1.5.3.2. Grading the content
The content grading for a language program is an extremely complex and
difficult task because it includes many teaching and learning related factors. Gibbon
(in Read, 1983: 141) groups these factors into two main types which are learner
needs and pedagogical factors.
Learner needs:
 What is needed by the learner most immediately?
 What is the most useful if the learner “suddenly has to stop his studies
before the full course is finished” (Hill 1961)?
 Whose absence would be more likely to lead to communication breakdown?
 Which can be used most widely, i.e. flexible language, moving to more
specific and subtle language later?
 What is the learner likely to need most frequently?
Pedagogical factors: the content must ensure the following factors
 Can be taught most effectively and efficiently given the classroom situation.
 Can be used in teaching other language
 Is needed for classroom purposes
 Is simpler in form of meaning, assuming that a progression from simple to
more complicated is good pedagogy.
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1.1.5.4. Selecting and grading tasks and activities
1.1.5.4.1. Selecting tasks and activities
In this study, the criteria for selecting tasks and activities by Candlin (adapted
from Nunan, 1988: 45 - 46) are chosen. In his opinion, a good task must “promote
attention to meaning, purpose and negotiation, involve learner contribution, attitude
and affects, be challenging, but not threatening to promote risk-taking, define a
problem to be worked through by learners, centered on the learner, but guided by
the teacher, provide opportunities for language practice, promote sharing of
information and expertise”.

1.1.5.4.2. Grading tasks and activities
According to Nunan (1988), tasks will be graded as follows:

Figure 2: Model of grading tasks and activities (Nunan, 1988)
In brief, there are many factors affecting tasks and activities grading. Hence, it
is very difficult to determine whether a given task or activity is easier or more
difficult.
1.2. Supplementary reading syllabus
1.2.1. The rationale for using supplementary reading syllabus in FLT
Supplementary syllabus is defined as books used in addition to the coursebook
(Spratt, et.al. 2005: 115). In other words, supplementary syllabus is any source
which can complement the teacher‟s work. This emphasizes the importance of
supplementary syllabus in language teaching and learning (Robinson, 1991; Nunan,
Production
Interaction
Comprehension

- Listen/ read, no response
- Listen/ read, non-verbal
response
- Listen/ read, verbal response
- Listen/ read and repeat/ copy
- Listen/ read, carry out drill
- Listen/ read, respond
meaningfully
- Listen/ read, rehearse
- Listen/ read, role-play
- Listen/ read, solve problem/
come to conclusion
More

difficult
Easier
18

1991). As a matter of fact, teachers can not make their work by themselves.
Normally, they base on some methodological approaches to create an effective
learning environment for their students or they may follow the coursebook designed
by publishers to meet their teaching needs. Nevertheless, these coursebooks do not
always thoroughly fulfill their syllabi. Allwright (1991) assert that textbooks are
often implicitly and thus might control the methods, process and procedures of
classroom practice and especially „deskill‟ teachers. Furthermore, textbooks are
often written for global markets. As a result, they may not be suitable for all
classrooms and need to be adapted to better meet students‟ true needs (Richards,
2005). In addition, textbooks can offer learners a variety of reading texts but there is
usually a one-size – fits – all approach to the way the texts are presented and to the
selection of reading comprehension exercises. Therefore, in order to meet the
learners‟ needs, teachers themselves have to look for supplementary texts and
design their own exercises. It is advised by many experts that using authentic
materials can help to bring the real world into the classroom and more importantly,
enliven the class because they can provide up – to – date knowledge for learners,
expose them to the world of authentic target language (Martinez, 2002; Kaprova,
1999‟ Leloup & Ponterio, 2000; Dumitrescu, 2000). Hence, if learners have an
exposure to supplementary authentic texts, they will become better readers and
more confident in their ability to cope with reading in real life situations. That is the
reason why supplementary reading syllabus is inevitable in the teaching and
learning interaction.
1.2.2. The guidelines for selecting a supplementary reading text for the
syllabus
Nuttal (1996: 25) points out three important criteria for selecting
supplementary reading texts.

 Readability: it means that the text should be at the right level. In other
words, when a text is chosen, the level of its structural and lexical difficulty
19

must be taken into account. It is vital to bear in mind that students can not
deal with challenging texts.
 Suitability of content: the text should be interesting and informative for
learners. It is necessary to take notice of learners‟ preferences.
 Exploitability: the text should facilitate the development of reading skills in
order that students can become competent and independent readers.
To sum up, using authentic texts as supplements to the textbook is extremely
significant because this can prepare learners for real life reading. Authentic texts
can foster the development of their reading skills and help them gain confidence in
their reading ability. With authentic texts, students certainly become autonomous
readers who can take responsibility of their own reading. This is regarded as a good
preparation for their future career.
1.3. Reading
1.3.1. The role of reading in second language acquisition
It is undeniable that reading is extremely important in both GE and ESP as
stated by Carrel (1988: 1) “for many students, reading by far is the most important
of four skills in a second language, particularly in English as a second or foreign
language”. Reading is considered as a powerful tool for students to get familiar with
specialized terms and concepts necessary for their future jobs through various
reading materials written in English. Besides, reading can motivate learners‟ study
more than other skills because it is much easier and can be done at any time,
anywhere with a lot of available materials. The main purpose of any reading
program is “to enable students to enjoy (or at least feel comfortable with) reading in
the foreign language, and to read without help of unfamiliar authentic texts, at
appropriate speed, silently and with adequate understanding” (Nuttal, 1996: 31).
Wilkins (1976: 138) also claims that reading can help students have an exposure to

the lexical items in natural linguistic context and as a consequence, students will
have the same meaningfulness that they have for native speakers. Furthermore,
Nagy cited by Krashen (1989: 450) affirms that reading can build up a deep