Application of task-based language teaching in teaching writing to non-major English students at Namdinh industrial college = Áp dụng phương pháp dạy học theo đ

ii


ABSTRACT

Reading is considered the first skill - a complicated skill requiring the coordination of a
number of interrelated sources of information taught in each unit as it is the input of language
which is also the process of constructing meaning from the written texts. “A reading strategy
can be described as any interactive process that has the goal of obtaining meaning from
connected text, and reading skills operate within the context of such reading strategies”
(Hudson, 2007: 107)
This study investigated what reading strategies the students are trained in the reading
lessons and the teachers’ and students’ perceptions of reading strategies training. The
population of this study was composed of the teachers and grade ten students at Le Quy Don
High School, Hanoi. Three different methods including questionnaire, classroom observations
and interviews were used to collect data. A questionnaire consisting of 20 items was
administered to 10 teachers and 80 students. Classroom observations conducted with four
teachers and their seven classes. Interviews were conducted with 4 teachers teaching at ten
grade classes. Reading strategies employed in the three stages of a reading lesson: pre-reading,
while-reading and post-reading were investigated.
The results reveal that the students and teachers used more pre-reading strategies such
as making use of pictures, titles and warm-up questions than post-reading strategies. As for the
while-reading phase the most effectively employed strategies were underlining key words and/
or phrases and guessing /predicting the meaning of unknown words. The teachers did have the
knowledge of reading strategies. However, teachers and students' perceptions were not
perfectly matched. Data collected from the questionnaire were analyzed statistically and
recommendations are made to deal with the problems in training reading strategies in English
reading skill lesson for grade10 students at Le Quy Don High School.

iii


LIST OF CHARTS
Chart 1: Pre-reading Strategies……………………………………………………… 25

Chart 2: While-reading Strategies …………………………………………………….26

Chart 3: Post-reading Strategies ……………………………………………………….28

Chart 4: Pre-reading Strategies…………………………………………………………29

Chart 5: While-reading Strategies …………………………………………………… 30

Chart 6: Post-reading Strategies ……………………………………………………… 32


LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1. Inter-relationships among perception, practice and progress………………………14
Figure 2: Teacher cognition, schooling, professional education, and classroom practice……15


LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Teachers’ actual classroom practices: (Unit 14, 15, 16) Pre- reading Strategies……33

Table 2: Teachers’ actual classroom practices: (Unit 14, 15, 16) While- reading Strategies…33

Table 3: Teachers’ actual classroom practices: (Unit 14, 15, 16) Post- reading Strategies… 34

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS ……………………………………………………………………i
ABSTRACT ii
LIST OF CHARTS, FIGURES ,TABLES ………………………………………… …….iii
PART A INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………….…1
1. Rationale… ………………………………………………………….…….1
2. Aims of the study ………………………………………………………… 3
3. Scope of the study ………………………………………………………… 3
4. Significance of the study ………………………………………………….…3
5. Research method used in the study ………………………………………….3
6. Organization of the thesis ………………………………………………… 3
PART B DEVELOPMENT …………………………………………………………….5
CHAPTER I: LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………….5
1.1 The theory of reading……………………………………………………………………….5
1.1.1. Definition of reading………………………………………… …………5
1.1.2. Models of reading process.……………………………………… … 5
1.1.2.1. Bottom- up model……….…………………………………… …… 5
1.1.2.2. Top-down model…………………………………….…………………6
1.1.2.3. Interactive models…………………………… 7
1.2. Reading strategies………………………………………………………………………….8
1.2.1 Language learning strategies………………………………… …………8
1.2.1.1. Definition………………………………………………………………8
1.2.1.2. Classification…………………………………………………….…… 9
1.2.1.3. The importance of strategies in the learning process… 10
1.2.2. Reading strategies/ Strategies in teaching second language
reading……………………………………………….………………… …….11

