Challenges in teaching English to ethnic minority students in a mountainous province = Những thách thức trong việc dạy tiếng Anh cho học sinh dân tộc thiểu số ở

Vietnam national university, Hanoi
University of Languages and international studies
Department of Post-graduate Studies



DIỆP THỊ HỒNG LIÊN
MA. MINOR THESIS


Challenges in teaching English To
Ethnic minority students in a mountainous province

(Những thách thức trong việc dạy tiếng Anh cho học sinh dân tộc thiểu số
ở một tỉnh miền núi)


Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60 14 10
Cohort: MA 17
Supervisor: Phạm Minh Tâm, MA



Hanoi, 2010


iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Headings

Pages
Declaration ……………………………………………………………………
i
Acknowledgment ……………………………………………………………
ii
Abstract .……………………………………………………………………
iii
Table of contents ……………………………………………………
iv
Abbreviations
vii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Rationale for the study …………………………………………………
1
1.2. Aims of the study ………………………………………………………
2
1.3. Significance of the study …………………………………………………
3
1.4. Scope of the study ………………………………………………………
3
1.5. Methodology ……………………………………………………………
3
1.6. Organization of the study ……………………………………………….
3
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. An overview on English Language Teaching Methods …………….
5
2.1.1. The Grammar - Translation Method

2.1.1.1. Introduction ……………………………………………
5
2.1.1.2. Advantages of the Grammar -Translation Method ………
6
2.1.1.3. Disadvantages of the Grammar -Translation Method …….
6
2.1.2. The Audio-Lingual Method

2.1.2.1. Introduction ……………………………………………….
7
2.1.2.2. Advantages of the Audio-Lingual Method ……………….
7
2.1.2.3. Disadvantages of the Audio-Lingual Method …………….
7
2.1.3. Communicative Language Teaching

2.1.3.1. Introduction ………………………………………………
8
2.1.3.2. Advantages of Communicative Language Teaching ……
9
2.1.3.3. Disadvantages of Communicative Language Teaching …
10
2.2. Common classroom activities associated with Communicative


v
Language Teaching
2.2.1. Accuracy versus fluency activities ……………… ……… ……
11

2.2.2. Mechanical, meaningful, and communicative practice ……
13
2.2.3. Information-gap activities …………………………………
13
2.2.4. Jig-saw activities …………………………………………….
14
2.2.5. Other activity types in CLT ………………………………….
14
2.3. Proficiency in the native language and the second language, and the
acquisition of a third language

2.3.1. Definitions ………………………………………………….
15
2.3.2. The influence of proficiency in the native language and the
second language on the acquisition of a third language ….
16
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1. Research setting

3.1.1. An overview of the research site …………………………
18
3.1.2. Description of the teachers of English ……………………
18
3.1.3. The students ……………………………………………
19
3.1.4. The materials of teaching and learning …………………
19
3.2. Research questions
20

3.3. Participants

3.3.1. Population ………………………………………………
20
3.3.2. Sampling ……………………………………………….
20
3.3.3. Detailed description of participants ……………………
21
3.4. Data Collection Instruments

3.4.1. Interviews …………………………………………….
21
3.4.2. Classroom observations ……………………………….
22
3.5. Data Collection Procedure ………………………………….
22
3.6. Data Analysis Procedure ……………………………………
23
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Research question 1 …………………………………………
25

vi
4.2. Research question 2 ……………………………………………
29
4.3 Conclusive remarks …………………………………………….
32
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION

5.1. Summary of major findings …………………………………
33
5.2. Recommendations

5.2.1. Adjusting teaching to learners’ needs ………………….
34
5.2.2. Adapting the textbooks ………………………………
35
5.2.3. Motivating students to learn …………………………
35
5.2.4. Having ethnic minority teachers to teach English for their
students in their communities …………………………….
36
5.2.5. Improving teaching conditions ……………………………
36
5.3. Limitations of the study ………………………………………….
37
5.4. Suggestions for further study ……………………………………
37
References ……………………………………………………………
38
Appendices

Appendix A. Interview Protocols for Teachers …….
I
Appendix B. Observational protocol …………………….
III

vii
ABBREVIATIONS
GTM: Grammar Translation Method
ALM: Audio-Lingual Method
CLT: Communicative Language Teaching
L1: the first language
L2: the second language
L3: the third language


