Designing an ESP Speaking syllabus for the second-year students of Marine engine department at Maritime College No.I = Thiết kế chương trình nói tiếng anh chuyê

VIET NAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HA NOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES & INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST – GRADUATE STUDIES
*****************

NGUYỄN THI ̣ MINH THÁI

DESIGNING AN ESP SPEAKING SYLLABUS FOR THE
SECOND-YEAR STUDENTS OF MARINE ENGINE
DEPARTMENT AT MARITIME COLLEGE NO.I
(THIẾT KẾ CHƯƠNG TRÌNH NĨI TIẾNG ANH CHUYÊN NGÀNH MÁY
CHO SINH VIÊN NĂM THỨ HAI KHOA MÁY TÀU BIỂN,
TRƯỜNG CAO ĐẲNG HÀNG HẢI I)

M.A MINOR THESIS

Field: English Language Teaching Methodolog
Code: 601410

HANOI, 2012


VIET NAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HA NOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES & INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST – GRADUATE STUDIES
*****************

NGUYỄN THI ̣ MINH THÁI

DESIGNING AN ESP SPEAKING SYLLABUS FOR THE
SECOND-YEAR STUDENTS OF MARINE ENGINE

DEPARTMENT AT MARITIME COLLEGE NO.I
(THIẾT KẾ CHƯƠNG TRÌNH NĨI TIẾNG ANH CHUYÊN NGÀNH MÁY
CHO SINH VIÊN NĂM THỨ HAI KHOA MÁY TÀU BIỂN,
TRƯỜNG CAO ĐẲNG HÀNG HẢI I)

M.A MINOR THESIS

Field: English Language Teaching Methodolog
Code: 601410
Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Hoàng Văn Vân

HANOI, 2012


TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART A: INTRODUCTION..............................................................................

1

1. Rationale............................................................................................................

1

2. Aims and objectives of the study.......................................................................

2

3. Research questions............................................................................................

3

4. Scope of the study.............................................................................................

3

5. Methods of the study.........................................................................................

3

6. Design of the study............................................................................................

4

PART B: DEVELOPMENT...........................................................................

5

CHAPTER I: LITERATURE REVIEW .........................................................

5

1.1. Previous studies ……………………………………………………………

5

1.2. Syllabus Design..............................................................................................

5

1.2.1 Definitions of a syllabus .......................................................................

5

1.2.2. Approaches to Syllabus Design in ESP................................................

6

1.2.2.1. Language-centred approach....................................................

6

1.2.2.2. Skills-centred approach...........................................................

7

1.2.2.3 Learning-centred approach......................................................

7

1.2.3. Types of syllabus..................................................................................

8

1.2.3.1. Structural /grammatical syllabus.............................................

8

1.2.3.2. Functional Notional syllabus...................................................

9

vi


1.2.3.3. Situational syllabus..................................................................

9

1.2.3.4. Topical syllabus.......................................................................

10

1.2.3.5. Task-based syllabus.................................................................

10

1.2.3.6. Principle to syllabus choice.....................................................

11

1.3. Overview of ESP……………………………………………………………

12

1.31. Definition of ESP................................................................................

12

1.3.2. Benefits of ESP....................................................................................

13

1.3.3. Types of ESP........................................................................................

14

1.3.4. Need analysis in ESP............................................................................

15

1.3.4.1. The definition of needs...........................................................

15

1.3.4.2. The definition of needs analysis...............................................

15

1.3.4.3. The purposes of needs analysis................................................

16

1.3.4.4. Target situation analysis..........................................................

16

1.3.4.5. Present situation analysis.........................................................

17

1.3.4.6. Learning needs analysis...........................................................

17

1.4. Speaking ……………………………………………………………………

17

1.4.1. Definitions of speaking ………………………………………………

17

1.4.2. Importance of speaking ……………………………………………

18

1.4.3. Speaking activities to be employed in the syllabus …………………

18

1.5. Summary of chapter I...................................................................................

20

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CHAPTER II: Syllabus design ………………………………………………

21

2.1. Introduction……………………………………………………………….

21

2.2. Before-designing……………………………………………………...........

21

2.2.1. Need Analysis ......................................................................................

21

2.2.1.1. Situation Analysis...............................................................

21

2.2.1.2. Needs analysis……………………………………………

24

2.2.1.3. The findings ……………………………………………..

30

2.2.2. Aims and objectives of the syllabus………………………………….

32

2.2.2.1. The aims of second-year ESP speaking syllabus…………

32

2.2.2.2. The objectives of the syllabus………………………………

32

2.3. While-designing ……………………………………………………………

33

2.3.1. The content of the Proposed ESP Speaking Syllabus for second-

33

year students of Marine Department at MCI……………………………….
2.3.1.1. General consideration............................................................

