An investigation into vocabulary learning strategies used by the tenth-form students at Hoang Hoa high school = Nghiên cứu về những chiến lược học từ vựng của h

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
*********************


LƢƠNG THỊ HOA


AN INVESTIGATION INTO VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES
USED BY THE TENTH-FORM STUDENTS AT HOẰNG HÓA
HIGH SCHOOL

Nghiên cứu về những chiến lƣợc học từ vựng của học sinh lớp 10 trƣờng
trung học phổ thông Hoằng Hóa


M.A MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

FIELD: ENGLISH TEACHING METHODOLOGY
CODE: 60140111






Hanoi, 2014
VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

*********************


LƢƠNG THỊ HOA


AN INVESTIGATION INTO VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES
USED BY THE TENTH-FORM STUDENTS AT HOẰNG HÓA
HIGH SCHOOL

Nghiên cứu về những chiến lƣợc học từ vựng của học sinh lớp 10 trƣờng
trung học phổ thông Hoằng Hóa


M.A MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

FIELD: ENGLISH TEACHING METHODOLOGY
CODE: 60140111
SUPERVISOR: Dƣơng Thị Nụ, PhD.





Hanoi, 2014

i
STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I, the undersigned, certify my authority of the M.A. minor thesis entitled “An

investigation into vocabulary learning strategies used by the tenth-form students at
Hoằng Hóa high school” in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of
Master of Arts. The thesis has not been submitted to any university or institution
except where the references are indicated, no other person‟s piece of work has been
used without due acknowledgements in the text of the thesis.
Signature


Lƣơng Thị Hoa


















ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express the deepest appreciation to those who have facilitated

me to complete this dissertation.
First and foremost, my gratitude goes to my research supervisor, Dr. Dương
Thị Nụ for her patient guidance and insightful advice throughout the duration of the
study despite her busy schedule. Without her supervision and constant help, this
dissertation would not have been possible.
Secondly, I am indebted to all the lecturers in the Faculty of Post-graduate
Studies of the University of Languages and International Studies for their useful
lessons from which I have benefited a lot for the accomplishment of this study.
Importantly, I am grateful to my colleagues at Hoằng Hoá high school for
their great support, advice, experience and valuable discussions about the
pedagogical problems I encountered. I am also thankful to the students for their
whole-hearted participation in the study. Honesty, without their enthusiasm, this
dissertation would not have been thoroughly completed.
Last but not least, I would like to express my special thanks to my family
members whose strong support and encouragement have kept me going this far.













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ABSTRACT

It is common knowledge that vocabulary is a very important language
element in any language. However, the teaching and learning vocabulary at Hoằng
Hóa (HH) high school in Thanh Hóa (TH) is far from satisfactory. The current study
investigates vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) used by the tenth-form students at
HH high school in TH. The questionnaires were given to participants to find out
their perception of teaching and learning vocabulary at HH high school. In order to
achieve these aims, both quantitative and qualitative research approaches were
employed to explore what strategies commonly used by the tenth-form students at
HH high school. The data was collected via a number of instruments including:
questionnaires for students, an interview and a class observation for teachers of
English at HH high school. The study was carried out with the participation of 140
students from group 10B1, 10B2, 10B5 and seven teachers of English at HH high
school .The results of the questionnaires stated that both HH high school teachers
and learners are correctly aware of the importance of teaching and learning English
vocabulary. Furthermore, many vocabulary strategies were used both in teaching
and learning vocabulary. However, the frequency of using strategies is different
among teachers and students.











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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CLT: Communicative language teaching
COG: Cognitive strategies
DET: Determination strategies
EFL: English as a foreign language
HH: Hoằng Hóa
L1: The first language
L2: The second language
LLS: Language learning strategies
LSs: Learning strategies
MEM: Metacognitive strategies
SOC: Social strategies
TH: Thanh Hóa
VLS: Vocabulary learning strategies

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Components of learning strategies
Table 2: Features of language learning strategies
Table 3: Vocabulary Learning Strategies in the Questionnaire

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Students‟ use of DET strategies in vocabulary learning
Figure 2: Students’ use of SOC strategies in vocabulary learning
Figure 3: Students‟ use of MEM strategies in vocabulary learning
Figure 4: Students‟ use of COG strategies in vocabulary learning
Figure 5: Students‟ use of MET strategies in vocabulary learning
Figure 6: Statistics of five groups of vocabulary learning strategies