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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Rationale for the study
The ever-growing need for good communication skills in English has created a huge
demand for English teaching around the world. The result is that its status in education system
and settings is an extraordinary one (Rossner and Bolitho, 1990, p. 5). In correspondence to
this trend, in Vietnam, the importance of English as a language of international
communication has been acknowledged by the Government; English teaching and learning
have been given more and more priority. English is considered as a compulsory subject in the
school curriculum in recognition that “it can contribute to students’ personal, linguistic, social,
and cultural development” (Canh, 2004, p.167).
Ministry of Education and Training in Vietnam (2006) has stated that the objective of
language teaching is teaching learners to communicate fluently, appropriately and
spontaneously in the cultural context of the target language. To meet the demand of learners of
English, teachers of English in Vietnam have been trying to catch up with the world’s latest

frameworks of English Language Teaching as well as to find out the most suitable and
effective method of teaching English with the hope of providing learners with a means of
communication, namely English which is vital for them to be successful in their job and to
fulfill their social demands in the time of globalization.
In Hoa Binh mountainous province, where the author has been working for over fifteen
years, English is a compulsory subject in the curriculum and it is considered as one of the
major subjects for the high school final examination. English is taught with the purpose to give
students some basic knowledge of English in order to communicate and use it as a key to
science and technology. However, there still exist many difficulties facing teachers in teaching
English to students, especially those from ethnic minorities. It can be observed that ethnic
minority students’ scores are very low in English. Less than 5 per cent earn good marks, even
in the national graduation exams (Hoa Binh Department of Education and Training, 2008;
2009). Furthermore, according to one high school teacher of English, the majority of ethnic
minority students can understand forty per cent of teachers’ lectures in Vietnamese. In some
remote areas, lower level students understand less than 20 per cent of what teachers say in


2

Vietnamese (“Minority Students Need”, 2008). Ethnic minority students mainly use their
mother tongues – Muong, Thai, Hmong, Tay and other languages - to communicate inside
their families and small communities. From first grade onward, at school and in public places,
ethnic minority students have to struggle with Vietnamese to study and communicate with
other people. This is why not many can understand lectures, even at high school, because they
do not thoroughly comprehend Vietnamese - and very few teachers can explain things to them
in their native languages (“Ethnic Schools Lack”, 2007). Thus, studying English language in
addition to Vietnamese language might be very challenging for ethnic minority students.
Furthermore, other problems are compounded by poor living conditions, poorly-
furnished classrooms, scarce access to supporting materials and facilities, limited access to the
target language, etc. As a result, many ethnic minority students fail to make progress in

learning the language and the quality of English language education for ethnic minority
students remains unsatisfactory for communicative purposes. All of these problems might
make teachers feel frustrated in teaching English to ethnic minority students, and in
developing students' communicative competence in English.
The point is that if we leave this problem unsolved, there will be a likelihood of
loading teachers of English with teaching to ethnic minority students of limited proficiency in
English language, and pushing students into being fed up with learning English. This fact has
given the author an impetus to do the research on challenges in teaching English to ethnic
minority high school students in Hoa Binh province with the hope to find out the solutions to
these problems and to make a small contribution to improve the quality of teaching English to
ethnic minority students in a mountainous province.
1. 2. Aims of the study
The study aims at investigating the areas of challenges in teaching English to ethnic
minority high school students in Hoa Binh mountainous province. Also, it is expected that
some solutions to overcome challenges encountered will be suggested. To be more specific, in
realizing this study, the objectives are:
 To investigate the areas of challenges that the teachers have encountered when
teaching English to ethnic minority students.


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 To offer some solutions with the hope of helping English language teachers in Hoa
Binh province overcome those difficulties, improve the quality of their teaching, which
later helps improve ethnic minority students’ language learning quality.
1.3. Significance of the study
The study is hoped to be beneficial to both teachers and ethnic minority students in
mountainous high schools. First, findings of the study could be shared among teachers of
English to improve the quality of teaching and learning in the coming years. Next, it might
highlight the rationale for professional development programs for high school teachers of

English in mountainous areas in Vietnam. Finally, the findings could be used as a data base for
further study.
1.4. Scope of the study
This study, as stated earlier, addresses challenges that teachers of English have faced
when teaching English to ethnic minority high school students in Hoa Binh province. In
addition, the study is to find out the possible solutions which help teachers of English improve
the quality of their teaching. To keep the study in manageable size, the study has been
delimited only to English language teachers of Hoa Binh Ethnic Minority Boarding High
School and two high schools in the remote districts.
1.5. Methodology
The study employed qualitative approach. Data were collected via interviews and
classroom observations:
- Interviewing teachers of English to clarify challenges raised in their teaching to
ethnic minority students.
- Having classroom observations to get information about both teachers’ ways of
teaching and students’ ways of learning in class as well as to ascertain the prevalent problems
forwarded by the teachers during the interviews.
1.6. Organization of the study
This study consists of five parts: Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology,
Results & Discussion, and Conclusion.