33

2.3.1.2. Some specific topics included in the syllabus......................

33

2.3.1.3. The language functions in the syllabus……………………

34

2.3.1.4. The timing of the syllabus...................................................

34

2.3.1.5. The organization of the syllabus..........................................

34

2.3.2. Methodology.....................................................................................

2.3.3. A suggested speaking syllabus for second-year students of Marine

viii

35


Engine Department at Maritime College No.I ...........................................

35

2.3.4. Test for student progress/syllabus effectiveness ................................

40

2.3.4.1 Testing procedure ....................................................................

40

2.3.4.2. Form of testing .......................................................................

40

2.3.4.3. Sample of a speaking test .......................................................

40

2.3.4.4. Marking scales for Speaking test …………………………

40

PART C: CONCLUSION...................................................................................

42

1. Summary of the study………………………………………………………..

42

2. Limitations of the study………………………………………………………

42

3. Suggestions for further study………………………………………………...

43

4. Guidelines on implication…………………………………………………….

43

Reference

i

APPENDIX 1

A student questionnaire

iii

APPENDIX 2

A questionnaire for teachers of English

xi

APPENDIX 3

A questionnaire for ex-students working onboard

xv

ix


PART A: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
In the context of globalization, English has become more and more important for
everybody all over the world, especially for those who work in an international
environment. Seafarers are one of the most typical examples. Nowadays we can see
different nationalities on board. This cross-cultural labour mobility makes maritime

English teachers aware that the quality of cadets in the global seafarer‟s community
needs a proper teaching pedagogy. For this reason, much attention has been paid to the
teaching and learning English at MCI. According to the curriculum, students at MCI
have to study English for 5 semesters of which two semesters are for General English
and three for English for Specific Purposes (ESP). Each semester consists of 60 periods.
After completing this course, their English proficiency will reach Intermediate level by
Vietnamese standard.
Although many seafarers have brought some English knowledge to their workplaces,
their language skills may not be sufficient for communicating instructions and
commands. This deficiency is most apparent among multi-national crews in emergency
situations when the use of English is critical. The International Maritime Human Element
Bulletin (Issue No. 14 May 2007) asserts:
The ability to properly convey information by word of mouth and/or by written
communication is important not only to the safety of ships‟ crews, visitors and passengers, but
also to the wellbeing of crews. It would seem that the standard of English of some seafarers is
so bad that they have difficulty communicating not only between themselves but also with
agencies outside the ship (p.5).

Students of MCI also have the same problem after graduating. They meet difficulty
finding out a job onboard a foreign ship because of their poor English proficiency. Some
of them who are working onboard say that the ESP they have learnt at MCI does not
meet the demand of their current work. When they work on a ship (i.e. they live and
work in an international environment), English becomes their most important
communication instrument and speaking and listening become their essential skills to
carry out their daily communication. The ESP course at MCI seems to be not practical

1


enough for them to survive on board a ship. The question here is “What are causes of this

problem?” The answer will be addressed below.
The course book in use for teaching English to the second-year students of Marine
Engine Department in MCI is named Basic English Marine Engine Students. This book
was written by teachers of the English Division in MCI. It consists of 8 units which are
taught in two semesters. Each unit is concerned with one theme familiar with oilers‟
actual job. Every unit includes a text on the topic and some related exercises followed.
The themes of these units are practical for marine engine students. They are, however,
poorly designed with very few communicative tasks for students to develop their
language skills. Furthermore, most ESP teachers follow the fixed order offered in the
course book which is: vocabulary  text  questions about the text  translation. This
has undoubtedly diminished the chances for students to improve four language skills
equally. It seems that vocabulary, reading and translation are the foci that students have
to deal with throughout the course. Many students, after the ESP course, complain about
their inability to speak and listen properly. Also, complaints from the shipping
companies about their employees who fail to communicate successfully in their job are
not uncommon. Ex-students who graduated from MCI and are now working onboard
point out that what they achieved after their ESP courses is not practical for their current
jobs. The problem here is, among four language skills, speaking and listening are more
necessary for Marine Engine students in there future jobs but current ESP courses
haven‟t met this requirement.
Based on that fact, this thesis attempts to propose an ESP speaking syllabus for secondyear students of Marine Engine students in MCI with the aim at improving their speaking
skills so that after finishing the course they will be able to carry out simple conversations
with their colleagues in English on board.
2. Aim and objectives of the study
As mentioned above, the study aims at designing an ESP speaking syllabus for the
second-year students of Marine Engine Department at Maritime College No.I.
To achieve this aim, the study first attempts to look at the current ESP course for secondyear students of Marine Engine Students in MCI to see if it meets the students‟ needs of