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP…………………………………………
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS………………………………………………
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LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………….
LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………
TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………

PART A: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale……………………………………………………………………
2. Aims of the study…………………………………………………………….
3. Research questions…………………………………………………………
4. Methods of the study…………………………………………………………
5. Significance of the study……………………………………………………
6. Scope of the study……………………………………………………………
7. Organization of the thesis……………………………………………………

PART B: DEVELOPMENT
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Chapter 1: Literature review…………………………………………………
1. Language learning strategies………………………………………………………
1.2. Definitions of language learning strategies………………………………
1.3. Characteristics of language learning strategies…………………………….
1.4. Classification of language learning strategies……………………………
2. Vocabulary and vocabulary learning strategies…………………………………
2.1 Definition of vocabulary……………………………………………………
2.2. The importance of vocabulary in the second language……………………
3. Vocabulary learning strategies
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3.1 Definition of vocabulary learning strategies………………………………
3.2 Classifications of vocabulary learning strategies………………………….
3.3 Classification of Schmitt‟s vocabulary learning strategies………………
Chapter 2: Research methodology………………………………………….

1. Participants………………………………………………………………….
2. Data collection instruments…………………………………………………
3. Data collection procedure…………………………………………………
Chapter 3: Data analysis……………………………………………………
1. Questionnaires for students………………………………………………….
2. Observation sheet for teachers………………………………………………
Chapter 4: Data discussion……………………………………………………
1. Vocabulary Learning Strategies used by the tenth-form students at HH high
school…………………………………………………………………………
2. Teachers‟ Vocabulary Teaching Strategies………………………………….
3. Recommendations …………………………………………………………

PART C: CONCLUSION……………………………………………………
REFERENCES……………………………………………………………….

APPENDICES………………………………………………………………
Appendix 1………………………………………………………………
Appendix 2…………………………………………………………………….
A sample of completed obversation sheet….………………………………….
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1
PART A: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
The focus of this dissertation is to investigate vocabulary learning strategies
used by the tenth form students at Hoằng Hóa (HH) high school. It appears
apparent that there are a considerable number of important reasons for this
selection of research area.
The first and foremost reason should be that learning vocabulary seems to be
considered as intuitively the most important macro in any languages. “If a
language could be considered as a house, then its grammar could be considered as
cement and its vocabulary could be figuratively compared to bricks. To build a
complete house, not only cement but also bricks are needed. Without bricks, no
house can be built, even when a plenty of high quality cement is available.”
(Nguyễn Huyền, 2004:1). In speaking or writing, learners need vocabulary to
communicate and understand other people. In some situations, learners produce

grammatically incorrect sentences, but they still get their message across if they use
key words appropriately. In other situations, learners may feel unpleasant because
they cannot find the words to express themselves. Vocabulary is not only
indispensable for personal communication, but also for academic study. In fact,
many standardized tests require knowledge of vocabulary such as TOEFL, IELTS.
Definitely, it cannot be denied that learning vocabulary appears significant to
language learners in learning foreign language in general and in their real life in
particular.
Secondly, English is an international language and together with its increasing
importance, the need of learning English is becoming more urgent than ever. From
my own experience, to learn English well, one must not only acquire a good
knowledge of English grammar but also need a rich amount of English vocabulary.
There is a famous saying that “Without grammar very little can be conveyed,
without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed.” (Cited in Hoang Tat Truong
1985:1). The saying sounds very familiar with many people. However, the

2
researcher still wants to repeat it once more to confirm the importance of
vocabulary in any language. In fact, methodologists have constantly looked for
effective methods to teach and learn English vocabulary.
Thirdly, while many Vietnamese students are good at grammar, they cannot
speak English correctly and fluently in real-life communication. To improve this
matter, learners must give high priority to learning and developing their knowledge
of vocabulary. It can be seen that, for a long time, the language teaching and
learning have been based on the out-of-date methods in which students only
passively sit, take notes but rarely contribute to the lessons. They do not ask their
teacher questions, even when they have problems. Therefore, when approaching
new teaching methods such as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), students
feel active in classroom. There have been a variety of studies on this situation and
various solutions have been given, including changing teaching methods, changing