1.2.2.1. Definition…………………………………………………………… 11
1.2.2.2. Teaching reading skills ………………………………………………12

v
1.3. Teachers and students’ perceptions of reading strategy training…………………………13
1.3.1. Definition of perception………………………………….……………………….… 13
1.3.2. Teachers and students’ perception in language strategies…………….14
1.4. Review of reading strategy research…………………………………………………… 16
CHAPTER II: METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………………21
2.1. Research methodology……………………………………………………………………21
2.1.1. Research questions…………………………………………………… 21
2.1.2. Informants………………………………………………………………21
2.1.2.1. The teachers and grade 10 students at Le Quy Don High School… 21
2.1.2.2. The syllabus and textbook design…………………………………….21
2.1.2.3. Text types in reading lessons in English 10 and methods used………22
2.2. Instruments……………………………………………………………………………… 22
2.2.1. Questionnaire………………………………………………………… 23
2.2.2. Classroom observation……………………………………………… 23
2.2.3. Interview……………………………………………………………… 23
2.3.Procedure……………………………………………………………………… ……… 24
CHAPTER III: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 25
3.1. Reading strategies trained in the reading lessons……………………………………… 25
3.1.1. Questionnaires ………………………………………………………….25
3.1.1.1. Questionnaires for teachers………………………………………… 25
3.1.1.1.Questionnaires for students……………….………………………… 28
3.1.2. Classroom observation………………………………………………….33
3.1.3. Interview……………………………………………………………… 35
3.2. The teachers and students’ perceptions of reading strategy training…………………… 37
3.2.1. Questionnaire………………………………………………………… 37
3.2.2. Questionnaire, classroom observation and interview………………… 38

CHAPTER IV: CONCLUSION 40
4.1. Summary of the finding………………………………………………………………… 40
4.1. 1. Research question 1……………………………………………………40

vi
4.1. 2. Research question 2……………………………………………………41
4.2. Some pedagogical implication of the study………………………………………… … 41
4.3. Limitation…………………………………………………………………………………42
4.4. Suggestions for further study…………………………………………………………… 42
REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………….44
APPENDICES I
APPENDIX 1 I
APPENDIX 2 IV
APPENDIX 3 VI
APPENDIX 4 XI
APPENDIX 5 XIX
APPENDIX 6 XXV
APPENDIX 7 XXVII
APPENDIX 8 XXX

1
A. INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
English is one of the most important core subjects in many schools in Vietnam.
English classes have been systematically introduced to elementary schools from grade 3.
Vietnamese students study English for at least 10 years: three years in elementary school, four
years in lower secondary school, and three years in upper/ high school. In spite of the
enthusiasm for studying English, the profile of Vietnamese students’ strategies for learning
English in general and reading strategies in particular is not well researched. Likewise,
“learning strategy” and “reading strategies” are still quite a vague concept to both Vietnamese
EFL teachers and learners, although such strategies could definitely help them learn English
more efficiently if they knew and employed such strategies consciously.
Traditionally, researchers have agreed that reading was a passive or receptive process in
which the reader attempted to decode the intended meaning of the author through recognizing
the letters and words as meaningful units, the reader was merely a recipient of information
from the printed pages and brought nothing to the text ( Barnett, 1988). However, modern
research on reading has found the reading process active rather than passive as well as
individualized and complicated (Grabe, 1991; Wallace, 1992).
Many studies such as “Teaching How To Learn- Learning Strategies in ESL” (Willing,
1989), “Teaching Second Language Reading” (Hudson, 2007), “New Ways in Teaching
Reading” (Day, 1993) and Reading Through Context: How Real and Perceived Strategy Use
Affects L2 Comprehension (Barnett, 1988) have indicated that the use of appropriate
strategies may improve reading comprehension. Studies have also suggested that readers could
be trained to learn and use reading strategies, which raised the need to incorporate reading
strategy instruction into school curriculum. Reading strategy instruction is making its way into

regular classrooms. The integration of reading strategy instruction with cooperative learning
has changed the traditional pattern of reading as an individual activity. Group efforts, peer
cooperation, and teacher-student interaction become an important part of the new reading
strategy instruction approach. As English is taught and learned in a non – native environment,
reading is an important means to gain knowledge. Reading is an essential skill for English as a

2
second or foreign language (ESL/EFL). With strengthened reading skills, ESL/ EFL readers
will make greater progress and attain greater development in all academic areas. This is also
true to the students at Le Quy Don High School since reading skills provide them with a
variety of language expressions, structures and a wide range of information, knowledge. It is
not incidentally when the reading lesson in the new text book is introduced in the initial period
of each unit. Furthermore reading is tested in the two most important English examinations in
Vietnam which are the school final examination and the university entrance examination for
students enrolling in D diviation. Both are administered at the end of grade 12, and neither has
a Listening and Speaking component.
When dealing with reading lessons, students, especially grade 10 students often
experience the lack of reading strategies which are essential for them to overcome the
challenges in the classroom. Many researchers indicate that EFL students find it difficult to
comprehend the texts and achieve their goal of reading success (Rumelhart, 1977; Stanovic,
1980). Recent researchers have also found that becoming more aware of what readers do
when they read, becoming conscious of their own reading processes, it is a power tool for
improving reading efficiency (Carrell 1989). To become better readers, students need to
become aware of how they are reading and what they could do to improve comprehension.
They need to develop their level of metacognitive awareness. (Aebersold & Field 1997).
Therefore, teacher should consider teaching students effective reading strategies. Teachers and
students’ perceptions of reading strategies will, with no doubt, influence their constructions of
the teaching and learning environment, even though learners are the focus of the teaching
activities. Learner-centered does not mean that learners are "loners". They are in the social
community of learners and teachers who help and foster each other in the co-constructions of

the learning and teaching environment.
This research into training reading strategies in English reading lessons for grade 10
students provides a particular view of how students are trained reading strategies to do reading
comprehension tasks and the teachers and students’ perception of reading strategy training. It
is also hoped that this study will reveal issues concerning training reading strategies and
provide the teachers and students with an in – depth understanding about reading strategies.

