Applying games in teaching the present perfect tense to the freshmen at Haiphong Medical University = Nghiên cứu việc áp dụng trò chơi trong việc dạy thời Hiện

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY,HANOI

UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES & INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
POST – GRADUATE DEPARTMENT

****************

ĐỖ THỊ HỒNG DIỆP
TO

APPLYING GAMES IN TEACHING
THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE TO THE
FRESHMEN AT HAIPHONG MEDICAL UNIVERSITY
( Nghiên cứu việc áp dụng trị chơi trong việc dạy thời Hiện tại
Hồn thành cho sinh viên năm thứ nhất Đại học Y Hải Phòng )

M.A Minor Thesis

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60 14 10

Hanoi - 2011


VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY,HANOI

UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES & INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
POST – GRADUATE DEPARTMENT

****************

ĐỖ THỊ HỒNG DIỆP

APPLYING GAMES IN TEACHING
THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE TO THE
FRESHMEN AT HAIPHONG MEDICAL UNIVERSITY
( Nghiên cứu việc áp dụng trị chơi trong việc dạy thời Hiện tại
Hồn thành cho sinh viên năm thứ nhất Đại học Y Hải Phòng )

M.A Minor Thesis

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60 14 10
Supervisor: Phung Thi Kim Dung, MA

Hanoi - 2011


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………………..i
Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………..ii
Table of contents …………………………………………………..……………………….iii
List of abbreviations ………………………………………………………………………..vi
List of tables and charts …………………………………………………………………….vi

Part 1 : INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………….. 1
1. Rationale …………………………………………….……………………………….1
2. Aims of the study …………………………….………………………………………2
3. Scope of the study ……………………………………...…………………………….3

4. Methodology of the study ……………………………………………………………3
5. Design of the study……………………………...……………………………………3

Part 2 : DEVELOPMENT …………………………………………………………4
Chapter 1: Literature review …………………………………………..………………..…4
1.1.

Grammar and its role in English teaching and learning …………..…………………4
1.1.1.
1.1.2.

The role of grammar in English teaching and learning ……………………...4

1.1.3.
1.2.

Definitions of grammar ……………………………………………………...4
Grammar: What need to be taught? ……………………………...… ……….6

The Present Perfect tense and its meaning ………………………………….……… 7
1.2.1.

Present Perfect expresses indefinite past actions ………………….…………7

1.2.2.

Present Perfect expresses state up to the present ……………..……………...9


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1.2.3.
1.2.4.
1.3.

Present Perfect expresses finished events connected to the present ...........10
Present Perfect for repeated or habitual actions ………………………..….11

The application of games in teaching Present Perfect Tense ………………………11
1.3.1.

The importance of students’ motivation in learning language …..………...11

1.3.2.

Definitions of game ……………………………………………………..….13

1.3.3.

Classifications of games …………………………….………………….….14

1.3.4.

Advantages of teaching Present Perfect tense with games ………………..15

1.3.5.

Application of games …………………………………….…………….…..17
1.3.5.1.
1.3.5.2.

1.4.

Which games to apply? ……………………………………………17
When apply games? ……………………………………………….18

Summary ………………………………………………………………………..…19

Chapter 2: Contents of the study ………………………..…………………………..….20
2.1. Background to the study …………………………………………………………..…20
2.1.1. An overview of English learning and teaching at Hai Phong Medical University
………………………………………………………………………………………….20
2.1.2. Aims and syllabus of Present Perfect teaching at Hai Phong Medical
University……………………………………………………………………………....21
2.1.2.1. Aims ……………………………………………………………………..21
2.1.2.2. Syllabus ………………………..…………………………………………21
2.1.3. Situation of teaching and learning grammar, including the Present Perfect tense at
Hai Phong Medical University …………………………………………………………22
2.2. Lesson plan and application of games in teaching the Present Perfect tense………….23
2.3. Data analysis ……………………………………………………………..……………23
2.3.1. Analyzing result of the questionnaire ………………………………………….23
2.2.1.1. Questionnaire for teachers ………………………..………………………23
2.2.1.2. Questionnaire for students……………………...………………………...28
2.2.1.3. The feedback of the freshmen in experimental lesson ………………..…32
2.3.2. Class observation ……………………………………………….…………...…35


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2.3.3. Result of interview …………………………………………..………………..37