syllabus or textbooks, upgrading teachers‟ qualifications, changing formats of
vocabulary tests.
Last but not least, based on my four-year teaching experience at HH high
school, I know that the students rarely pay attention to vocabulary, though they
have been learning English since they were at lower secondary schools. In
Vietnam, many scholars have studied vocabulary learning strategies. However, this
is the first time an investigation into vocabulary learning strategies used by the
tenth-form students at HH high school is conducted. The result of this dissertation
is expected to make an outstanding contribution to foreign language education in
Vietnam, especially to teacher and learners at HH high schools. Indeed, both
teachers and students will hopefully be accurately aware of the importance of
teaching and learning vocabulary which brings the learners a considerable number
of benefits in the future. In addition, the teachers and learners will have
opportunities to assess their teaching and learning vocabulary as well as the
problems they encounter. As a result, it facilitates teachers and learners to find out

3
the reasonable and suitable teaching and learning vocabulary strategies, and to
overcome difficulties in teaching and learning vocabulary.
For such reasons I choose “An investigation into vocabulary learning
strategies used by the tenth-form students at Hoằng Hóa high school” as a theme
for my thesis.
2. Aims of the study
The study is carried out to achieve the following aims:
- To find out the English teachers and students‟ perception and attitude towards
vocabulary learning strategies.
- To explore what strategies are commonly used by the tenth- form students at HH
high school in learning English vocabulary.
- To give some suggestions to stimulate students to learn English vocabulary better.
3. Research questions

In order to achieve the above-mentioned aims, the following research
questions were asked in the study:
1. What are the English teachers and student‟s perception and attitude
towards vocabulary teaching and learning strategies?
2. What vocabulary learning strategies are commonly used by the tenth –form
students at HH high school?
4. Methods of the study
To reach the aims set forth, the study uses both quantitative and qualitative
research approaches. In order to gain the most successful results, data will be
collected through questionnaires for students, an interview and an observation for
teachers of English at high school. The collected data, then, will be processed and
analyzed. Additionally, the writer‟s own experience in designing classroom
vocabulary learning activities and the analysis of current textbook and vocabulary
teaching methods applied to teaching English for the tenth- form students at HH
high school in Thanh Hóa (TH) will contribute much to the evaluation of the
effectiveness of these activities.

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5. Significance of the study
Firstly, the information about students‟ strategies in learning English
vocabulary in this thesis is believed to be useful for the teachers of English in
general and the English teachers at HH high school in particular so that they can
apply suitable and effective techniques to teach vocabulary.
Secondly, this research may help raise the students‟ awareness of learning
vocabulary in foreign language lessons, and from that they can make progress in
learning English.
Thirdly, the study may be used as a reference for other researchers to conduct
other studies in similar areas.
6. Scope of the study
In the previous studies, teaching and learning English vocabulary has been

mentioned by many researchers so far and they aimed at several levels of learners.
Because of the limited time and within a master thesis, only vocabulary learning
strategies as a theme was chosen on the ground that learning vocabulary seems to
be the most challenging language factor to English learners in Vietnam in general.
Moreover, the subjects chosen for this study are the tenth- form students at
HH high school, TH province where the researcher is teaching. Thus, it cannot be
said that the results of this study are general to other language researches and to all
Vietnamese high school students.
7. Organization of the thesis
This thesis is divided into three main parts:
PART A: INTRODUCTION- contains rationale, objectives of the study,
research questions, methods, significance, scope and organization of the study.
PART B: DEVELOPMENT
Chapter 1- Literature review - covers the information about vocabulary learning
strategies (VLS) research, some basis concepts related to learning strategies and
vocabulary learning. In addition, learning strategies and learning strategy

5
classification are reviewed to set up the theoretical framework for the investigation
in the next chapter.
Chapter 2- Research methodology - includes the context of the study, the
research questions, the research method, the study participants and the procedures
to carry out the study.
Chapter 3- Data analysis and discussion -discusses the use of vocabulary
learning strategies by the students of HH high school and recommendations for
teachers and students.
Chapter 4-Major findings, discussions and recommendations- shows major
findings, discussions and recommendations for the teachers to increase the
effectiveness of teaching and learning vocabulary.
PART C: CONCLUSION- addresses the key issues in the study, limitations

of the study and suggestions for further study.

