3
2. Aims of the study
The major purposes of this study are:
* To investigate what reading strategies students are trained in the reading lessons.
* To examine teachers’ and students’ perception of reading strategy training.
In order to achieve the above aims of the study, the following major research questions
addressed:
- What reading strategies are the students trained in the reading lessons ?
- What are the teachers and students’ perceptions of reading strategies training?
3. Scope of the study
The study investigates the teaching and learning reading strategies of teachers and grade
10 students at Le Quy Don High School. The study of learning strategies in other English
skills would be beyond the scope.
4. Significance of the study
The study is the first one to be carried out in the field of reading strategies at Le Quy
Don High School, Hanoi. It highlights the important factor of training reading strategies to
students, especially grade 10 students. More importantly, it provides not only the classification
scheme for these reading strategies, but also a thorough analysis of the frequency in the
reading strategies utilized by teachers and students and their perceptions of reading strategies
training.
5. Research methods used in the study
This study is conducted as a descriptive study. To achieve the aims mentioned above it
utilizes both qualitative and quantitative approaches employing questionnaire, class

observation and interview to collect information on reading strategies training in English
reading skill lessons for grade 10 students.
6. Organization of the thesis
Three parts will be presented in the thesis:
Part A. Introduction: includes a rationale of the study, aims of the study, scope of the
study, significance of the study as well as organization of the thesis.

4
Part B. Development: consists of three chapters: literature review, methodology and
finding and discussion.
Part C. Conclusion: summarizes the finding, points out the limitations and suggests
further study.

5
B. DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter reviews theories related to training strategies in general and reading strategies in
particular. It also reviews current research on reading strategies and summarizes some studies
on teachers and students’ perception of reading strategies training research that have been
conducted so far. All of these serve as a basis for an investigation into training reading
strategies in English reading skill lessons.
1.1 The theory of reading
1.1.1. Definition of reading
Reading is an essential skill for English as a second/foreign language (ESL/EFL)
students to master. Anderson (1999) confirms that “the more exposure student has to language
through reading, the greater the possibilities that overall language proficiency will increase”.
In a general term Anderson (1999:1) defines reading as “an active, fluent process which
involves the reader and the reading material in building meaning”. Aebersold & Field
(1997:15) share the same view on reading as reading is what happens a text is looked at and
meaning is assigned to the written symbols in that text. The text and the reader are the two
physical entities necessary for reading process to begin. It is, however, the interaction between
the text and the reader that constitutes the actual meaning. Rumelhart (1977) also considers
reading involving the reader, the text and the interaction between the reader and the text.
However, there are still different points of views on what reading is. So far, these views are

often grouped under three models which have been proposed to describe this process
1.1.2. Models of reading process
Understanding the process of reading has been the focus of much research and attempts
to describe the interaction between reader and text have been numerous. Models of reading
process can be divided into three categories: the bottom-up models, the top-down models, and
the interactive models.
1.1.2.1. Bottom- up model

6
Bottom-up models depend primarily on the information presented by the text. Anderson,
(1999:2) refers bottom-up model as “lower level” reading processes. These lower level
processes indicated in Silberstein (1993:7) occur when linguistic input from the text is mapped
against the reader’s previous knowledge. According to Nunan (1991), bottom-up models as
“the process of meaning interpretation” in which “the language is translated from one form of
symbolic representation to another”. Bottom-up reading requires language processing at all
levels: word, sentences, and discourse. However, due to the basic of bottom-up processing –
the linguistic knowledge of the reader, it is likely that the reader play a relatively passive role.
Bottom-up processing can be considered as a corrective to ‘tunnel vision’ seeing things only
from our own limited point of view (Nuttall, 2000:17).The weak point of bottom-up models is
that the readers are not aware of how the process operates because of its constructing the text
from those small units becomes so automatic (Eskey ,1988 and Stanovich 1990, cited in
Aebersold & Field 1997:18). A bottom-up theory suggests the idea that readers build meaning
as they draw on the individual letters and works as they read. According to Eskey (1986), a
reader proceeds by moving his/her eyes from left to right across the page, firstly to take in
letters, secondly to combine these to form words and then to combine to form the phrase,
clauses, and sentences of the text.( cited in Anderson, 1999: 39)
The limitation of these models is also pointed out by Samuel and Kamil (1988:31) as
follows: “Because of the lack of feedback loops in the early bottom-up models, it was difficult
to account for sentence-context effects and the role of prior knowledge of the text topic as
facilitating variables in word recognition and comprehension”