2.4. Findings and discussion ……………………………………………………………..39
2.4.1. Research question 1……………………………………….…………………..39
2.4.2. Research question 2 …………………………………………………………..39
2.4.3. Research question 3…………………………………..……………………….39
Chapter 3: Suggestions ……………………………………….…………………….…..41
3.1 Some suggestions in adapting and applying games………………………………… 41
3.2 Examples of the Present Perfect games in Headway textbook (elementary) ………..41

Part 3: CONCLUSION ……………………………………………….……….42
1. Summary of major findings ………………………………………………………..…42
2. Limitations and suggestions for further research…………………..………………….43

REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………….. .45
APPENDICES …………………………………………..………………………I


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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CLT: Communicative Language Teaching
PPP: Presentation – Practice- Production
PPT: Present Perfect Tense
HMU: Hai Phong Medical University
LIST OF CHARTS AND TABLES
Chart 1: Teachers purpose of teaching grammar
Chart 2: Teachers’ method to teach grammar
Chart 3: Students’ Present Perfect learning
Chart 4: Suggestions to improve the students’ learning
Chart 5: Frequency of using games in class
Chart 6: Students’ interest in PPT

Chart 7: Students’ understanding of the lesson
Chart 8: Students’ attitude to teaching method
Chart 9: Students’ time for learning lesson at home
Chart 10: Students’ understanding after the lesson
Chart 11: Students’ problem with PPT
Chart 12: Students’ attitude to learn PPT through games
Chart 13: Students’ interest in games in the lesson
Chart 14: Students’ understanding after the lesson with the games
Chart 15: Students’ application structure PPT in the games
Table 1: Teachers’ difficulties in teaching PPT


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Table 2: Advantages of games in teaching PPT
Table 3: The problems of teaching PPT through games
Table 4: Teachers’ ideas to improve the approach to the PPT
Table 5: Students’ activities in Present Perfect lesson
Table 6: Students’ comments on teachers’ frequency of using games
Table 7: The advantages when participating in the games
Table 8: The difficulties when participating in the games
Table 9: Students’ attitude of frequency of playing games in the lesson


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PART 1: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
Linguists define grammar as a set of components: phonetics (the production and
perception of sounds), phonology (how sounds are combined), morphology (how elements are

combined to create words), syntax (how words are strung together into sentences) and
semantics or meaning. So, by definition, language does not exist without grammar. In learning
a foreign language, grammar plays an important role. Many advantages of grammar study are
to improve your writing, reading, thinking and speaking. Besides, it can enable you to express
the knowledge that we have, in a correct and understandable format.
In the English grammar system, learners still find it difficult to master the connection
between Time – Tense – Aspect. Tense and aspect are grammatical categories of the verbs
which have to do with forms. While tense links the situation represented by a sentence with
the time at which it is uttered, aspect represents features of the temporal structure of the
situation. Tense and aspect are obligatory because whenever we encode an event through a
finite clause, we select one or another tense, one or another aspectual distinction. In fact, tense
and aspect can combine in various ways, giving different types, such as: the Present
Progressive tense, the Present Perfect tense, the Past Perfect Progressive tense…Having taught
at some colleges and universities for a few years, I realize that the Present Perfect tense that
puzzles students most. Of all the English tenses, PPT is undoubtedly the most difficult one for
students to learn and, for that reason, the most difficult one to teach. The trouble does not
come from teaching the form. Students do not have much trouble with how to form PPT.
Instead, they have trouble understanding how to use PPT. Almost all elementary students
know how to conjugate this verb tense correctly, but knowing when to use PPT (the functions
of the tense) is often confusing.
Mario Rinvolucri (1984:3) wrote that: “Grammar is perhaps so serious and central in
learning another language that all ways should be searched for which will focus students
energy on the task of mastering and internalizing it. One way of focusing this energy is
through the release offered by games”. Grammar games are very useful in teaching and
learning; grammar games not only encourage but also improve students’ ability in using


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English fluently. However, at my university, teaching grammar, including the PPT - a difficult

item of English grammar is very boring and passive. Through my observation with two
random classes – Y1K32B and Y1K32H- (see Classroom Observation Sheet in Appendix 1), I
find that in the lesson plan, teacher proposes many activities for students to learn and
communicate; however in practice, teacher often uses PPP approach, and even Grammar
Translation Method which make students inattentive to the lessons. In some classes, few
teachers use activities, technology or games to create amusement and attractiveness, but they
cannot guide students to attend. The reasons may be poor English skills or weak motivation of
the students or teachers’ knowledge about activities applied in their classes or unsuitable
activities to the content of the lesson, etc. Finally, teachers cannot gain the first goal and
students cannot understand the lesson thoroughly and use grammar structures in oral
communication. So, the teaching grammar in my university has neither developed ability,
activeness and motivation of the students nor created many opportunities for them to
communicate in English. Therefore, this study is necessary because using games in teaching
grammar; specifically the PPT will bring many practical benefits to the students.
In consideration of these problems, as an English teacher, I really want to study the
situation of teaching and learning the PPT at HMU and make a small contribution to
enhancing the effectiveness in teaching this tense through games.
2.

