Designing an ESP reading syllabus for third- year students of Geography at Thai Nguyen University of Education = Thiết kế đề cương đọc hiểu Tiếng Anh chuyên ngà

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
*********************

Lê Thị Hồng Hƣơng

DESIGNING AN ESP READING SYLLABUS
FOR THIRD-YEAR STUDENTS OF GEOGRAPHY
AT THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION



THIẾT KẾ ĐỀ CƢƠNG ĐỌC HIỂU TIẾNG ANH CHUYÊN NGÀNH
CHO SINH VIÊN NĂM THỨ BA KHOA ĐỊA LÍ
TRƢỜNG ĐẠI HỌC SƢ PHẠM THÁI NGUYÊN


M.A MINOR THESIS

FIELD: ENGLISH TEACHING METHODOLOGY
CODE: 601410




Hanoi, 2012


iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
iv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
vii
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
viii
PART I: INTRODUCTION
1
1. Rationale
1
2. Aims and objectives
2
3. Scope of the study
2
4. Significance of the study
2
5. Methods of the study
2
6. Design of the study
2
PART II: DEVELOPMENT
3
CHAPTER I: LITERATURE REVIEW
3
1.1. An overview of ESP
3
1.1.1. Definition of ESP
3
1.1.2. Types of ESP
5

1.1.3. GE and ESP
8
1.2. An overview of syllabus design
8
1.2.1. Definition of syllabus
8
1.2.2. The importance of syllabus design
9
1.2.3. Types of syllabus
10
1.2.3.1. Content – based syllabus
10
Structural/ Grammar syllabus
10
Notional/ Functional syllabus
10
Situational syllabus
11
Topic-based syllabus
11
1.2.3.2. Skill – based syllabus
12
1.2.3.3. Method – based syllabus
12

v
Task – based syllabus
12
Process syllabus
13

1.2.4. Approaches to ESP syllabus design
13
1.2.4.1. Language – centered approach
13
1.2.4.2. Skill – centered approach
15
1.2.4.3. Learning – centered approach
16
1.2.5. Steps to design a syllabus
18
1.3. An overview of need analysis
18
1.3.1. Needs analysis in syllabus design
18
1.3.2. Types of needs
18
Target needs
18
Learning needs
19
1.4. An overview of reading
20
1.4.1. Definition of reading in ESP
20
1.4.2. Reading skills in ESP
21
1.4.3. Reading exercises
21
1.5. Summary
22

CHAPTER II: THE STUDY
23
2.1. The teaching and learning situation at TUE
23
2.2. The methodology
24
2.2.1. The research questions
24
2.2.2. Data collection instruments
25
2.2.3. Subjects of the study
27
2.2.4. Data collection procedures
27
2.2.5. Data analysis
27
2.2.6. Steps to design a syllabus
27
2.3. Findings and discussion
28
2.3.1. The needs for an ESP syllabus as expressed by the ESP teachers
of FLF at TUE
28

vi
2.3.2. The needs perceived by the third year-students of Geography at TUE
30
2.4. Summary
33
CHAPTER III: AN ESP READING SYLLABUS FOR THIRD-YEAR

STUDENTS OF GEORAPHY AT TUE
34
3.1. Aims and objectives of the syllabus
34
3.2. Selecting the type of ESP syllabus
34
3.3. Syllabus content
35
3.3.1. Topics in the syllabus
35
3.3.2. Reading skills in the syllabus
35
3.3.3. Reading exercises in the syllabus
35
3.3.4. Grammar and structures in the syllabus
36
3.3.5. Organization and duration of the syllabus
36
3.3.6. A proposed syllabus
36
PART III: CONCLUSION
37
1. Main findings
37
2. Suggestions for applying the syllabus
37
2.1. Suggestions for teaching methodology
37
2.2. Suggestions for assessment procedures
38