1.1.2.2. Top-down model
In contrast to bottom-up models, information processing in top-down models occurs
when prior knowledge is used to make predictions about the data the readers will find in a text
(Silberstein, 1993:7). This kind of processing is used when assumptions are interpreted and
interferences are drawn by the reader (Nuttall, 2000:16). Top-down models are diametrically
opposed to these lower-level processes and “all have in common a viewing of the fluent reader
as being actively engaged in hypothesis testing as he proceeds though text” (Stanovich, 1980:

7
34). In top-down models “higher processes … direct the flow of information through lower-
level processes” (Anderson, 1999:3).
Top-down models have a lot of strong points in comparison to bottom-up models,
however, these models still have certain weak points as a reader would simply spend too much
time processing all visual cues. (Anderson,1999:2). Readers have to fit the text into knowledge
they have already processed, then check back when new or unexpected information appears.
These models
“tend to emphasize such higher-level skills as the prediction of meaning by means of
context clues or certain kinds of background knowledge at the expense of such lower
skills as the rapid and accurate identification of lexical and grammatical form. That is,
in making the perfectly valid point that fluent reading is primarily a cognitive process,
they tend to deemphasize the perceptual and decoding dimension of that process”
(Eskey, 1988: 93)
Due to the limitations of both bottom-up and top-down models, the models that are
currently accepted as the most comprehensive description of the reading process are
interactive models.
1.1.2.3. Interactive model
Grabe (1991: 378, cited in Aebersold & Field 1997:18) focuses on two conceptions of
interactive approaches. The former relates to the interaction that occurs between the reader and
the text. The latter relates to the interaction between bottom-up and top-down processes. They
are occurring, either alternatively or at the same time, which depend on the type of text, the

reader’s background knowledge, language proficiency level.
Interactive models combine elements of both bottom-up and top-down models.
Murtagh (1989: 102, cited in Anderson, 1999:3) stresses that the best second language readers
are those who can “efficiently integrate” both bottom-up and top-down processes.
In practice, in order to check whether that is really what the writer says, a reader
continually shifts from one focus to another, now adopting a top-down approach to predict the
probable meaning, then moving to the bottom-up approach(Nuttan, 1996: 17). Successful
reading requires skill not only in top-down but also in bottom-up processing (Silberstein,

8
1993: 8). With the same opinion, when Anderson (1993: 3) observed his students in the
reading class and reflected on these three models. “I can see that an interactive model is the
best description of what happens when we read”.
An interactive model supports the idea that good readers use both processes, top-down
and bottom-up, when they encounter text in order to comprehend. Grabe (1991: 378)
illustrates this nicely when he points out that : reading is interactive, firstly, the reader makes
use of information from his/her background knowledge as well as information from printed
page. Secondly, in the sense that many skills work together simultaneously in the process.
To sum up, interactive model is the best one that can truly reflect the reading process
that takes place in reader’s mind. In this process the reader constantly shuttles between
bottom-up and top-down processes without which he can not be successful in reading
comprehension. Interactive model can maximize the strengths and minimizes the weaknesses
of both bottom-up and top-down models.
1.2. Reading strategies
1.2.1 Language learning strategies
1.2.1.1. Definition
Learning strategies are defined as “intentional behavior and thoughts that learners make
use of during learning in order to better help them understand, learn or remember new
information” (Richards & Platt, 1992: 209). With the same opinion Oxford (1990: 8) considers
learning strategies as specific actions which the learners take to make learning easier, factor,

more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, more transferable to new situations. As
Weinstein and Mayer (1986) state “leaning strategies have learning facilitation as a goal and
are intentional on the part of the learner” (cited in O’ Malley and Chamot’s 1990: 43).
Learning strategies are learning processes which the learner selects consciously. The element
of choice is important here because this is what gives a strategy its special character. These are
also moves which the learner is at least partially aware of, even if full attention is not being
given to them. (Cohen, 1998: 4). Language learning strategies are the conscious thoughts and
behaviors that learners use with the explicit goal of improving their knowledge and