Aims of the study


to examine the effects of games on the teaching and learning of the Present

Perfect tense and to explore students' attitudes, expectations and progress in their process of
learning the Present Perfect tense through games.


to propose several recommendations on game adaptation to make them more

enjoyable and productive to the students at HMU.
In order to carry out the study in this way, the following questions are put forth.
1.

What are students’ attitudes towards games in the Present Perfect lesson?

2. How does the use of games help students learn Present Perfect Tense more effectively?
3. What games should be used to teach The Present Perfect Tense more effectively for
the freshmen at Hai Phong Medical University?


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3. Scope of the study
Given the rationale and the aims of the study, it is necessary to limit the study to the
areas which are manageable. Benefits of application of games in teaching the PPT create the
effectiveness of students’ learning which focuses on two factors: developing students’
motivation and understanding of the lesson. The study focuses on the first-year students at
HMU, so the results of the study are not applied for all students of all universities.
4. Methodology
This study used both quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative method helps
to provide the quantified background data. The collected data and information lay the
foundation for the study. Comments, remarks, assumptions and conclusions of the study are
based on data analysis. Data collection for analysis in the study come from the lecturers and
students in HMU by:
-

Class observation

-

Survey questionnaires

-

Interviews and discussion

5. Design of the study
This minor thesis includes three parts.
The first part – Introduction – provides the motivation for the research, identifies the
aims, scope, methods and research questions.
The second part – Development – consists of three chapters.
Chapter 1- Literature review - gives an overview of theories of the study.
Chapter 2 – Contents of the study – investigates the current situation of learning and
teaching the PPT at HMU through class observation, interviews and questionnaires, then
carries out data analysis, comparison, findings and discussion.
Chapter 3 – Suggestions – provides or suggestions to overcome difficulties when using
Present Perfect games in class and examples of games to teach the Present Perfect tense in
Headway textbook (elementary).
The last part of the study is the conclusion which gives a summary of the study and
recommendations for further study.


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PART 2: DEVELOPMENT
Chapter 1: Literature Review
1.1. Grammar and its role in English teaching and learning
1.1.1. Definitions of grammar
Ur (1991: 4) defines grammar as “the way language manipulates and combines words

(or bits of words) in order to form longer units of meaning.” This definition is quite close to
the common understanding of what grammar is. The main difference is that it tells us how the
rules of language actually work – they arrange and shape words. Nevertheless, knowing what
these rules do is not a very motivating factor alone.
Crystal (2004) says: “Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express
ourselves. The more we are aware of how it works, the more we can monitor the meaning and
effectiveness of the way we and others use language. It can help foster precision, detect
ambiguity, and exploit the richness of expression available in English. Additionally, it can
help everyone, not only teachers of English, but teachers of anything for all teaching grammar
is ultimately a matter of getting to grips with meaning.”
Maugham (1938) adds: “It is necessary to know grammar, and it is better to write
grammatically than not, but it is well to remember that grammar is common speech
formulated. Usage is the only test.”
As it can be seen from the above definitions, grammar is not an unimportant set of
rules that can be ignored without consequences. It is a very complex phenomenon and even
though learners may find it a difficult thing to master, the time devoted to that is certainly
not wasted.
1.1.2. The role of grammar in English teaching and learning
According to Harmer’s viewpoint (1987: 12): “Without some understanding of
Grammar, students would not be able to do anything more than utter separate items of
language for separate functions. The expression of functional language is only possible
through the use of the Grammar of the language”, teaching grammar helps students
understand how the language works. Apart from vocabulary, students need to know grammar
to understand how it is written or how words are combined together to understand the proper