2.3. Suggestions for material selection
38
REFERENCES
39
APPENDICES
I
APPENDIX 1 QUESTIONS FOR THE INTERVIEW WITH THE ESP TEACHERS
I
APPENDIX 2 QUESTIONAIRES FOR THE THIRD-YEAR STUDENTS
II
APPENDIX 3-7: TABLE 2 – TABLE 7
VI
APPENDIX 8: A PROPOSED SYLLABUS FOR THIRD – YEAR STUDENTS OF
GEOGRAPHY AT TUE
XII


vii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ESP: English for Specific Purposes
TUE: Thai Nguyen University of Education
GE: General English
FLF: Foreign Languages Faculty
EOP: English for Occupational Purposes
EEP: English for Educational Purposes
EAP: English for Academic Purposes
EPP: English for Professional Purposes
EVP: English for Vocational Purposes
EAST: English for (Academic) Science and Technology

EAMP: English for (Academic) Medical Purposes
EALP: English for (Academic) Legal Purposes
EMFE: English for Management, Finance and Economics
EMP: English for Medical Purposes
EBP: English for Business Purposes
Pre-VE: Pre-Vocational English
VE: Vocational English










viii
LIST OF FIGURES, CHARTS, AND TABLES

Figure 1.1: ESP Classification by experience………………………………
6
Figure 1.2: ESP classification by professional area………………………
7
Figure 2.1. A language-centered approach to course design……………….
14
Figure 2.2. A skills-centered approach to course design…………………
15
Figure 2.3. A learning-centered approach to course design………………
17

Chart 1: Students‟ ideas on the current textbook…………………………
30
Chart 2: Students‟ opinions on designing new ESP reading syllabus……
30
Table 1: Students‟ problems in reading ESP……………………………….
31
Table 2: Students‟ ideas about the needed topics…………………………
VI
Table 3: Students‟ attitudes to the reading skills…………………………
VII
Table 4: Students‟ opinions about grammar and structures in syllabus……
VIII
Table 5: Students‟ attitudes to the different reading exercises……………
IX
Table 6: Students‟ opinion about the evaluation…………………………
X
Table 7: Students‟ ranking their objectives after taking ESP course……….
XI


1
PART I: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale for the study
English language has been considered the most widely - used means of
communication and a compulsory subject in Vietnam education system at all levels
for the last few decades. In teaching and learning English as a foreign language in
Vietnam, the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) area proves to be in great
demand. People with good English proficiency are highly needed in many areas,
such as business, banking, tourism, etc
Students learning ESP in Vietnam mainly have access to popular documents

written in English through reading. Hence, the skills reading English texts are
naturally of special importance in teaching and learning ESP. Reading has always
received a lot of attention because it is not only an important means to get
knowledge but also a means of further study. Reading also plays an important role
in teaching ESP at Thai Nguyen University of Education (TUE).
At TUE, in General English (GE) courses, the teachers of English at Foreign
Languages Faculty (FLF) can select from a wide range of syllabuses for non
English- majors. They can choose one of the English textbooks available in
Vietnam and employ it as a main part of the syllabus. Difficulties have arisen in
ESP courses where the responsibility for the syllabus design absolutely lies with the
teachers. What are the difficulties? The lack of a common appropriate ESP syllabus
affects all teachers of English at FLF because it is obligatory that they have to
design their own syllabus and introduce it to students of different specialized
subjects as the chief learning material. This variation of syllabus contents also has a
serious influence on the quality of teaching in different classes.
For those reason, as a new teacher of English for geography section, the author
is encouraged to choose the study “Designing a Reading Syllabus of English for
Geography for third-year students of geography at Thai Nguyen University of
Education”.


2
2. Aims and objectives of the study
The study aims at designing an ESP reading syllabus for third – year students
at TUE. In order to achieve this aim, the following objectives are targeted:
+ To identify the needs of the ESP teachers, and the needs of the third-year students
of Geography at TUE for an appropriate reading syllabus.
+ To propose the concept of an ESP reading syllabus for third-year students of
geography at TUE based on the relevant theories and their needs.
+ To design the components of the syllabus, including the material selection,

teaching methods as well as students assessment.
3. Scope of the study
The study focuses on designing an ESP reading syllabus for students of
geography at TUE who are at pre-intermediate level of English proficiency.
4. Significance of the study
The study will be useful for not only language teachers but also course designers.
5. Methods of the study
The quantitative method is used to collect date by means of survey
questionnaires. It aims at investigating the needs of students for ESP syllabus and
the goals after the ESP course.
The qualitative method is pursued to collect in-depth data through interviews
with the ESP teachers at TUE.
6. Design of the study
There are three parts and a list of references and appendices in this study
Part I: Introduction
Part II: Development
Chapter I: Literature review
Chapter II: The study
Chapter III: An ESP reading syllabus for third –year students of geography
at TUE
Part III: Conclusion