9
understanding of a target language. (Cohen, 1998: 68). It can be seen that these definitions are
emphasized the learners’ intention and awareness of using language strategies.
The studies of learning strategies by such well-known researchers as Cohen (1990),
Cohen (1998), O’ Malley and Chamot’s (1990), McDonough (1995) and Karlin& Karlin
(1987), Oxford (1990) and (Scarcella & Oxford, 1992) have figured out a comprehensive
overview of learning strategies.
All these definitions above show that the weight in foreign language teaching and
learning is changing from teacher centered to learner centered instruction.
In fact, there is hardly any definition that can work in all contexts. Because of the
comprehensive features of the definitions by Oxford (1990) and O’Malley & Chamot (1990),
the present research utilized these as the key directions in its investigation.
1.2.1.2. Classification
Language learning strategies have been classified by many scholars such as Rubin
(1981), Wenden (1985), Oxford (1990) and O’Malley and Chamot (1990).
Rubin (1981 cited in O’Malley and Chamot 1990: 5). ) identified two groups of learning
strategies. The first one consisting of strategies that directly affect learning:
clarification/verification, monitoring, memorization, guessing/inductive reasoning, deductive
reasoning and practice. The second one including strategies that contribute indirectly to
learning: creating opportunities for practice and production tricks. Wenden’s (1985) research
examined the strategies that adult foreign language learners use in order to direct their own

learning. According to her there are three general categories of self-directing strategies: (1)
knowing about language (relating to what language and language learning involves, (2)
planning (relating to what and how of language learning) and (3) self-evaluation (relating to
progress in learning and the learner’s response to the learning experience). Wenden’s
framework devised as a basis for learner training. The works of Wenden (1985), Oxford
(1990), O’Malley & Chamot (1990) have made an important contribution to our knowledge of
learning strategies. The more comprehensive and widely accepted framework is the
classification systems of Oxford (1990) and O’Malley & Chamot (1990).

10
Oxford (1990: 9) divided language learning strategies into direct and indirect. The
strategies used directly in dealing with a new language are called direct strategies. Direct
strategies consist of memory, cognitive, and compensation. Metacognitive, affective, and
social strategies belong to indirect strategies which are used for general management of
learning.
However, learning strategies may be grouped in other ways. According to O’Malley &
Chamot (1990: 119) learning strategies are typically divided into three categories, which are
cognitive, metacognitive and social effective. (See appendix 1)
1.2.1.3. The importance of strategies in the learning process
Language learning strategies are believed to play a vital role in learning a second
language, according to Bialystok (1979), learners may be assisted by the language learning
strategies in mastering the forms and functions required for reception and production in the
second language and thus affect achievement (cited in Yang, 2007: 35). Weinstein and Mayer
(1986: 315) say that the goal of strategy use is “affect the learner’s motivational or affective
state, or the way in which the learner selects, acquires, organizes, or integrates new
knowledge”. (cited in O’Malley, Chamot 1990: 43).
Oxford, who has authored or edited a number of books on learning strategies,
motivation, and language education, also gives her own evaluation on learning strategies based
on two reasons. Firstly, for language learning strategies are especially important because they
are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing

communicative competence. Secondly, having developed appropriate learning strategies
learners have greater self- confidence and learn more effectively (Oxford, 1990: 1). In her
opinion, language learning strategies:
- contribute to the main goal, communicative competence
- allow learners to become more self-directed
- expand the role of teachers
- are problem-oriented
- are specific actions taken by the learners
- involve many actions taken by the learner, not just the cognitive

11
- support learning both directly and indirectly
- are not always observable
- are often conscious
- can be taught
- are flexible
- are influence by a variety of factors (Oxford ,1990: 9)
1.2.2. Reading strategies/ Strategies in teaching second language reading
1.2.2.1. Definition
Reading strategies are the comprehension processes used by readers to make sense of
what they read. In other words, readers utilize reading strategies to accomplish the reading
skills such as understanding main ideas, making inferences, predicting outcomes and guessing
vocabulary from the context (Anderson, 1999:1). Anderson introduces six strategies when
teaching an ESL/EFL reading class: 1. Activate prior knowledge. 2. Cultivate vocabulary. 3.
Teach for comprehension. 4. Increase reading rate. 5. Verify reading strategies. 6. Evaluate
progress. (Anderson, 1999:4)
Many researchers such as Anderson (1999), Brantmeier (2002) and Brown (2001)
define the similarities in categories reading strategies. They emphasize the role of prior
knowledge in reading and introduced skimming, scanning and guessing as effective strategies
in reading.