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meaning. Without grammar or with a poor knowledge of grammar, they may get confused
with complicated expression. Appropriate grammar techniques are embedded in meaningful,

communicative contexts then contribute positively to communicative goals and they also
promote accuracy in using language fluently.
Besides, according to Smith (2001: 15), if teachers neither pay attention to grammar
nor create opportunities for learners to improve grammar, learners are likely to stand the risk
of fossilization or reach a point where they can cope with level of communication by making
use of their existing grammatical resources and communication strategies and probably with
sufficient fluency. Surely, the learners do not see the need to develop their linguistic abilities
any further.
In favor of the importance of grammar, Larsen – Freeman (1986: 13) affirms that
grammar is regarded as a skill rather than an area of knowledge. Learners do not simply store
knowledge about the language and its use; they need also develop an ability to do something.
They must have a chance of learning situations to overcome the knowledge problem. It is true
to say that grammar is the fifth skill besides four skills reading, writing, speaking and
listening. Skill development as well as learning grammar need practice. Grammar might not be
taught only when the students already possessed the knowledge and the ability to use the
grammar item in speech, writing and listening comprehension. In fact, grammar is the basic
for mastering four language skills. When we have concrete foundation of grammar, we feel
easy to advance.
In general, grammar is acknowledged to be of importance in learning and teaching a
language. Grammar is naturally acquired from meaningful input and opportunities to interact
in the classroom. More especially, learners can improve their grammar competence in a
suitable environment without conscious focus on language forms. However, this partly
depends on the learning circumstances. As a result, grammar teaching gains its significant role
in English Language Teaching because highly developed language skills are difficult to
achieve without some knowledge of grammar.
As an important element in the grammatical system of English language, the Present
Perfect Tense is also necessary. It is not easy to communicate with someone without using the


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Present Perfect. We often need to talk about things which happened or started to happen in the
past and which are linked to the present or future. The Present Perfect is the tense that we need
in communications.
1.1.3. Grammar: what need to be taught?
The meaning of teaching grammar is still controversial. Some teachers claim that a
grammar class primarily consists of the explanation of grammatical rules with all of the
necessary grammatical terminology for this task. For others, the teaching of grammar is
synonymous with the practice of common grammatical patterns. For still others, what should
be concerned about in grammar teaching is providing learners with opportunity in a variety of
realistic situations in order to learn to communicate successfully.
Sandra L. McKay (1986:xiv) has an interesting point of view: “If we want our students
to learn these things and to use English both correctly and appropriately, we need to include
in our grammar classes attention to both form and function”. “Form”, as seen from her
viewpoint, means grammatical forms such as verb tense, question formation and “function”
refers to the purpose that language serves such as asking for information, making a suggestion,
extending an invitation.
Penny Ur (1988: 6) shares the same view as Sandra L. MacKay: “Some teachers,
and/or the course book they use, have a tendency to concentrate on some of these and neglect
others: they may spend a lot of time on getting the forms right and neglect to give practice in
using the structure to convey meanings, or they may focus, on written exercises and fail to
cover the oral aspects satisfactorily. It is important to keep a balance, taking into account, of
course, the needs of the particular class being taught.”
According to Adrian Doff (1988: 33), teachers should teach the meaning, the form of
the grammatical structure as well as how it is used. He also suggests some remarkable points
for teachers to remember when presenting a structure:



Show what the structure means and how it is used, by giving examples

Show clearly how the structure is formed so that students can use it to make

sentences of their own.


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1.2. The Present Perfect Tense and its meanings
1.2.1. Present Perfect expresses indefinite past actions
The Present Perfect is used when the speaker wants to refer to the past event in relation
to speech time, not to a definite moment of occurrence of the event. The speaker views the
event as happening at an indefinite time (or unspecific time) in the past. This makes a marked
contrast with the simple past which is used when the speaker views the events as occurring at
a definite past time. Compare:
a. The train has left safely.
b. The train left five minutes ago.
In (a) the speaker wants to refer the present situation, the train has left and now it is on the
rails with the passengers get on it whereas in (b) there is an adverbial of time to specify the
exact time so past tense is appropriate.
As a consequence of its indefiniteness, the Present Perfect is often used with indefinite time
expressions which mean at any time up to now or by now. For example:
Just is used to indicate immediate past time, whose results are very clear:
E.g.: “I’ve just washed the floor” (so it’s still wet).
“He’s just left” (so you are too late to speak to him).
Already suggests that the speaker believes that the action is over and that the present result is
surprisingly quick.
E.g.: “He’s already eaten it” (there is none left. That was surprisingly quick).
“Have you already seen it?” (What a pity. We couldn’t have seen it together)
Yet suggests that the speaker believes that the result of the action should or could be present
“now”

E.g.: “I haven’t painted the fence yet.” (You promised to paint the fence. Is it finished, how
long will you take to finish it?)
Lately/Recently are used to express regency. These are used to talk about the recent events
which continue up to the present.
E.g.:

“I’ve seen Jane a lot lately.”
“There have been a lot of terrible storms recently.”