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 Chapter one. Introduction - presents the rationale, aims, significance, scope,
methodology, and organization of the study.
 Chapter two. Literature Review - provides a theoretical basis for the study.
 Chapter three. Methodology - includes an overview of the approach used in
conducting the study. It also provides a thorough description of the data collection
procedure as well as the analytical procedure.

 Chapter four. Results and Discussion - reports the findings of the study and
discusses the prominent aspects.
 Chapter five. Conclusion – presents the conclusions of major findings,
recommendations, limitations for the study, and suggestions for further studies.


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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. An overview on Language Teaching Methods
In the discussion of the history of language teaching methods, it can be understandable
that a teaching method which may be effective at one point of time in history may still be
ineffective at the other point. This dynamic character of the language teaching goals makes the
history of foreign language teaching ever-changing, ever- adapting. Moreover, one method is
replaced by another it does not mean that the former is worse than the latter and will be thrown
into the wastebasket of history. It only means that the replaced method fails to correspond to a
certain need at a certain time in history. As a result, the history of foreign language teaching
methods is not the history of replacement of one method by another. Rather, it would be the
history of adding one new method to the treasury of existing methods. A number of methods
have been evolved for the teaching of English and also other foreign languages in the recent
past; however, in Vietnam three methods which enjoy significant use and dominate the
language teaching are the Grammar – Translation, the Audio-lingual method, and the
Communicative Language Teaching. These methods are now discussed in this thesis as
follows.
2.1.1. The Grammar – Translation Method
2.1.1.1. Introduction
Grammar – Translation Method (GMT) was in fact first known in the United States as
the Prussian Method (A book by B.Sears, an American classics teacher, published in 1845 was
entitled The Ciceronian or the Prussian Method of Teaching the Elements of the Latin
Language [Kelly 1969]. The Grammar Translation method embraced a wide range of

approaches but, broadly speaking, it viewed foreign language study as a “mental discipline”
(Richards & Rodgers, 1996). The Grammar Translation Method focused on grammatical
analysis and translation. It theorized that students acquire a foreign language by learning and
explaining grammar rules.
According to Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979, p.3), the key features of the Grammar
Translation Method were that:
1. Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.


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2. Mush vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.
3. Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.
4. Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses
on the form and inflection of words.
5. Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.
6. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in
grammatical analysis.
7. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation
2.1.1.2. Advantages of the Grammar – Translation Method
The strengths of GMT are as follows:
1. This method can be argued as the easiest method for the teacher to teach since it
does require neither a high level of proficiency nor an imaginative approach to techniques;
2. The atmosphere of the classroom seems stress-free because the mother tongue is
used all the time;
3. The teaching of grammar rules and translation puts the learner into a problem
solving process;
4. Other advantages as noted by Stevick (1991) are freedom from limitation of one’s
own local and contemporary culture” … “direct contact with the words and ideas of great
thinkers ”. (pp. 32-36)

2.1.1.3. Disadvantages of the Grammar – Translation Method
This method, however, has certain disadvantages. According to Richard and Rogers
(1986, p. 3), the Grammar – Translation Method obviously focuses on the form rather than the
use of the target language. Students who are in this way do not have a chance to practice their
speaking and listening. Students who learn rules of grammar and vocabulary without much
feeling of progress in the mastery of the target language can lead to the lack of motivation in
learning a language for their having little opportunity to express themselves through it. The
method creates frustration for students, for whom foreign language learning is a tedious
experience for memorization of new words and grammatical rules, while it makes few
demands on teachers. (Richard and Rogers, 1986, p. 4)


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2.1.2. The Audio-Lingual Method
2.1.2.1.Introduction
The Audio-Lingual Method was widely adopted for teaching foreign languages in
North American colleges and universities. I provided the methodological foundation for
materials for the teaching of foreign languages in the United States and Canada (Richards &
Rodgers, 1996). This English teaching method puts listening and speaking in the first place. It
uses sentence pattern as the base of teaching and try to avoid mother tongue in class. Attention
is paid to the need for practice rather than explanation about the language because the ability
to use the language as a means of communication is the ultimate aim. The scientific base of
this method can be summarized in the following ‘five slogans’ (cited in Diller, 1978, p. 10)
1. Language is speech, not writing;
2. A language is a set of habits;
3. Teach the language, not about the language;
4. A language is what its native speakers say not what some one thinks they ought to
say;
5. Languages are different.