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CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
In this chapter, a brief review of learning strategy research is given; some
basic concepts related to learning strategies and vocabulary learning is also
presented. In addition, the classification of learning strategies in general and
vocabulary learning strategies in particular are reviewed to set up the theoretical
framework for the investigation in the next chapter.
1.1. The definitions of learning strategies
It is said that research on learning strategies in general and language learning
strategies in particular has become common. So far, there has been no consensus on
what constitutes a learning strategy in second language learning or how these differ
from other types of learner activities among the linguists regarding to the

definitions of leaning strategies.
Oxford (1990) defines as „„specific actions taken by the learner to make
learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and
more transferable to new situations.
According to Nunan (1991:168), “Learning strategies […] are the mental
processes which learners employ to learn and use the target language”. Nunan‟s
definition restricts learning strategies only to “mental processes”.
Richard et al. (1992:209), offers a broader definition of learning strategies,
that is, learning strategies are intentional behaviors and thoughts that learners make
use of during learning in order to better help them understand, learn and remember
new information.”
Similarly, Weinstein and Mayer (1986) (in O‟ Malley and Charmot 1990:43)
have learning facilitation as a goal and are intentional on the part of the learner.
The goal of strategy use is to affect the leaner‟s motivational or affective state, or
the way in which the learner selects, acquires, organizes, or integrates new
knowledge.”
Obviously, learning strategies are defined in different words and from
different perspectives such as cognitive, social or pragmatic. Therefore, researchers

7
worked out the taxonomy of learning strategies instead of defining them. This can
be seen in the following part.
1.2. The characteristics of learning strategies
Learning strategies are techniques, approaches or deliberate actions that
students take in order to facilitate the learning and recall of both linguistic and
content information and to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-
directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations.
Wenden and Rubin (1987: 7-8) claimed that learning strategies were
composed of the following components:
Components of learning strategies

1. They are specific actions or techniques.
2. They can be observable/ behaviourable or non-observable/ mental.
3. They are problem-oriented.
4. They can contribute directly or indirectly to learning.
5. They may be consciously employed and became automatized.
6. They are changeable.

Table 1: Components of learning strategies
Source: Wenden and Rubin (1987: 7-8)
Oxford (1990:9) offers a more comprehensive list of the features of language
learning strategies as the following:
Features of language learning strategies
1. Contribute to the main goal, communicative competence.
2. Allow learners to be more self-directed.
3. Expand the role of the teacher.
4. Are problem-oriented.
5. Are specific actions taken by the learner?
6. Involve many aspects of the learner, not just the cognitive.
7. Support learning both directly and indirectly.
8. Are not always observable.
9. Are often conscious.

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10. Can be taught.
11. Are flexible
12. Are influenced by a variety of factors
Table 2: Features of language learning strategies (Source: Oxford (1990:9))
1.3. Classifications of learning strategies
Many scholars like O'Malley et al (1985), Wenden & Rubin (1987), Stern
(1992), Oxford (2001) have an interest in classifying vocabulary learning

strategies . However, most of these endeavors to classify language learning
strategies reflect more or less the same categories of language learning strategies
without any radical changes. In what follows, these taxonomies of language
learning strategies will be dealt with:
Wenden’s classification
Wenden‟s (1983) research checked the strategies that adult foreign language
learners use in order to direct their own learning. Wenden‟s focus, therefore, is on
what O‟Malley and Charmot call meta-cognitive strategies. She identifies the
following three general categories of self-directing strategies:
(1) Knowing about language and relating to what language and language
learning involves;
(2) Planning relating to the „what‟ and „how‟ of language learning;
(3) Self-evaluation. It relates to progress in learning and learner‟s responses to
the learning experience. Wenden‟s framework was considered as a basis for the
later English foreign language (EFL) learner‟s training.
Dansereau’s Classification
Dansereau (1985) draws a distinction between a primary strategy and support
strategies, the former is used to directly manage learning materials, and the latter
helps to establish an appropriate learning attitude and therefore aids in coping with
distractions, fatigue and frustrations. Later Oxford suggested two broad categories
paralleling Dansereau‟s primary strategies and support strategies.
Rubin’s Classification

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According to the criteria of whether the strategy contributes directly or
indirectly to learning, Rubin proposed a classification scheme that subsumes
learning strategies under two primary groupings and a number of subgroups.
Learner strategies “contribute to the development of the language system and
affect learning directly” (Rubin 1987:23). Language learning strategies are further
categorized in cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies.