3
PART II: DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER I: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter will present the theories concerning ESP reading syllabus design.
It consists of four main sections:
 The first section, an overview of ESP, will review the opinions of different

language researchers on the definition of ESP, its types, and the comparison
between GE and ESP.
 The second section, an overview of syllabus design, will present the
definitions of syllabus, its types, approaches to ESP syllabus design, and
steps to design a syllabus. This part plays an important role in producing an
appropriate syllabus.
 The third one, an overview of needs analysis, will focus on needs analysis,
types of needs and how to conduct needs analysis.
 The last section, an overview of reading, will provide the reading theories,
reading skills, reading strategies and reading test techniques in ESP.

1.1. An overview of ESP
1.1.1. Definition of ESP
Different authors have defined ESP differently. As Hutchinson and Waters
(1987) define it, ESP is not
a) a matter of teaching „specialized varieties‟ of English.
b) just a matter of science words and grammar for scientists, hotels and so
on.
c) different from any other form of language teaching in that it should be
based in the first instance on principles of effective and efficient learning.


4
Hutchinson and Water also state that “ESP must be seen as an approach, not
as a product.” (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, p.19) This means ESP does not involve
a particular kind of language, teaching material or methodology.
Having the same ideas with Hutchinson and Walter, Strevens (1988) also
defines the notion of ESP by describing its absolute and variable characteristics.
Four absolute characteristics of teaching ESP are that it is
 designed to meet specified needs of the learner;

 related in content (that is in its themes and topics) to particular disciplines,
occupations and activities;
 centered on language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis,
discourse, semantics, and so on, and analysis of this discourse;
 in contrast with „General English‟.
Two variable characteristics of teaching ESP are that it is:
 restricted as to the language skills to be learned (e.g. reading only);
 not taught according to any pre-ordained methodology.
Robinson (1991) also gives a definition based on two key criteria and a
number of characteristics of ESP.
The two key criteria are:
 ESP is „normally goal-directed‟;
 ESP courses develop from the need analysis, which „aims to specify as
closely as possible what exactly it is that students have to do through the
medium of English‟
The characteristics of ESP courses are that:
 they are generally constrained by a limited period, in which their objectives
have to be achieved;
 they are taught to adults in homogeneous classes in terms of work or
specialists studies that the students are involved in.
Strevens' (1988) definition had a great impact on the definition of ESP offered
by Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998). They substantially improved Strevens'

5
identification of the characteristics of ESP by removing the last absolute
characteristic and adding more variable characteristics as follows:
Three absolute characteristics:
 ESP is designed to meet specific needs of the learners;
 ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the
disciplines it serves;

 ESP is centered on the language (grammar, lexis, and register), skills,
discourse and genres appropriate to these activities.
Four variable characteristics:
 ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines;
 ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from
that of general English;
 ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level
institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be for
learners at secondary school level;
 ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students. Most ESP
courses assume some basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be
used with beginners
(Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1998, p. 4-5)
From these researcher‟s definitions, it is possible to find that the definition of
ESP given by Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) is the most comprehensive one. It
has combined almost all characteristic features of ESP which are mentioned above.
1.1.2. Types of ESP
ESP can be divided into categories and subcategories.
1. ESP classification by experience
2. ESP classification by professional areas
According to Robinson (1991), ESP has traditionally been divided into two
main areas: EOP and EEP/EAP. EOP stands for English for Occupational Purposes,
EEP stands for English for Educational Purposes, and EAP stands for English for

6
Academic Purposes. This classification of ESP is illustrated in the following tree
diagram:
Pre-experience

EOP Simultaneous/In-service

Post-experience Pre-study
ESP For study in a
specific In-study discipline
EEP/EAP Post-study
Independent As a school subject
Integrated