2.1.2.2. Advantages of the Audio-Lingual Method
In the Audio - Lingualism, teaching was organized in favor of the mechanistic aspects
of language use, thus, making the process of learning less challenging intellectually and, as a
result, accessible to majority of people (Rivers, 1981, p.46). The successful point of this
method is to develop students’ listening comprehension and fluency in speaking in the target
language. Students are encouraged by the sense of being able to use what they have learnt in
the early days of their study. In addition, the study is reinforced by repetition, so the students
have good repetition and this suitable for learners of different abilities.
2.1.2.3. Disadvantages of the Audio-Lingual Method
However, there still remain some problems. The theoretical base held by Audio-
Lingualism was found to be ill-founded both in terms of language theory and learning theory.
Theoretically, “language is not a habit structure. Ordinary linguistic behaviors
characteristically involve innovation, formation of new sentences and patterns in accordance


8

with rules of great abstractness and intricacy”. (Chomsky, 1966, p.153). Accordingly, to know
a language means to be able to comprehend and produce sentences and utterances never heard
or produced before. Practically, the products of Audio-Lingualism were found to be ‘well-
trained parrots’, by which she meant that they were unable to function communicatively in
real world situations. In addition, the atmosphere of the Audio-Lingual classroom was found
to be ‘tedious’ and ‘boring’ (Rivers, 1981, p.47), because of too much memorization, drilling
and repetition.
2.1.3. Communicative Language Teaching
2.1.3.1. Introduction
The origins of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) are to be found in the
changes in the British language teaching tradition dating from the late 1960s (Richards &
Rodgers, 1996). It is an outcome of more attention to learners’ effective and appropriate use
of language learnt. It is pointed out by Brindley (1986) that “the 1970’s and 1980’s could be

regarded as the era of Communicative Language Teaching” (p.11). Communicative Language
Teaching also marks the beginning of a major innovation within language teaching because of
its superior principles which are widely accepted nowadays.
There is a variety of definitions about CLT; each of them developed her/his own ideas
regarding CLT. Communicative Language Teaching, to some people, means the combination
of structural teaching and functional teaching into a communicative competence oriented form
of teaching. Littlewood (1981) states “one of the most characteristic features of
Communicative Language Teaching is that it pays systematic attention to functional as well as
structural aspects of language” (p.1). To others, Communicative Language Teaching may
mean the use of procedures that develop the four language skills through working in pairs or
groups in problem-solving tasks. According to Brindley (1986),
Language is not a static system. It is created through interaction; language learning does not
consist merely of internalizing a list of structural items. It is a process of learning how to
negotiate meaning in a particular socio-cultural context. Consideration of meaning rather than
form will therefore determine program content; language learning will more effective if they
centered around the needs and interests of the learners; language learning materials should,
similarly, be related to learners’ needs and interests and present learners with the opportunity


9

for genuine communication; effective communication is more than structures accuracy
particularly at the beginning stages of language learning. Errors are a manifestation of the fact
that learning is taking place. (p.12).
In a similar manner, Nunan (1989) acknowledges that
Communicative Language Teaching views language as a system for the expression of meaning.
Activities involve oral communication, carrying out meaning tasks and using language, which
is meaningful to the learners. Objectives reflect the needs of the learners; they include
functional skills as well as linguistic objectives. The learner’s role is as a negotiator and
integrator. The teacher’s role is as a facilitator of the communication process. Materials

promote communicative language use; they are task-based and authentic. (p.194).
It is thought that the definition contains aspects that are common to many other
definitions. The definitions above, as with any definitions of the language teaching method
(Penny Cook, 1989), represents a particular view of understanding and explaining language
acquisition. It is socially constructed and must be seen as a product of social, cultural,
economic, and political forces.
William (1995) summarizes the CLT classroom as one in which there is an emphasis
on the use of authentic language and unpredictable input. Negotiation of meaning between
students and teachers should be essential in the implementation of tasks with resulting
comprehensible input. Risk talking which leads to successful communication is also very
important. In his viewpoint, William emphasizes the lack of focus on the direct instruction of
language rules and error correction.
2.1.3.2. Advantages of Communicative Language Teaching
The advantages of Communicative Language Teaching may be summarized as follows:
1. CLT is more likely to produce the four skills of competence;
2. Learners of CLT are offered the opportunities to use the language for their own
purpose, to take part in communication;
3. CLT is more motivating; therefore, students are likely to put more effort into learning.
(Stevick (1980), Blaire (1982), Hutchinson (1987), and others);