According to Barnett (1988), reading strategies are the comprehension processes,
“This process may involve skimming, scanning, predicting, activating general
knowledge, making inferences, following references, and separating main ideas from
supporting ideas”. (cited in Brantmeier 2002:1)
Furthermore, for most second language learners who are already literate in a previous
language, reading strategies can consist of : 1. identifying the purpose in reading; 2. using
graphemic rules and patterns to aid in bottom-up decoding; 3. using efficient silent reading
techniques for relatively rapid comprehension; 4. skimming the text for the main ideas; 5.
scanning the text for specific information; 6. using semantic mapping or clustering; 7.
guessing when you aren’t certain; 8. analyzing vocabulary; 9. distinguishing between literal

12
and implied meaning; 10. capitalizing on discourse makers to process relationships. (Brown.
2001: 306-310). In Brown’s opinion, each of the above ten strategies can be practically
applied to classroom techniques.
Finally, these strategies are considered to be effective as they help learners enhance the
reading ability.
1.2.2.2. Teaching reading strategies in the classroom
Strategies can be taught and because of their specificity, there are at least four different
approaches that can be taken to teaching strategies in the language classroom: strategies can be
taught through interactive techniques, using compensatory techniques, administering a
strategy inventory and making use of impromptu teacher-initiated advice.(Brown 2001: 217-
219) Winograd and Hare (1988, cited in Anderson 1999: 70) define strategies as deliberate
action that is selected and controlled by learners to achieve desired goal or objectives.
Researchers have suggested that teaching students how to use strategies is a prime
consideration in the reading classroom. While teaching L2 readers how to use a given strategy,
teachers must also teach their students how to determine if they are successful in their use of
that strategy. Students need guided practice if strategy training is to be successful. Such
training can emphasize the “when” and “why” of strategy use at least as much as the “what”
(Anderson 1999: 71)

1.2.2.3. Teaching reading skills:
According to Day and Bamford (1998: 124-141, cited in Nguyen, T. T. N., 2007: 8-9)
there are at least four distinctive approaches to the teaching of foreign or second language
reading: grammar-translation, comprehension questions, skills and strategies and extensive
reading.
Grammar-translation: Under this approach, students may be taught to read texts written
in the foreign language by translating them into the native language. As a result, meaning is
taken at the sentence level with less attention paid to the meaning of the text as a whole and
meaning is constructed via the native language, not directly from the foreign language.
Comprehension questions and language work: This approach focuses on teaching a
textbook containing short passages that demonstrate the use of foreign language words or

13
points of grammar. These texts, short enough to encourage students to read them word by
word, are followed by comprehension questions and exercises.
Skills and strategies: to follow sills and strategies approach, the teacher has to prepare
for students to read a one or two- page passage from a textbook by providing or activating any
background knowledge needed for comprehension. This preparation may include pre-teaching
vocabulary that appears in the reading passage. Students then read the passage silently while
keeping in mind two or three while reading questions.
Extensive reading: The goal of this is for students to become willing and able readers in
a second or foreign language. Students individually read books and other materials at their
own speed mainly for home work.
1.3. Teachers and students’ perception of reading strategies
1.3.1. Definition of perception
Perception refers to the recognition and understanding of events, objects, and stimuli
through the use of senses (sight, hearing, touch, etc.) (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1992: 268).
Likewise, in the Dictionary of Psychology, perception is defined as “the process of knowing
objects and objective events by means of the senses” (Chaplin, 1981:376). Perception is our
sensory experience of the world around us and involves both the recognition of environmental

stimuli and actions in response to these stimuli. In this study, perception refers to teachers and
students’ perception towards reading strategies. As Grabe (1991: 377, cited in Alyousel 2005:
143) describes Goodman’s perception of reading which is seen as an active process of
comprehending [where] students need to be taught strategies to read more efficiently (e. g.,
guess from context, define expectations, make inferences about the text, skim ahead to fill in
the context, etc.).
1.3.2. Teachers’ and students’ perception in language learning strategies
Teachers' perceptions of what is meant by L2 learning, and what affects learning will
influence everything they do both within and beyond classroom situations. In order to make
informed decisions in their day-to-day teaching, teachers must be consciously aware of what
their beliefs about learning and teaching are. They must heighten their "perspective-
consciousness" to make them more aware of the other individuals' or groups' perspectives,