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Ever/Never/Before are used to express indefiniteness, especially for remembered experience
which is part of a person in the present.
E.g.: “I’ve been to Spain but I have never been to Italy”
“I’m sure we’ve met before.”
Still expresses the speaker’s surprise that the action continues to affect the present moment.
E.g.: “He still hasn’t left.” (I am surprised that he is here now).
This morning/ Today/ This week… are used with Present Perfect to refer actions or events
which are still continuing in the present.
E.g.: “We’ve done quite a lot work today.”
“I haven’t watched any television so far this week.”
However, the Present Perfect and the past tense in English are not normally
interchangeable. This is because the two forms reflect different ways of looking at an event.
The past simple is essentially factual remote in time and relates to a definite event or state in
the past whereas the Present Perfect is essentially grounded in the moment of speech. It is also
indefinite and provides the speaker’s present view of the past- that is, the speaker sees or
thinks of something at the moment of speaking which makes him look back on something
which has already happened.
This is clear if we contrast the following pair:

Have you been busy this morning? (It is still the morning now)
Were you busy this morning? (This morning is now the finished past)
Have you cleaned the floor? (The floor is still wet).
Did you clean the floor? (Maybe the floor is dirty and need cleaning.)
The Present Perfect- not the past tense is used when the meanings of indefiniteness and
beforeness are present in the speaker’s mind even though no adjunct accompanies the verb.
The problem remains is to establish what determines the choice of the Present Perfect rather
than the past. Consider these sentences:
(a) I’ve finished my homework.
(b) He’s sold his house


9

At first glance, it looks as if there is no element of present involvement in these sentences but
in fact, in all of them there are present features which form part of the whole relevant situation
set out in time – that is to say, they are past events with present relevance. In (a), the
implication may be I’m now ready to go out with you and in (b) the implication may be he will
have to hire a house. So the Present Perfect is often used when the past events have some
present importance, usually they are news and we could make a present tense sentence with a
similar meaning about the same situation such as.
We often give piece of news in Present Perfect – it is especially common in reports,
letters and conversations. And it often occurs at the start of an exchange and serves to
establish past time focus, subsequent references to events being made by means of past tense.
For example:
A: I’ve bought a new car
B: Oh, have you? What sort?
A: A Ford. We bought it last week.
1.2.2. Present Perfect expresses state up to the present
The Present Perfect can be used to report the existence of a stable state of affairs over a

continuous period of time up to present.
The following sentences are examples:
(1) They’ve lived in Hanoi since 2000.
(2) Mai has only had that diamond ring for two days.
(3) I’ve felt tired for a whole week now.
(4) Those people have been at my house since Monday.
(5) The fridge has been empty for days.
This usage of the Present Perfect is often used with state verbs and adjuncts of duration or
frequency. The sentences like They’ve lived in Hanoi, Mai has only had that diamond ring,
The fridge has been empty should not make people understood without the duration
prepositional phrase since 2000, for two days, for days. It can be said that the adjuncts
beginning with since and for are specifically associated with the Present Perfect. The adjunct
begins with since indicated the starting point of the period of time. With for the extended time


10

is expressed as a quantity, often with a numeral. However, adjuncts beginning with for are
often used with perfect form but they are not restricted to them.
In (1) and (4) the simple past would be unacceptable because of incompatibility with the
preposition since and in the other examples (2) (3) and (5) the simple past has been used
instead of the Present Perfect, the sentences would mean that the period is already complete in
the past.
1.2.3. Present Perfect expresses finished events connected to the present
The Present Perfect can be used to imply that a finished action or a past event is
connected with the present in some way. The result of that action or event is still operative at
the present moment. That is, the Present Perfect refers to a present state of affairs that has
changed from an earlier state as the result of a past event. For this reason, it is sometimes
called the “resultative perfect”. This usage is the clearest with transitional event verbs
denoting the change from one state to another. For example:

(1) My grandparents have arrived (they are here now).
(2) He’s drunk all the wine (there isn’t any left).
(3) She’s learnt the words (She knows the words).
In some other cases, even though the resultative implication is not obvious from the
verb’s meaning, the major focus of the clause is the present result of the event not the past
event itself. For example: I’ve cut myself (The cut is still there).
With the Present Perfect just is used to indicate intermediate past time whose result
are very clear. For example: I’ve just washed the floor (So it’s still wet).
This usage of the Present Perfect is sometimes difficult to distinguish from the recent
indefinite past use. However, again we can see that the Present Perfect is closely associated
with the notion of current relevance which can be regarded as a pragmatic inference deriving
from the basic meaning of anteriority. And we consider that current relevance is a
consequence of the combination of the Present Perfect with the inherent meaning of the verb
or even of the situation. Thus, They have come back implies that they are still back while They
came back – has no such implication.