10

4. As CLT intends to teach what is relevant and necessary only, it is less wasteful of time
and effort than approaches which attempt to teach the whole language. (Allright (1979),
Breen and Candlin (1987) and others)
5. In the long term, it should equip the learners with appropriate skills for tackling the
language in a real world, since CLT is based on a close approximation to such used
( Maley (1986). Murphy (1991) and others)
In the communicative approach, formulating and developing students’ communicative

skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) are considered as the ultimate goal of
language teaching and learning process. Other language items such as vocabulary
pronunciation and grammar rules are given to students as the means, the conditions to promote
the development of communicative skills.
Communicative language teaching makes use of real-life situations that necessitate
communication. In other words, the goal of communicative language approaches is to create a
realistic context of language acquisition in the classroom. The teachers prepare a situation that
learners are likely to encounter in real life. The focus of this method is on functional language
usage and the ability to learners to express their own ideas, feelings, attitudes, desires and
needs. Students usually work in small groups on communication activities, during which they
receive practice in negotiating meaning. Pair and group work creates enough confidence for
even weak students to join in class discussions. Working in groups to achieve their goals gives
learners a supportive relationship while striving for the target language competence.
2.1.3.3. Disadvantages of Communicative Language Teaching
CLT, however, also has a number of potential disadvantages:
1. It makes greater demands upon the professional training and linguistic and
professional competence of teachers. (Andrews (1983), Richard and Nunan (1991), Stern
(1992) and others)
2. It may perplex students used to other approaches at least in the initial stages. (James
(1983), Berns (1990) and others)
3. It is more difficult to evaluate than the other approaches referred to. (Williams
(1983), Porter (1983) and others)


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4. Because it appears to go against traditional practice, it tends to meet to meet with
opposition especially from older teachers and learners. (Robinson (1983), Hien (1991) and
others)
2.2. Common classroom activities associated with Communicative Language Teaching

The current textbooks based on two popular approaches in pedagogics and in
Language Teaching Methodology: learner-centered approach and communicative approach, in
which task-based teaching is the main method of teaching in the whole textbook. The task-
based teaching represents a particular realization of Communicative Language Teaching
(Nunan, 2001).
In discussing language teaching approaches, Richards and Rodgers (1986) considered
not only the methods, techniques, and procedures used by teachers, their theories and beliefs
about language, teaching and learning; and their views of teachers’ and learner’s roles, but
also their attitudes toward classroom practices. Accordingly, teaching approaches showed
remarkable similarity as did teacher expressions of their attitudes toward classroom activities.
So in this paper the researcher would like to briefly review the common classroom activities
associated with CLT.
2.2.1. Accuracy versus fluency activities
One of the goals of CLT is to develop fluency in language use. Fluency is natural
language use occurring when a speaker engages in meaningful interaction and maintains
comprehensible and ongoing communication despite limitations in his or her communicative
competence. Fluency is developed by creating classroom activities in which students must
negotiate meaning, use communication strategies, correct misunderstandings and work to
avoid communication breakdowns.
Fluency practice can be contrasted with accuracy practice, which focuses on creating
correct examples of language use. Differences between activities that focus on fluency and
those that focus on accuracy can be summarized as follows:
* Activities focusing on fluency
• Reflect natural use of language
• Focus on achieving communication


12

• Require meaningful use of language

• Require the use of communication strategies
• Produce language that may not be predictable
• Seek to link language use to context
* Activities focusing on accuracy
• Reflect classroom use of language
• Focus on the formation of correct examples of language
• Practice language out of context
• Practice small samples of language
• Do not require meaningful communication
• Choice of language is controlled
Teachers were recommended to use a balance of fluency activities and accuracy and to
use accuracy activities to support fluency activities. Accuracy work could either come before
or after fluency work. For example, based on students’ performance on a fluency task, the
teacher could assign accuracy work to deal with grammatical or pronunciation problems the
teacher observed while students were carrying out the task. An issue that arises with fluency
work, however, is whether fluency work develops fluency at the expense of accuracy. In doing
fluency tasks, the focus is on getting meanings across using any available communicative
resources. This often involves a heavy dependence on vocabulary and communication
strategies and there is little motivation to use accurate grammar or pronunciation. Fluency
work thus requires extra attention on the part of the teacher in terms of preparing students for a
fluency task, or follow up activities that provide feedback on language use.
While dialogs, grammar, and pronunciation drills did not usually disappear from
textbooks and classroom materials at this time, they now appeared as part of a sequence of
activities that moved back and forth between accuracy activities and fluency activities.
And the dynamics of classrooms also changed. Instead of a predominance of teacher-
fronted teaching, teachers were encouraged to make greater use of small-group work. Pair and
group activities gave learners greater opportunities to use the language and to develop fluency.