Figure 1.1. ESP Classification by experience

Having the same view of classifying ESP as Robinson, Kennedy and Bolitho
explain the two main areas as follow:
“EOP is taught in a situation in which learners need to use English as part of
their work or profession. Instances of EOP students would be doctors in casually or
technicians serving equipment. They need English, in the first case, to talk and
respond to patients and other staff, and, in the second, to read technical manuals
EAP is taught generally within educational institution to students needing
English in their studies. The language taught may be based in particular discipline
at higher levels of education when the student is specializing (in-study)or intends to
specialize (pre-study) in particular subject.”
(Kennedy & Bolitho, 1984, p.4)
Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) divide ESP into EAP and EOP according to
professional area. This division is shown in the following figure

7
ESP
EAP EOP
EPP EVP
EAST EAMP EALP EMFE EMP EBP pre-VE VE

Figure 1.2 ESP classification by professional area

EPP: English for Professional Purposes
EVP: English for Vocational Purposes
EAST: English for (Academic) Science and Technology
EAMP: English for (Academic) Medical Purposes
EALP: English for (Academic) Legal Purposes
EMFE: English for Management, Finance and Economics
EMP: English for Medical Purposes
EBP: English for Business Purposes
Pre-VE: Pre-Vocational English
VE: Vocational English

Thanks to these ways of classifying ESP, the teachers can conduct needs
analysis, choose teaching materials, and determine the type of ESP course based on
students‟ needs. I recognize that at TUE, students need to learn English as part of
their study, so, my research aims at designing an EAP syllabus.
1.1.3. GE and ESP

8
Strevens (1988) defines that “ESP consists of English language teaching which
is in contrast with GE”. His definition makes readers wonder: What is the
difference between GE and ESP? According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987), the
difference is „in theory nothing, in practice a great deal‟. On the other hand,
Widdowson (1983) argues that the distinction between ESP and EGP (English for
General Purposes) is not the problem of specificity of purpose but “the way in
which purpose is defined and the manner of its implementation”.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) states that “ESP is an approach to language
teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner‟s
reason for learning.” Likewise, Strevens (1988) considers ESP as “a particular

case of general category of special purpose of learning”. Similarly, Richards, Platt
and Webber (1994) say that ESP course “is fixed by the specific needs for a
particular group of learners”. Therefore, an ESP course should differ from a GE
course in the selection of skills, themes, topics, situation and function. All ESP
courses should be based on the learners‟ needs and meet the learners‟ needs.
1.2. An overview of syllabus design
1.2.1. Definition of syllabus
Syllabus can be described as a subpart of a curriculum that deals with the
specification of what will be taught, and thus syllabus is subordinated to curriculum.
According to Yalden (1983), a syllabus can be considered as "summary of the
content to which learners will be exposed". Sharing the same viewpoint with
Yalden, Richards (2001) assumes that “a syllabus describes the major that will be
used in planning a language course and provides the basis for its instructional
focus and content ". On the other hand, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) point out
that “A syllabus is not a statement of what will be learnt. It is important to
remember that a syllabus can only constitute an approximate statement of what will
be taught”

9
Widdowson (1983) provides a definition of syllabus as a general plan of
activities that can be applied in a class to facilitate the learning process. As it is
narrowed by Yalden (1984), syllabus is seen as “an instrument by which the
teacher, with the help of the syllabus designer, can achieve a degree of „fit‟ between
the needs and the aims of the learners (as social being and as individual), and the
activities which will take place in the classroom”
From these definitions, it can be concluded that syllabus is a part of a
curriculum that concerns the selection and sequencing of content to be taught in a
course or the courses within the language program.
1.2.2. The importance of syllabus design
It is known that syllabus is a vital component in the process of course design.

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) explain why we should have a syllabus by
identifying the roles of a syllabus as following:
 Firstly, the syllabus provides a practical basis for the division of assessment,
textbooks and learning time.
 The syllabus can be seen as a statement of projected routes, so that the
teachers and learners not only have an idea of where they are going, but how
they might get there.
 A syllabus tells the teacher and the students not only what is to be learnt, but,
implicitly, why it is to be learnt.
 A syllabus provides a set of criteria for materials selection and/or writing. It
defines the kind of texts to look for or produce the items to focus on in
exercise, etc.
 A syllabus provides a visible basic for testing.