Oxford’s Classification
A distinction is drawn between direct and indirect strategies by Oxford
(1990). Jones (1998) believes that Oxford has developed a system of language
learning strategies that is more comprehensive and detailed than earlier
classification models. However, as Oxford herself concedes, there is no agreement
on the basic definitions of the terms „direct‟ and „indirect‟, nor on “exactly what
strategies are; how many strategies exist; how they should be defined, demarcated,
and categorized”.
O’Malley’s Classification
O‟Malley and Charmot‟s (1990) classification emerged from interviews with
experts and novices and theoretical analyses of reading comprehension and
problem solving. And language learning strategies are differentiated into the three
primary categories cognitive, meta-cognitive and affective or social strategies.
It cannot be denied that learning strategies (LSs) are divided into various
ways from different researchers' views. O'Malley and Cohen have a great deal in
common with the taxonomy of LSs. Both of them refer to three primary categories
(cognitive, metacognitive and affective strategies). On the other hand, Rubin and
Oxford consider direct and indirect criteria as the basement of classifying LSs.
Different from the other researchers, Wenden focuses on three general categories of
self-directing strategies. Dansereau only considers the differences between a
primary strategy and support strategy as his classification of LSs. Although there
are many classifications of LSs, most of which are basic theories. It is not easy to
decide which classification of LSs is the best in learning a foreign language in that

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it depends on different criteria such as: educational environment, learners' level as
well as their studying aims In fact, many learners try a large number of
language learning strategies with a little or even no success. Meanwhile, others
using one strategy or several ones in studying another language can reach a good
result. Due to our students' characteristics, I would like to apply Wenden's

classification of LSs which is not only brief and clear but also understandable.
2. Vocabulary and vocabulary learning strategies
2.1. Definition of vocabulary
David Wilkins, a British linguist acknowledged vocabulary and the
significance of vocabulary that without grammar, very little could be conveyed,
without vocabulary nothing could be conveyed. Vocabulary is considered a very
important aspect of learning a foreign language that has called for a great of
attention from linguists, researchers, teachers and learners together with many
different definitions of vocabulary. In the Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary,
vocabulary is defined as “all the words that a person knows or uses, or all the words
in a particular language.”
According to Lewis (1993, p.89, cited in Hoang, 1985), vocabulary “…may
be individual words or full sentences – institutionalized utterances – that conveyed
fixed social or pragmatic meaning within a given community”
From the above quotations about vocabulary, the question: “What is
vocabulary?” in terms of vocabulary teaching and learning can be partly revealed.
Vocabulary is not only a stock of individual words with fixed meanings, more than
that, it is also a combination of words such as: poly words (e.g. by the way, upside
down), collocations or word partnership (e.g. sense of humor, make a complaint),
institutionalized utterances (e.g. I‟ll take it; Where are you from?), sentence frames
(It can be said that ; there is /there are), or even text frames (e.g. in this
presentation, I would like to…; Firstly, secondly, thirdly…). Learning vocabulary
involves learning “chunks” rather than learning individual words.


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2.2. The importance of vocabulary in the second language learning
In the very first part of his book “Vocabulary”, Mc Cathy (1990, p.2, cited in
Quach, 2007) stated: “It is the experience of most language teachers that the single,
biggest component of any language course is vocabulary. No matter how well the

student learns grammar, no matter how successfully the sounds of L2 are mastered,
without words to express a wide range of meanings, communication in an L2 just
cannot happen in any meaningful way.”
It is impossible to deny the role of vocabulary in communication in the
second (L2). One‟s vocabulary range plays a very significant part in his/her ability
to communicate due to the fact that “words are the tools we use to think, to express
ideas and feelings and to learn about the world.” (Johnson and Johnson, 2004, p.1,
cited in Quach, 2007).
In the book named “Understanding vocabulary” (2000, p.16, cited in Quach,
2007), Alexander wrote: “Comprehension improves when you know what the
words mean” and “words are currency of communication. A robust vocabulary
improves all areas of communication – listening, speaking, reading and writing”.
All the above quotations highly appreciate the important role of vocabulary in
language learning, especially in second language learning. Thus, teaching
vocabulary should be a part of the syllabus and vocabulary should be paid more
attention through well- planned lesson of language teachers‟ and serious learning
behavior of learners.
3. Vocabulary learning strategies
3.1. Definitions of vocabulary learning strategies
It should be noted that there have been many definitions of language learning
strategies. Meanwhile, there is no official definition for vocabulary learning
strategies. Perhaps it is because that vocabulary learning strategies are part of
language learning strategies and part of learning strategies as well. The working
definition of vocabulary learning strategies in this research is adapted from Rubin
(1987), cited in Schmitt (1997:203) that learning strategies are defined as “the

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process by which information is obtained, stored, retrieved, and used” and
“therefore vocabulary learning strategies could be any which affect this broadly-
defined process”.