13

2.2.2 Mechanical, meaningful, and communicative practice
Another useful distinction that some advocates of CLT proposed was the distinction
between three different kinds of practice – mechanical, meaningful, and communicative.
Mechanical practice refers to a controlled practice activity which students can
successfully carry out without necessarily understanding the language they are using.
Examples of this kind of activity would be repetition drills and substitution drills designed to
practice use of particular grammatical or other items.
Meaningful practice refers to an activity where language control is still provided but
where students are required to make meaningful choices when carrying out practice. For
example, in order to practice the use of prepositions to describe locations of places, students
might be given a street map with various buildings identified in different locations. They are
also given a list of prepositions such as across from, on the corner of, near, on, next to. They
then have to answer questions such as “Where is the book shop? Where is the café?”, etc. The
practice is now meaningful because they have to respond according to the location of places
on the map.
Communicative practice refers to activities where practice in using language within a
real communicative context is the focus, where real information is exchanged, and where the
language used is not totally predictable. For example students might have to draw a map of
their neighborhood and answer questions about the location of different places in their
neighborhood, such as the nearest bus stop, the nearest café, etc.
2.2.3. Information-gap activities
According to Richards (2005), “an important aspect of communication in CLT is the
notion of information gap”. (p.17). This refers to the fact that in real communication people
normally communicate in order to get information they do not possess. An information gap
activity focuses on two aspects: attention to information (but not to language form) and the
necessity of communicative interaction to reach the objective. In other words, as Scrivener
(1994) further explains, the aim of an information gap activity is to “get learners to use the
language they are learning to interact in realistic and meaningful ways, usually involving

exchanges of information” (p.62). In so doing they will draw available vocabulary, grammar,


14

and communication strategies to complete a task.
2.2.4. Jig-saw activities
These are also based on the information-gap principle. Typically the class is divided
into groups and each group has part of the information needed to complete an activity. The
class must fit the pieces together to complete the whole. In so doing they must use their
language resources to communicate meaningfully and so take part in meaningful
communication practice.
2.2.5. Other activity types in CLT
Many other activity types have been used in CLT, among which are the followings:
Task-completion activities: puzzles, games, map-reading and other kinds of classroom
tasks in which the focus was on using one’s language resources to complete a task.
Information gathering activities: student conducted surveys, interviews and searches
in which students were required to use their linguistic resources to collect information.
Opinion-sharing activities: activities where students compare values, opinions, beliefs,
such as a ranking task in which students list six qualities in order of importance which they
might consider in choosing a date or spouse.
Information-transfer activities: these require learners to take information that is
presented in one form, and represent it in a different form. For example they may read
instructions on how to get from A to B, and then draw a map showing the sequence, or they
may read information about a subject and then represent it as a graph.
Reasoning gap-activities: these involve deriving some new information from given
information through the process of inference, practical reasoning etc. For example, working
out a teacher’s timetable on the basis of given class timetables.
Role-plays: activities in which students are assigned roles and improvise a scene or
exchange based on given information or clues.

* Emphasis on pair work and group work
Most of the activities discussed above reflect an important aspect of classroom tasks in
CLT namely that they are designed to be carried out in pairs or small groups. Through
completing activities in this way, it is argued, learners will obtain several benefits:


15

• they can learn from hearing the language used by other members of the group
• they will produce a greater amount of language than they would use in teacher-
fronted activities
• their motivational level is likely to increase
• they will have the chance to develop fluency
Teaching and classroom materials today consequently make use of a wide variety of small
group activities.
* The push for authenticity
Since the language classroom is intended as a preparation for survival in the real world
and since real communication is a defining characteristic of CLT, an issue which soon
emerged was the relationship between classroom activities and real life. Some argued that
classroom activities should as far as possible mirror the real world and use real world or
“authentic sources” as the basis for classroom learning. Clark and Silbertstein (1977) thus
argued
Classroom activities should parallel the ‘real world’ as closely as possible. Since language is a
tool of communication, methods and materials should concentrate on the message and not the
medium. The purposes of reading should be the same in class as they are in real life. (p.51)
2.3. Proficiency in the native language and the second language and the acquisition of a
third language
2.3.1. Definitions
Language acquisition is one of the most impressive and fascinating aspects of human
development. In website on June 20, 2010,

language acquisition is defined as “the process by which humans acquire the capacity to
perceive, produce and use words to understand and communicate. This capacity involves the
picking up of diverse capacities including syntax, phonetics, and an extensive vocabulary.
This language might be vocal as with speech or manual as in sign”. Language acquisition
usually refers to first language acquisition, which studies infants' acquisition of their native
language, rather than second language acquisition that deals with acquisition (in both children
and adults) of additional languages.