14
which might be justifiably different from their own. They must make their own personal sense
of their implicit and explicit ideas/theories and practices. Finally, they must increase their
tolerance and understanding of diverse opinions and viewpoints in order to make the language
classroom a more welcoming environment encompassing dignity and respect for both students
and teachers alike (Williams & Burden, 1997, cited in Yu. G. (2004).
In a sociocultural view of language learning, learners are seen as "active constructors"
of their own learning environment (Mitchell & Myles, 1998, p.162, cited in Yu, 2004 ). In this
sense, learners are trustworthy, and responsible for their own learning environment. Actually,
teachers are to some extent also "learners." They are also active constructors of their own
teaching environment. Teachers' perceptions of language learning will, with no doubt,
influence their constructions of the teaching environment, even though learners are the focus
of the teaching activities. The inter-relationships among teachers' perception, practice, and
progress are illustrated in figure 1.
Teachers' perceptions "construct" their practices which in turn lead to whatever
progress both the learners and the teachers achieve. Practice and progress in language learning
and teaching will re-construct teachers' perceptions of L2 development. The progress to be

achieved is, to certain extent, determined by teachers' perceptions and practices, which
however does not mean learners do not have right to construct their own learning
environment. In fact, this is one of the reasons why there are very often silent or sometimes
overt "style wars" between teachers and some learners while constructing their own teaching
and learning environments respectively. The "style wars" reflect the urgent needs of teachers'
"appropriate" perceptions of L2 development illustrated in figure 1

Figure 1. Inter-relationships among perception, practice and progress (Yu, 2004)

15
According to Brog (2003), teachers have cognitions about all aspects of their work.
Teachers’ experiences as learners can inform cognitions about teaching and learning.
Extensive experience of classrooms has an important influence on schooling, which defines
early cognitions and shapes teachers perception of initial training. Figure 2 represents a
schematic conceptualization of teaching within which teacher cognition plays a pivotal role,
teacher cognition and practices are mutually informing, with contextual factors playing an
important role in determining the extent to which teachers are able to implement instruction
congruent/ appropriate with their cognition

Figure 2: Teacher cognition, schooling, professional education, and classroom practice
(Borg 1997, cited in Borg 2003)

16
1.4. Review of reading strategies research
A considerable number of studies examine the comprehension strategies that second
language readers utilize to process a text. It is evident that in these studies, the participants are
quite diverse, some from elementary, secondary, and university levels, some from remedial
reading classes, some enrolled in courses taught at non-university language centres, and others
teacher-colleagues. Obviously, the participants are of many different ages and backgrounds.
Furthermore, the investigators use a variety of research methods and tasks to examine

strategies type and frequency of strategy use including think-aloud reports, interviews,
questionnaires, observations and written recalls (Brantmeier 2002:1)
In an early qualitative second language reading study, Hosenfield (1977) examines
successful and unsuccessful readers to find out what types of cognitive operations they used to
process written texts. Participants were ninth grade students who were learning French. Before
conducting the study, she classified readers based on a test of L2 reading. She selected twenty
native English speaking students who scored high on the MLA Cooperative Test of Reading
Proficiency, a standard test of native language reading, and twenty unsuccessful students with
low scores on the same test. In an oral interview participants were asked to read a text and
think-aloud reports, that is, she directed the students to say in their first language whatever
came to their mind while processing each sentence in the text. Hosenfield (1977) concluded
that the successful readers kept the meaning of the passage in mind while reading; skipped
words unimportant to the meaning of the sentence; read in “broad phrases”; use context to
determine word meaning; and had a positive self-concept as a reader. By contrast unsuccessful
readers: forgot the meaning of sentences as soon as they decoded them; read in short phrases;
seldom skipped words as unimportant, viewing words as ‘equal’ in terms of their contribution
to total meaning; and had a negative self concept as a reader. While these results clearly
described the strategies students used to process the text, they did not link the strategy use to
comprehension of specific paragraphs or to the text as a whole. The data only focused on
sentence level comprehension so the results of the study did not reveal overall comprehension
of the entire text. ((Hosenfield 1997: 233-234 cited in Brantmeier 2002: 2- 5)

17
Barnett (1988) investigated the relationships among reading strategies and perceived
strategy use on reading comprehension in a two-part study, the first looking at strategy use,
and the second looking at the effect of a teaching intervention designed to help students
develop more effective reading strategies before, during, and after reading. The subjects were
272 college-level students in fourth-semester French classes. Fifteen of the course sections
were taught with a standard four skills approach, and four of the classes were taught with a
strategy-training orientation that focused on skimming, scanning, guessing, and predicting.

She used a “text-level” and “word-level” coding scheme. By text level she referred to the
processes used to read the passage as a whole, such as utilizing background knowledge,
predicting, reading the title, skimming and scanning. When students used word-level strategies
they used context to guess word meanings, identified grammatical categories of words used
reference word, and identified word families. Barnett (1988) utilized two different groups of
students: one group was taught reading strategies and the other was not. The students
answered questions on background knowledge before reading the passages. She asked both
groups to read unfamiliar passage in French, and all students wrote a recall in English. They
completed a multiple choice comprehension questionnaire where they chose the best
continuing sentence. According to Barnett (1988), the strategy-use questionnaire consisted of
many effective and less effective text-level and word-level strategies.
Effective Strategies:
- reader pays most attention to what the reading passage means
- reader pays most attention to what the form or grammatical function of the words are.
- reader reads the whole passage once and rereads it.
- reader finds the topic interesting.
- reader thinks about what s/he knows about the topic of the passage.
- reader often hypothesizes about what might come next.
- reader reads the title first and imagines the passage might about.
- reader guesses what some words mean.
Less Effective Strategies:
- reader pays most attention to what individual words mean.