From these roles of syllabus design, it is clear that a syllabus is an important
document in the teaching and learning process. Therefore, the designer should pay
attention on different types of syllabus and the roles of syllabus because this
consideration will help him/her decide the syllabus he/she designs.

10
1.2.3. Types of ELT syllabus
There are many ways to classify syllabi from different authors‟ point of view.
However, the following classification by Robinson (1991) is the clearest with three
kinds of syllabus; they are content-based syllabus, skill-based syllabus, and method-
based syllabus.
1.2.3.1. Content – based syllabus
Structural/grammar syllabus
As Long and Crookes (1993) discuses, the structural syllabus "consists of a
series of isolated linguistic forms, or morpho-syntactic 'structures' plus inductively
or deductively presented pedagogic 'grammar points'”. In a structural syllabus, the

content is a collection of the structures or grammars of language. It is easy to
identify the materials because the table of content is organized around grammar
points. However, this kind of syllabus does not help students develop their
communication skills. This following example will illustrate this theory:
Chapter 1: Verbs tense
1.1. The simple present tense
1.2. The present continuous tense
Chapter 2: The passive voice
………
Notional/Functional syllabus
In a notional/functional syllabus, the content of the language teaching is a
collection of the functions that are performed when the language is used. This type
of syllabus includes information about language use as well as language form. It
focuses on semantics use. This kind of syllabus is more likely to develop effective
use of language by students than structural ones. For instance:
Unit 1: Talking about your self
Unit 2: Asking for information
Unit 3: Telling the past events
…………….

11
Situational syllabus
Situational syllabi adopt situation and topic as their unit of analysis, in which
the content of teaching is a collection of real or imaginary situations and is
presented in such a way that sets of structures are emphasized. Although this kind
of synthetic syllabuses are "less well-known and less widely used than structural or
notional- functional varieties" (Long & Crookes, 1993, p.28), it also has some
advantages: it can lead directly to learners' communication in specific situations; it
provides social and cultural context in which form and meaning coincide.
This is one example of situational syllabus:

Unit 1: Getting acquainted
Unit 2: At school
Unit 3: At the airport
Unit 4: In a restaurant
……….
Topic-based syllabus
The topic-based syllabus is organized around the themes, topics, or other units
of contents, (Richard, 2001, p.157) so, it focuses on the content rather than
grammar. Talking about the advantage of topic-based syllabus, Robinson (1991)
says that this kind of syllabus can “motivate the students and as a basis for the real
syllabus of the language forms, functions or whatever the course designers wish to
focus on”. However, Nunan (1988) presents the problems of this syllabus is that
“the logic of the subject may provide a non-linguistic rational for the selecting and
grading content”. Example as this follow:
Unit 1: The alphabet
Unit 2: The numbers
Unit 3: The flowers
Unit 4: The animals
………………


12
1.2.3.2. Skill – based syllabus
Robinson (1991) states that skill-based syllabus “focuses exclusively or
principally on one of the four traditional skills”. It means the content of language
teaching in this kind of syllabus is a collection of specific abilities that may play a
part in using language such as reading, speaking, listening or writing. The
organization of the materials is around the language or academic skills that students
will most need in order to learn the language. The selection of the skills is based on
the author‟s perception of their usefulness and the sequence of the skills is based on

some senses of chronology, frequency or relative usefulness of the skills. My
propose syllabus is also a skill-based one. Its advantage is making the ESP course
more responsive to the development of reading skills.
The following is the skill-based syllabus example:
Unit 1: Skimming for the general ideas
Unit 2: Scanning for specific ideas
Unit 3: Guessing vocabulary from context
………………
1.2.3.3. Method – based syllabus
Task – based syllabus
This syllabus can be given another name of procedural syllabus (Long &
Crookes, 1993; Rabbini, 2002), in which the content of the teaching is a collection
of complex and purposeful tasks and activities that the learners want or need to
perform with the language they are learning in order to fulfill the task given by their
teacher. Students are involved in real communication and are provided clear and
immediate need for language learning. Therefore, this kind of syllabus can develop
the learners' cognitive cultural and necessary skills to cope with real life situations.
Unit 1: Writing notes and memos
Unit 2: Writing personal letters
Unit 3: Writing to a company or an official
………………….