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With regard to second language acquisition, it is portrayed as the process by which
people learn languages in addition to their native language. The term "second language",
"target language", or "L2" are used to refer to any language learned after the native language,
which is also called "mother tongue", "first language", "L1", or "source language". Second
language acquisition also includes third language acquisition (L3).
2.3.2. Influence of proficiency in the native language and the second language on the
acquisition of a third language
Although English is taught in Vietnamese high schools as a foreign language, for
ethnic minority students, learning English is similar to learning a third language. This is
because these ethnic minority students have to learn Vietnamese in addition to their
indigenous or native language. This study was conducted in the Ethnic Minority Boarding
High School and two high schools in remote districts of the mountainous province, where the
majority of the students belong to ethnic minority groups. Thus, what follows is a brief review
of the literature on the influence of learners’ first and second languages on the acquisition of a
third language.
The influence of proficiency in L1 and L2 on the acquisition of a third language has
interested researchers for a few decades, but knowledge about those influences remains
limited. Cummings (2000) stated that according to ‘interdependence hypothesis’, there is a
positive and significant relationship between students’ first language development, specially

their development of literacy skills, and their second language development. A similar
relationship might be expected to hold good in the case of multilingual acquisition, so that
different degrees of proficiency in the first and second languages would affect the acquisition
of the third language.
In addition, recent psycholinguistic research on third language acquisition has made
clear that the acquisition of an L3 shares many characteristics with the acquisition of an L2 but
it also presents differences. Accordingly, the educational aspects of teaching English as an L3
differ from those of teaching English as an L2. Third language acquisition is more complex
phenomenon than second language acquisition because, apart from all individual and social
factors that affect the latter, the process and product of acquiring a second language can


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themselves potentially influence the acquisition of a third language. The educational aspects of
the acquisition of English as a third language differ those of English as a second language, and
have more implications regarding the optimal age for introduction of the different languages
and the desired level of proficiency in each.
However, several studies on L3 acquisition have convincingly shown a qualitative
difference between the acquisition of a true L2 and the subsequent acquisition of an L3. Some
studies even indicate that L2 takes on a stronger role than L1 in the initial state of L3 syntax
(e.g. Bardel & Falk, 2007; Rothman & Cabrelli Amaro, forthcoming). An explanation put
forward by e.g. Williams & Hammarberg (1998) and Bardel & Falk (2007) as to why the L2
takes on a stronger role than the L1 is that of the L2 status factor. According to Falk & Bardel,
the L2 status factor is an outcome of the higher degree of similarity between L2 and L3 than
between L1 and L3, regarding age of onset, outcome, learning situation, metalinguistic
knowledge, learning strategies and degree of awareness in the language learning process.
Also, the acquisitional setting may vary from predominantly informal acquisition, as is
the case for instance in bilingual environments, to more formal settings, such as foreign
language learning in the classroom. On the one hand, it can be assumed that L3 learners,

especially those who have learnt the L2 in a formal setting, are aware of the language learning
process, and have acquired metalinguistic experiences and learning strategies to facilitate
foreign language learning.
Therefore, for students from ethnic minority groups, studying one more language,
English – the third language, via Vietnamese – the second language might be very challenging.
This is because of the fact that when learning English, they comprehend English lessons by
listening, switching into their native languages - and then translating or changing into
Vietnamese and then English again. Limited literacy or Vietnamese language skills can limit
the acquisition of the third language. As a result, it is observed that a large number of these
students are almost illiterate in English despite many years’ learning the language.