It is believed that the characteristics of learning strategies introduced by
Rubin and Oxford as mentioned above are also true to VLS.
3.2 Classifications of vocabulary learning strategies
Studying VLS has been an interest for a lot of psychologists, linguists and
language teachers for ages. There are numerous studies conducted about VLS and
their effectiveness in learning vocabulary and this vocabulary field has been
productive in the last two decades. Some researchers have attempted to develop a
framework of category of vocabulary learning strategies. Following are the three
most prominent taxonomies by Gu and Johnson (1996, cited in Gazah, 2007),
Schmitt (1997) and Nation (2001).
Gu and Johnson (1996 as cited in Ghazal, 2007) divide L2 vocabulary
learning strategies into: metacognitive, cognitive, memory and activation strategies.
Nation (2001) introduces taxonomy of 11 VLS. These are grouped into
planning, sources and processes. Planning strategies involve deciding on what
words and aspects of words to focus on what strategies to use and how often to give
attention to certain words. Meanwhile, sources strategies concern ways to find out
information about words. This information may embrace all aspects of word
knowledge and can be found in the word itself (word part analysis), the context
(guessing from context), sources of reference (dictionaries) or the first language
(L1) (via analogy). The final set of strategies (processes) includes ways to
remember words and make them available for use.
In general, the strongest point of Nation‟s taxonomy is probably its simplicity:
only classes and types of strategies are mentioned and plain terms are used. This is
in sharp contrast with Schmitt‟s taxonomy in which up 38 strategies are named and
with Gu and Johnson‟s taxonomy in which psychological terms such as
metacognitve, cognitive, activation, self- initiation, etc are widely used. This

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research took no attempt to fill the gap in changing and correcting the previous
scholars‟ VLS system, this study only focused on applying some specific strategies

in vocabulary learning in practice and examining the effectiveness of them.
Although among many classification schemes and Schmitt‟s taxonomy is probably
the most extensive, it is not necessary for this study to employ such complicated
and detailed strategies in Schmitt‟s taxonomy. The specific strategies used in this
study were taken from Schmitt‟s original base - the Oxford (1990)‟s classification
of LLS due to its clarification and simplicity.
Based on the system of Oxford‟s taxonomy of LLS, Schmitt (1997) only
adopted four strategy groups: social, memory, cognitive, and metacognitive.
Schmitt stated that there was no category in Oxford‟s system which adequately
describes the kind of strategies used by an individual when facing with discovering
a new word‟s meaning without recourse to another person‟s expertise, so he added
another new category – determination strategies (DET) to the system. Therefore,
there are 38 individual strategies divided into two big groups: discovery strategies
and consolidation strategies.
3.3 Classification of Schmitt’s vocabulary learning strategies
Vocabulary learning strategy classification system proposed by Schmitt (1997) will
be used as the theoretical framework of the investigation in this thesis. Therefore,
the clarification and exemplification of those vocabulary learning strategies that are
used in the questionnaire will be presented below as a source of reference.
a. Determination strategies
Determination strategies are used when students face with discovering a new
word‟s meaning without resource to another person‟s expertise. They can have the
meaning of a new word from the following techniques:
Guessing from their structural knowledge of the language: learners may be
able to discern the new word‟s part of speech, which can help in guessing process.
Hints about meaning can be also obtained from its roots or affixes.
Using reference material: Dictionaries are primary in this technique.