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Relevance is a difficult idea and does not identify the primary semantic distinction
associated with the perfect form. It is better to use the explanation based on the essential
meaning of the form. The speaker sees, or thinks of, something at the moment of speaking
which makes him look back on something which has already happened.
1.2.4. Present Perfect for repeated or habitual actions
The Present Perfect is used to express actions that are habitual or can be repeated more
than once. This use is associated with frequency adverbs: often, always, frequently … and
expressions like three/ four/ several times….
Here are the examples:
(1) Mary’s attended classed regularly. She’s always worked hard.
(2) I’ve watched Bill Gates on TV several times.

(3) He has visited his mother daily.
(4) The valley has been flooded every year since 2000.
For habits or states may continue through the present moment into the future, and
adverbial of duration is usually required. So this use closely resembles the state use of the
Present Perfect as described in (2) above. The sentence: The valley has been flooded every
year since 2000 would have a state interpretation if the frequency adverbial every year has
been omitted. The valley would be understood to have suffered continuously from a single
flood. Also without the adverb of frequency daily or the expression several times the sentences
I’ve watched Bill Gates on TV and He has visited his mother become the examples of the
indefinite past meaning.
1.3. The application of games in teaching Present Perfect Tense
1.3.1. The importance of students’ motivation in learning language
Since motivation is a vital and a highly complex factor determining more or less
successful language learning, it is necessary to examine approaches to motivation in learning
in order to bring about better insights into it.
Over the years, researchers have attempted to explain what is meant by motivation.


12

Keller (1984) (quote in Ellis, 1994) sees ‘interest’ as one of the major components of
motivation, defining it as “a positive response to a stimuli based on existing cognitive
structures in such a way that learners’ curiosity is aroused and sustained”
However, most of studies on motivation in foreign and second language learning have
been influenced by the work of Gardner (1985) (quote in Spolsky, 1998), who defines
motivation as consisting of effort, plus desire to achieve the goal of learning, plus favorable
attitude toward learning the language.
Another theory on motivation can be seen from Littlewood’s perspective (1985:53)
that “in second language as in every other field of human learning , motivation is the crucial
force which determines whether a learner embarks on a task at all, how much energy he

devotes to it, and how long he perseveres. It is a complex phenomenon and includes many
components: the individual’s drive, need for achievement and success, curiosity, desire for
stimulation and new experience, and so on.”
Apparently, Littlewood, not only highlighting the important role of motivation in
second language learning but also emphasizing the “highly complex construct” of motivation
claimed that if a learner is motivated she will probably decide to undertake a particular task
with certain amount of energy and time needed for it.
Furthermore, McKay and Tom (1992:2) point out that the need and drive to
communicate with others in a new language provide strong motivation for most learners.
This is more or less similar to Lightbown and Spada’s (1999:56) definition of
motivation in second language learning that “motivation in second language learning is a
complex phenomenon which their attitudes towards the second community:
They also add that “If learns need to speak the second language in a wide range of
social situations or to fulfill professional ambitions, they will perceive the communicative
value of the second language and will therefore be motivated to acquire proficiency in it.
Likewise, if learners have favourable attitudes the speakers of the language, they will desire
more contact with them”.
Learners’ motivation can change overtime and effect on their language learning.
Various studies have found that motivation is strongly related to success in language learning.


13

Gardner (1985) (quoted in Spolsky, 1998) sums up”: … it seems clear that
achievement in second language learning is influenced by attitudinal/motivational
characteristics. Postulating that achievement in a second language learning is promoted by an
integrative motive is not tantamount to saying that this is the only cause or predictor”.
However, many research findings shows that successful learning can enhance motivation,
and the relationship between learning achievement and motivation is an interactive one. As
Gardner and Smythe (1981) (quoted in Hedge, 2000) claim that the high correlation between