13
Process syllabus
Discussing process syllabus, Robinson (1991) states, “negotiation between the
students and the teacher is the key characteristic of this syllabus type.” This kind of
syllabus based on the competence that makes students to perform. In this type of
syllabus, students and teacher can negotiate the materials, the contents, and the
teaching methods that will conclude in a course. It means the designer does not need
to select the learning content but needs to provide a framework for both teacher and

learners.
In summary, there are many types of syllabus; all of them have advantages and
disadvantages. However, “Which syllabus type or types to employ will result from a
judicious consideration of the students‟ needs and objectives of the course, together
with the institutional bias of the teaching institution” (Robinson, 1991, p.41)
1.2.4. Approaches to ESP syllabus design
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987), there are three main types of
approaches to ESP syllabus design: language-centered, skills-centered and learning-
centered approach.

1.2.4.1. Language – centered approach
This approach is stated by Hutchinson and Waters (1987) as “the simplest kind
of course design process and the most familiar to English teachers. The language-
centered course design process aims to draw as direct connection as possible
between the analysis of the target situation and the content of the ESP course”.
They present this approach in the following diagram:
From the diagram, it is easy to find that this approach presents a logical
procedure because it begins with the learner, proceeds through various stages of
analysis to a syllabus and the accompanied materials, and ends with evaluation of
the syllabus items. However, Hutchinson and Waters criticized some weaknesses of
this approach.


14

Identify learners’ target situation
Select theoretical views
Of language
Create syllabus
Identify linguistic features of target situation

Design materials to exemplify syllabus items
Establish evaluation procedures to test
Acquistion of syllabus items

Figure2.1. A language-centered approach to course design

 Firstly, this approach starts from the learners and their needs, so, the learners
in this model are simply used as a means of identifying the target situation.
We know that, the learners play no further part in the process, they should be
considered at every stage of the process.
 Secondly, it is criticized for being a static and inflexible procedure because it
depends on the initial analysis of the target situation. It can respond to
unsuspected or developing influences.

15
 Thirdly, because of the dependence on the target situation, the learning
factors which contribute to the creation of any course are not considered to
be important at all.
 Finally, its analysis of the target situation data is only at the surface level, so,
it reveals little about the competence that underlines the performance.
1.2.4.2. Skill – centered approach
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) say that this approach to ESP has been widely
applied in a number of countries and it is founded on two fundamental principles,
they are theoretical and pragmatic. Based on Hutchinson and Waters‟ point of view,
the model of this approach is presented in figure 2.2 as follow:

Identify
target
situation
Analyse

skills/
Strategies
Required
To scope
In target
situation
Theoretcal views of learning
Theoretical views of language
Write
syllabus
Select
Texts
And
Write
Exercises
To focus
On skills/
Strategies
In syllabus
Establish
Evaluation
Procedures
Which
Require
The
Use of
Skills/
Strategies
In syllabus

Figure2.2. A skills-centered approach to course design

According to two authors Hutchinson and Waters (1987) this approach sees
the ESP course as helping learners to develop skills and strategies, which will
continuously develop after the ESP course. It aims at making the learners into better
processors of information. The roles of need analysis are providing a basis for

16
discovering the underlying competence that enables the learners to perform in the
target situation, and enabling the course designers to discover the potential
knowledge and abilities that the learners bring to the ESP classroom. Therefore, this
approach can take the learners more into account than the language-centered
approach. However, this model still shows its weaknesses because it approaches the
learners as a user of language rather than as a learner of language. The processes are
the processes of language use not of language learning.
1.2.4.3. Learning – centered approach
In the comparison with two approaches mentioned above, Hutchinson and
Waters (1987) think: “the skill-centered approach does not fully take the learner
into account because it still makes the ESP learning situation too dependent on the
target situation. The learner is used to identify and to analyze the target situation
needs. But then, as with the language-centered approach, the learner is discarded
and the target situation analysis is allowed to determine the content of the course
with little further reference to the learner”. While this approach focuses on not only
the target situation but also the learning situation needs. It “takes account of the
learner at every stage of the design process.” (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, p.74)
According to these authors (1987), “learning is not just a mental process; it is a
process of negotiation between individuals and society. Society sets the target (in
the case of ESP, performance in the target situation) and the individuals must do
their best to get as close to that target as is possible (or reject it)”. It means the
learners will find their own way to travel; the learners are not the only factor to

consider in the learning process, so the term learning-centered approach is used
instead of learner-centered. These viewpoints will show in figure 2.2 as follow:

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Identify learners
Analyse
Target
situation
Analyse
Learning
situation
Theoretical
Views of
learning
Theoretical
Views of
language
Identify attitudes/wants/
Potential of learners
Identify needs/potential/
Constraints of learning/
Teaching situation
Identify skills and knowledge
Needed to function in the
Target situation
Write syllabus/materials
To exploit the potential of
The learning situation of
The skills and knowledge
Required by the target

situation
Evaluation
Evaluation


Figure2.3. A learning-centered approach to course design

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) state that learning-centered approach has two
implications:
 Course design is negotiated process. No single factor has an outright
determining influence on the content of the course. The ESP learning
situation and the target situation will both influence the nature of the
syllabus, materials, methodology, and evaluation procedures. Similarly, each
of these components will influence and be influenced by the others.
 Course design is a dynamic process. It does not move in a linear fashion
from initial analysis to completed course. Needs and resources vary with
time. The course design, therefore, needs to have built-in feedback channels
to enable the course to respond to developments.


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1.2.5. Steps to design a syllabus
According to Graves‟ (1996) point of view, designing a syllabus will have
seven steps. They include needs assessment, determining goals and objectives,
conceptualizing content, selecting and developing materials and activities,
organization of content and activities, evaluation and consideration of resources and
constraints.
1.3. An overview of Needs analysis
1.3.1. Needs analysis in syllabus design
As mentioned above, need analysis is the first step to design a syllabus. “Need

analysis is the corner stone of ESP and leads to a very focused course”.
(Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1998, p.122)
Richards (2001) also defines need analysis as “The process of determining the
needs for which a learner or group of learners requires a language and arranging the
needs according to priorities”. When talking about the significance of need analysis
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) claim that: “If learners, sponsors and teachers know
why the learners need English, that awareness will have an influence on what will
be acceptable as reasonable content in the language course, and on the positive side:
what potential can be exploited.” It means needs is very important factor that a
needs analysis has to find out. Therefore, ESP designer should pay attention to
analyze learners‟ need and ESP procedure should be based on an analysis of
learners‟ need. This study is also carried out based on th needs of students of
Geography and of ESP teachers at TUE.
1.3.2. Types of needs
Regarding the types of needs, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) make a
distinction between target needs (what the learner needs to do in the target
situation) and learning needs (what the learner needs to do in order to learn).
Target needs
Target needs are divided into three terms: necessities, lacks and wants

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Necessities is “the type of need determined by the demands of target situation; that
is, what the learner has to know in order to function effectively in the target
situation” (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, p.55)
Lacks is “the gap” between what learners will achieve at the end of the course and
what he knows already. (Hutchinson, Water and Breen, 1979)
Wants is what the learner really wants to learn. Hutchinson and Waters (1987)
quoted Richterich‟s (1984) comment “Need does not exist independent of a person.
It is hoped who build their images of their needs on the basic of data relating to
themselves and their environment”. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) also give a

target situation analysis framework including:
Why is the language needed?
How will the language be used?
What will the content areas be?
Who will the learner use the language with?
Where will the language be used?
When will the language be used?
Learning needs
From Hutchinson and Water‟s (1987) view point, it is clear that target needs
can determine the destination, it can also act as a compass on the journey to give
general direction. But the designer must choose his/ her own route according to the
vehicles and the guides available (the condition of the learning situation), the
existing roads within the learner‟s mind (knowledge, skill and strategies) and their
motivation for traveling.
A list of guiding issues for analyzing learning needs is provided by Hutchinson
and Waters (1987:62) as below
Why are the learners taking the course?
How do the learners learn?
What resources are available?
Who are the learners?