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CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter includes a justification for the approach the author used in conducting the
research. It also provides a thorough description of how the author collected the necessary data
as well as the analytical procedure to draw conclusions based on the collected information. In
the first section the author gives detailed description of the research setting where the study
was conducted. In the next sections, the author puts forward an explanation of the author’s
understanding of the methods used in this research and their advantages.
3.1. Research setting
3.1.1. An overview of the research site
Hoa Binh is a mountainous province in the northwest of Vietnam, where over 80 % of
the population belongs to ethnic minority groups, and where there have been many difficulties
in life as well as in educational development, especially in the development of teaching a
foreign language like English. Not much attention is paid to English learning though it is
among the compulsory subjects in the national final examinations. The infrastructure is poorly
equipped with no specific rooms for learning English. There is no empty space in the
classroom except for the aisle where the teachers can move to and fro. Besides, some schools

even lack teaching facilities like tape recorders or CD players, let alone reference books.
3.1.2. Description of the teachers of English
In Hoa Binh province, there are 250 teachers of English currently working. Their ages
range from 24 to 55. Their experience in teaching English varies from 4 to 32 years.
In terms of teachers’ qualification, most high school teachers graduated from Foreign
Language Teachers' Training Universities. These teachers are qualified for the job. Some of
them attended in - service courses, others used to be teachers of Russian. To some extent,
some teachers are unqualified in terms of their proficiency in English and professional English.
A number of teachers have troubles in pronouncing English sounds and expressing themselves
in the target language.
With regard to teaching methods, as teachers of English in many other provinces in
Vietnam, teachers of English in Hoa Binh province are now more communication-oriented.
However, some get used to speech dominated education by a teacher-centered, book-centered,


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Grammar Translation Method and an emphasis on rote memory. Others even do not have a
thorough grasp of the content of the curriculum and the new textbook; it results in confusion in
teaching methods. In terms of using teaching facilities, some teachers are poorly equipped
with audiovisual teaching aids (tapes, videos, etc … ). In fact, it is difficult to break teachers’
habit of not using audiovisual aids, thus they can not bring into play the teaching facilities
even their schools equip language teachers with cassettes and language laboratory.
3.1.3. The students
The study was conducted at three high schools in a mountainous province where
majority of students belong to different ethnic minorities from Thai, Muong, Mong, Dao, and
Tay groups. Teaching English for ethnic minority students in the remote mountainous area has
long been a controversial issue. Many ethnic minority students’ English level is low and
Vietnamese language skills are limited. Besides, there is lack of proper teaching and learning
materials at primary and secondary schools. For them, English is simply an obligatory subject;

they learn it mainly for marks, the only goal is to pass the tests. The time, the input and
exposure to the language are limited to the classroom. Therefore, they seem to be passive in
learning. Students listen to their teachers and repeat passively and give a mechanical response.
They are likely to become demotivated to English learning, depending much on the textbook
and teachers’ method of delivery. Language activities like role plays, problem-solving tasks,
or information gap activities, therefore, seem strange to their culture of learning. Even, when
they fail to understand something, they are not daring enough to ask for clarification in public.
Therefore, “the English learning environment is described as a cultural island where the
teacher is expected to be the sole provider of experience in the target language" (Canh, 1999,
p.74).
3.1.4. The materials of teaching and learning
In terms of the materials of teaching and learning, the textbooks currently used to teach
English are Tieng Anh 10, Tieng Anh 11, Tieng Anh 12 published by Ministry of Education
and Training. The teaching content of English textbooks follows the theme-based approach
and is developed on six broad themes. The six themes are subdivided into 16 topics
corresponding with 16 units and a “Test yourself” after every 3 units. All units have the same


20

structure, starting with the theme of the unit, following four lessons focused on language skills
and ending with language focus. Language skills are developed in parallel with the
development of such language knowledge as grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation.
With strengths, the textbooks are expected to contribute better quality of English
learning in Vietnam high schools. In terms of curriculum development, the introduction of the
new textbook can be new fresh air blowing into the teaching and learning situation at
secondary schools in Vietnam. However, to a large number of ethnic minority students, the
English textbooks are very difficult. Very often the amount of new vocabulary in one unit was
too much for students. In addition, many topics in their English textbooks were strange to their
daily lives and background.

3.2. Research questions
Interviews and classroom observations in this study were intended to address the
following research questions:
1. What are the challenges as perceived by the teachers in teaching English to ethnic
minority high school students in Hoa Binh mountainous province?
2. What are the common classroom activities being used by the teachers in English
classes at Hoa Binh high schools?
3.3. Participants
3.3.1. Population
The target population for this study comprises 250 teachers of English at Hoa Binh
high schools. Their experience in teaching English to ethnic minority students varies from 4 to
32 years. The brief description of teachers of English has been mentioned in the earlier
sections of this chapter in terms of teachers’ qualification and teaching methods.
3.3.2. Sampling
The researcher used a combination of convenience and snowball sampling in this study.
As a cadre working for Hoa Binh Department of Education and Training, it might be
easier for the researcher to make contacts with the department heads and teachers of high
schools in the province. The researcher first contacted the department heads via telephone and
invited them to recommend teachers who might be interested in the study and requested their