18
- reader pays most attention to what the structure of the passage is.
- reader recalls only the difficult sections.
- reader reads only because it has been assigned.
- reader never hypothesizes about what might come next.
- reader reads each paragraph by itself.
- reader reads the title but does not think much about it.

- reader thinks that it is a mistake to skip any words.
Results revealed higher scores as both effective strategy use and perceived effective
strategy use increased. Barnett concluded that students who were taught strategy use did show
a greater ability to read through context than did their more traditionally taught peers, and that
“students who think that they use those strategies considered most productive actually do read
through context better and understand more than do those who do not think they use such
strategies” (Barnett 1988:156). Finally, Barnett found out that there is a relationship between
strategy use and reading comprehension level. The students who considered the text while
reading, a classified effective strategy, comprehended more than those who did not use this
strategy. Likewise, students who perceived they used productive strategies scored higher on
the comprehension task than those who did not. An important component in the research
methods of this study is that some students were directly taught effective strategies. Most
studies do not test the effect of instruction. (Barnett 1988:150-162)
Raymond (1993) examined the effects of structure strategy training on the
comprehension of expository prose with native English speaking students learning French as a
second language. Raymond compared two groups of participants: a group that was taught five
top level structure strategies and a group that received no training. The strategies were: (1)
description; (2) collection; (3) causation; (4) problem solution; and (5) comparison. These
particular strategies were chosen because they occur frequently in the reading of prose.
Participants were asked to read a text, complete a questionnaire, and then do a written recall
(in English). Results revealed that after treatment, the experimental group outperformed the
control group by recalling more idea units from one text. For a second text, there was a loss in
the number of idea units from the pre- to the post-text. The author contributes this loss to the

19
short time allotted for training the L2 readers. Nonetheless, the results revealed that structure
strategy use is a characteristic of skilled second language readers. Raymond states that
researchers need to examine more than the effects of particular strategy use on L2 reading.
(cited in Brantmeier 2002: 4- 12)
Anderson’s (1999) teacher-colleagues and their students expressed experiences,

attitudes and cognition about teaching reading - a series of personal life experiences that had
influenced his thinking about teaching, learning reading in a second language. His teacher –
colleagues commented candidly on the effectiveness of these teaching strategies for their own
learners. He also outlined the theoretical bases of the teaching strategy and its importance in
the reading program for second language learners. He added a treasure trove of teaching
suggestions and activities for each of recommended strategies. The teaching strategies
instructed learners quite explicitly on the purpose and value of the reading strategy or skill,
supported learners as they applied it, and helped hem to evaluate its effectiveness for
themselves. As for learners:
“This seems to indicate that strategic reading is not only a matter of knowing what
strategy to use, but also reader must know how to use strategy successfully and
orchestrate its use with other strategies. It is not sufficient to know about strategies; a
reader must also be able to apply them strategically”. (Anderson, 1999: 71)
The issues discussed in his book are appropriate for secondary level ESL/EFL as well
as teachers working with adults in higher education or adult education. The issues are
discussed for teaching second language reading to individuals working towards improved
reading in English. The book provides us with opportunities to read comments from other
ESL/EFL teachers. Anderson’s intent is to get us to think about the process he had gone
through and to have us go through a similar process so that we can develop our own strengths
as a reading teacher. As in the classroom second language reading teachers face many
challenges, such as teaching students how to use the skills and knowledge they bring from
their first language, improving reading comprehension, teaching students how to successfully
orchestrate the use of strategies….are some elements that teachers must consider in preparing
for an ESL/EFL reading class. (Anderson 1999: 1)

20
In the studies mentioned above the researchers used a variety of research methods with
diverse populations to examine the reading strategies of second language learners and
teachers. The subjects performed different tasks while reading text that varied in type, length,
content, and difficult level. Even though there were many diverse aspects to these

investigations, the common thread is that most viewed successful readers as ones who used
top-down strategies rather than bottom-up. However, there has been little research into
teachers and students’ perception about teaching reading strategies. This is the gap that the
current thesis study tries to bridge by using O’Malley and Chamot’s (1990) scheme to
investigate training reading strategies in English reading skill lessons for grade 10 students,
which has been conducted in the light of the theories discussed above.