motivation and successful learning confirms the crucial importance of motivation in the classroom
whether learners arrive with it or whether they acquire it through classroom experience.
1.3.2. Definitions of game
According to Haldfield (1999): “A game is an activity with rules, a goal and an
element of fun… Games should be regarded as an integral part of the language syllabus, not as
an amusing activity for Friday afternoon or for the end of the term.” This definition highly
evaluates the importance of games in teaching. It adds to teachers’ techniques in teaching that
games serve not only as an ‘amusing activity’, but as a technique to carry out tasks to learners
amusingly as well.
Haldfield (1999) adds: “Games can be used at all stages of the progression from
controlled to free practice, serving at one end of the range as a memory aid and repetition
drill, at the other as a chance to used the language freely and as a means to an end rather
than an end in itself. They can also serve as a diagnostic tool for teacher, who can note areas
of difficulty and take appropriate remedial action.” Haldfield further emphasizes the effective
use of games. Students are always lazy to do the tasks. Therefore, games are used suitably in
the way in which learners are eagerly and willingly participate to have a chance to practice or
use the new language items they have just learnt instead of forcing them to do the tasks
unwillingly. It is more effective way for students to play and learn at the same time.
Lee (1991: 3) defines: “Games in the stick sense, which have a definite beginning and
end, are governed by rules…”
Similarly, Hadfield (1990) defines games as "an activity with rules, a goal and an
element of fun." Games are not carried in chaos. Games have the rules, and for it is necessary


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players to digest these rules before the start so that they can play the games smoothly without
committing them.
According to Greenall (1990: 6), “The term ‘game’ is used whenever there is an
element of competition between individual students or teams in a language activity.” When

appears ‘an element of competition’, all above rules are most needed. Besides, games are
emphasized to encourage students’ solidarity in teamwork in which they have to try their best to
do the tasks or maybe to code any requirements given in the games for their team spirit.
Therefore, games comprise many factors such as rules, competition, relaxation, and
learning. The main focus of using game in class is not only to help students to learn more
effectively but also to have fun.
1.3.3. Classification of games
Classifying games into categories can be difficult because categories often overlap.
Hadfield (1999) explains two ways of classifying language games. First, language games are
divided into two types: linguistic games and communicative games.


Linguistic games focus on accuracy, such as supplying the correct antonym.



Communicative games focus on successful exchange of information and ideas,

such as two people identifying the differences between their two pictures which are similar
to one another but not exactly alike. Correct language usage, though still important, is
secondary to achieving the communicative goal.
Second, Hadfield (ibid.) classifies language games into many more categories.
Together with the classification of games as linguistic games or communicative games, some
games will contain elements of more than one type.
Sorting, ordering, or arranging games. For example, students have a set of cards with
different products on them, and they sort the cards into products found at a grocery store and
products found at a department store.
 Information gap games

 Matching games

 Guessing games

 Labeling games

 Search games

 Board games

Another distinction among games is that between competitive games and cooperative


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ones (Jacobs, in preparation). Research suggests that learning, as well as affective variables,
are enhanced by a cooperative environment (Johnson, Johnson & Stanne; Slavin, 1995).
Millis (2005) outlines a number of advantages of cooperative games, such as appropriate
anxiety levels and more constructive feedback.
According to Lee (2000) (cited in Pham, 2007), games have been classified into


Structure games which provide experience of the use of particular

patterns of syntax in communication
 Vocabulary games in which the learners’ attention is focused mainly on words
 Spelling games
 Pronunciation games
 Number games
 Listen-and-do games
 Games and writing

 Miming and role play
 Discussiongames
Another classification of games by McCallum (1980) consists of seven kinds which are
 Structure games



Conversation games



Vocabulary games



Writing games



Number games



Role play and dramatics



Spelling games

It is shown that the classifications of games from the above linguists are common in a way

that each kind of games focuses on a language item or a skill for the purpose and the content
of the lesson. Therefore, teachers should be careful of choosing the most suitable game for
each lesson so that learners and teachers can benefit the most from these games.
1.3.4. Advantages of teaching Present Perfect tense with games
Arif Saricoban and Esen Metin (2000), authors of “Songs, Verse and Games for
teaching grammar” explain how and why games for teaching grammar in class. They say:
“Games and problem-solving activities… have a purpose beyond the production of correct
speech and are examples of the most preferable communicative activities”. They go on to


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explain that grammar games help students gain knowledge and apply and use that learning.
Additionally, games have the advantage of allowing the students to “practice and internalize
vocabulary, grammar and structures extensively”. Games can teach, and there might be no
reason why they cannot be included as a part of a lesson. They can do this through repeated
exposure to the target grammar and because students are often more motivated to play games
than they are to do deskwork. Plus, during the game, the students are focused on the activity
and end up absorbing the grammar subconsciously.
Aydan Ersoz (2000), author of “Six Games for the ESL/EFL Classroom” also explains
more reasons why games do work for teaching grammar. Learning a language requires
constant efforts and that can be tiring, but Ersoz outlines two good reasons why games should
be included in the classroom:


Games that are amusing and challenging are highly motivating.