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Word lists and flashcards are those suggested to be useful for initial exposures

to a new word.
b. Social strategies
Guessing from an L1 cognate: cognates are words in different languages
which descended from a common parent word. If the target language is closely
related to learner‟s first language, cognates can be excellent resource for both
guessing the meaning of and remembering new words.
Guessing from context: an unknown word‟s meaning can be guessed from
context. However, learners must have a certain level of language proficiency as
well as adequate background knowledge of the subject and the strategic knowledge
of how to effectively go through inference process.
Social strategies are used to both discover the meaning of a new word and
consolidate a word once it has been encountered. They can be defined as those are
used to understand a word by asking someone who knows it. Teachers are said to
be often in this position. They can be expected to give help in a number of different
ways such as giving L1 translation, giving a synonym, giving a definition by
paraphrase, using a new word in a sentence, checking learners‟ work for accuracy,
or any combination of these. Learners can also get help from their classmates or
benefit from interactions with others such as group work activities or interaction
with native speakers.
c. Memory strategies
Memory strategies are approaches which relate new materials to existing
knowledge using some form of imaginary, or grouping. The strategies can be listed
as follows:
Picture/imaginary: students can learn new words by studying them with
pictures of their meaning instead of their definition, by creating their own mental
images of a word‟s meaning, or by associating new words with a particularly vivid
personal experience of the underlying concept.

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Related words: new words can be linked to L2 words which the student

already knows. This usually involves some types of sense relationship such as
coordination, synonymy, antonym, hyponymy, or metonymy which can be
illustrated with semantic maps-one way used often to consolidate vocabulary
Oxford –(1990).Whilst, unrelated words: words that have no sense relationship can
be linked together while they are learnt.
Grouping: words can be grouped together so that they are easier to memorize,
store and recall. Words can be grouped mentally or in writing according to their
topic, function, in a story and so on. In addition, word‟s orthographical or
phonological form: words can be learnt by explicitly studying their spelling and
pronunciation, remembering its orthographical form, or making a mental
representation of its sound.
Other memory strategies are also suggested in this group. A structural
analysis of words can be useful for determining their meaning. Studying a word‟s
affixes, root, and word class is potentially useful as a way of consolidating its
meaning. Paraphrasing can be used as a strategy to compensate for limited
productive vocabulary. Learning a new word in its chunk often as phrases, idioms,
or proverbs is a mnemonic device for remembering the individual word meanings.
Physical actions or semantic feature grids are two other suggested ways of
vocabulary learning.
d. Cognitive strategies:
Cognitive strategies are those somewhat similar to memory strategies but the
difference is that they are not focused so specifically on manipulative mental
process” (Schmitt, 1997:215). This group includes repetition and mechanical means
of learning vocabulary such as:
Verbal and written repetition: words are repeatedly written or spoken again
and again.
Word lists and flashcards: words are reviewed by using word lists and
flashcards (not for initial exposure).

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Studying aid using: words are learnt through such study aids as: note taking in
class, using vocabulary sections in textbooks, or taping L2 labels onto their
respective physical objects.
Vocabulary notebooks: words can be learnt by written down in a notebook.
e. Metacognitive strategies:
Metacognitive strategies are those used to control and evaluate their own
learning by having a conscious overview of the learning process. Students can
employ such strategies as:
Using English-language media: to get the aim of efficient acquisition of an l2,
it is important to maximize exposure to it. In case that English is chosen as L2,
English - language media such as: books, magazines, newspapers, movies,
websites, etc. offers an almost endless resource.
Skipping or passing new words: according to Nation & Read (1990), even
English native speakers know only a fraction of the vast total of words. Therefore,
learning all the words at the same time is impossible and concentrating on some
words first is really important to every learner. Part of this involves knowing when
to skip or pass a word.
Continuing to study over time: apart from making full use of above
strategies, one can maximize the effectiveness of his practice time if it is scheduled
and organized. Testing oneself with a test and using spaced word practice can be
considered as organized activities by students themselves.
In this chapter, some information about history of research on the issue has
been introduced; such concepts as learning strategies and knowledge of learning
strategy classifications have been presented. A theoretical framework has been
prepared for the investigation in the next chapter.
In summary, the notion of learning strategies which is dealt with in the last
part is born in two perspectives: cognitive psychology and second language
acquisition. The former tried to analyze the strategies that experts employ and then
train novices to use them as well. The latter preferred to describe the kinds of

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strategies which are used. A number of researchers have attempted to systematize
strategies of nonnative speakers, using questionnaire that classify various kinds of
strategies into categories. It has proved reliable and valid as some studies have
shown by collecting data from people such as university students, and company
employees. Though the two studies by Stoffer (1995) and Schmitt (1997) showed
taxonomies of vocabulary learning strategies, no study has dealt with senior high
school students at HH high School.