Games allow meaningful use of the language in context.

While games are motivating for the students, probably the best reason, according to

Saricoban and Metin (2000), to use games is that “the use of such activities increases both the
cooperation and competition in the classroom”. Indeed games can be used to add excitement
through competition or to create bonding between the students, and between the students and
the teachers. Students may wish to play game purely for fun. Teachers, however, need more
convincing reasons. “Teachers need to consider which games to use, when to use them, how to
link them up with the syllabus, textbook or programme and how, more specifically, different
games will benefit students in different ways” (Khan, J.1996). The key to a successful
language game is that the rules are clear, the ultimate goal is well defined and the game must
be fun.
Nagakawa (2003:11) says: “In the deductive approach, students often find it quite
difficult to gain the concept of the time of orientation because the instruction often fails to
provide a meaningful context with which students can construct the time framework in
describing an episode. In these activities, students are encouraged to construct the time
framework of the past events. Through the construction process, students can inductively gain
the knowledge of the time of orientation and understand the usage of the past perfective”. In


17

the activity, which provides meaningful contexts and timelines with students, students can
practice not only the usage of “the past in the past” but also the usage of the perfective aspects
of the past perfective.
The PPT is a rather important tense in English, but it gives speakers of some languages
a difficult time. That is because it uses concepts or ideas that do not exist in those languages.
In fact, the structure of PPT is very simple. The problems come with the use of the tense. The
PPT is really a very interesting tense, and a very useful one. Try not to translate PPT into your
language. Just try to accept the concepts of this tense and learn to "think" present perfect! You
will soon learn to like the PPT!

According to Wright, Betteridge and Buckby (1984): “Games help the teacher to
create contexts in which the language is useful and meaningful. The learners want to take part
and in order to do so must understand what others are saying or have written, and they must
speak or write in order to express their own point of view or give information. Thanks to
games, shy language learners will have more chances to speak and show their feeling and
opinions in English as much as they can”.
Teaching the PPT can be hard going - for the teacher and the students. It does not have
to be difficult or painful, however. You can teach the PPT using fun learning games and
before you know it; your students will be more than willing. There is an interesting movement
towards teaching the tense with games. Teaching this tense through games, the atmosphere of
the class will be more comfortable and exciting. The lesson will become easier, more
effective, motivating and interesting. It creates students’ motivation in learning. Just imagine
when coming in class, the teacher announces that it is time for a grammar lesson with games
and instead of disappointment and whine, the teachers and the students get smiles, enjoyment
and excitement.
1.3.5. Application of games
1.3.5.1. Which games to apply?
The teacher's using games in class is not to fill time without any linguistic purposes.
These games may entertain the students, but when the teacher does not have much time with
them each day as it is, he/she wants the game to do double duty to get the most out of the time


18

he/she spends playing games. Lin Hong (2002), author of “Using Games in Teaching English
to Young Learners”, explains that not all games are going to work to teach students language
skills. If the games are simple for fun and not linked to educational goals it may not be the best
use of time. It is possible to have fun games that is educational sound, however, to find out if
the game is educational sound, think about these questions posed by Hong:
-

Which skills do the games practice?

-

What type of game is it and what is its purpose?

-

Does the difficulty level of the game mesh with the students’ ability level?

-

Does the game require maximum involvement by the students?

-

Do the students like it? Does the teacher like it?
To add to these questions also ask yourself

-

What specific vocabulary of grammar is the teacher introducing or practicing with this
game?

-

Can the teacher keep control of class and play this game?

-

What material does the teacher need for the game and can obtain these easily?

-

What controls, if any are needed, will the teacher have in place to ensure the students are
on track?

-

Competition is not always appropriate. Is it possible to play a game for the sake of the
game and not in order to define winners or losers? Here are some ways play down
competition: Do not keep score all the time, make sure the team tie, play down any
“winning”, praise everyone, play until everyone has finished. // The winners are those who
finish, not those who finish first, and everyone finishes, etc.

-

Are the rules easy and clear?
When you answer clearly these questions, you will choose the best games to teach the

PPT – one of the most difficult grammar items.
1.3.5.2. When to apply games?
It is necessary for those who want to use games as a learning aid to be concerned about
how to use them. Hadfield (1990) suggests that "games should be regarded an integral part of
the language syllabus, not an amusing activity for Friday afternoon of for the end of the term."