2

the students. Then it will carry out a research to identify the students‟ needs. The final
stage is devoted to proposing an ESP speaking syllabus for the second-year students of
the Marine Engine Department at Maritime College No. I.
3. Research questions
To make the tasks manageable, the following questions are raised for exploration:
1. Does the current ESP course for second-year students of Marine Engine
Students in MCI meet the students‟ needs to learn?
2. What are the learning needs of the second-year students of Marine Engine
Department in MCI in terms of present situation needs and target situation
needs?
3. How can the ESP speaking syllabus be designed to meet the demand of the
learning needs of the students?
Of these three questions, question 3 is the main focus.
4. Scope of the study
As set in the aim and the objectives which are operationalized in the research questions
above, this study will confine itself to designing an ESP speaking syllabus for the
second-year students of Marine Engine Department at Maritime College No.I. However,
one cannot design a viable syllabus without some understanding about the current
situation of the institution, the teachers, the students and their needs to learn English.
These are also parts of the research which help to provide the backgrounds of the
research.
5. Methods of the study
This study uses both qualitative and quantitative research methods. Qualitative method is
concerned with the researcher‟s reading the literature on syllabus and ESP syllabus
design in order to establish the senses in which the term ESP speaking syllabus is
employed. Quantitative method is used to see whether students need to learn English,
whether their needs are real, and what level of proficiency is required from them after
they graduate from the college, etc.

3


6. Design of the study
The study is divided into three parts:
 Part A - INTRODUCTION – includes the rationale, the objectives, the research
questions, the scope, the methods and the design of the study.
 Part B - DEVELOPMENT – consists of 2 chapters:
- Chapter 1 provides an overview of syllabus design, ESP and speaking skill.
- Chapter 2 presents a small research on MCI students‟ needs to learn English
in general and speaking skills in particular Then it focuses in the presenting
and discussing on how the ESP speaking syllabus for second-year students of
Marine Engine Department at MCI is designed.
 Part C – CONCLUSION – summarizes the main contents which have been
studied, presents the limitations of the study and makes some suggestions for
further study.

4


PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1

LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter is concerned with reviewing some previous studies and examining the
notions of syllabus, the overview of ESP, and the notion of speaking.

1.1.

Previous studies

In the frame of M.A. thesis at Vietnam National University, Hanoi – University of

Languages and International Studies, there were some previous studies of designing an
ESP speaking syllabus. Works by Nguyen Kieu Oanh (2005) and Nguyen Thanh Giang
(2007) are some of typical examples. They are all interested in the this issue. Nguyen
Thanh Giang (2007) has conducted the study on the application of the learner-centred
approach to designing a speaking syllabus for the third-year students in teacher-training
section. Based on the situational analysis and experience from current syllabus, a suitable
syllabus framework was developed, he justified his decisions regarding the content of the
course, how it is structured, the learning and teaching activities, how the students are
selected, assessed and possible feedback for the improvements of the syllabus. Nguyen
Kieu Oanh (2005) was also interested in designing an ESP speaking syllabus and she also
proposed a suggested syllabus by needs analysis through survey questionnaires and semistructured interview questions. These data collection instruments has supported her with
much useful information as the basis for designing the ESP speaking syllabus. For this
reason, I will also use questionnaires as my data collection instrment but the candidates in
the questionnaires are different. Beside undergraduates and graduates, I will give another
questionnaire to teachesr of English because they have known students very well.

1.2.

Syllabus Design

1.2.1. Definition of a syllabus
There seems to be as many definitions as definers, each apparently covering similar
ground, whilst containing various aspects and differences in emphasis. For example,
Pienemann (1985:23) sees the syllabus as “the selection and grading of linguistic
teaching objectives”, while for Breen (1984:47) it is a plan of what is to be achieved

5

through our teaching and our students‟ learning”. Hutchinson and Waters (1987:80)
define syllabus as “a document which says what will (or at least what should) be learnt”
whereas its function is “to specify what is to be taught and in what order” (Prabhu, 1984).
Despite these difficulties, a working understanding of what a syllabus means in this
thesis is needed. I will here follow Candlin‟s summary of a syllabus.
Syllabuses are concerned with the specification and planning of what is to be learned,
frequently set down in some written form as prescriptions for action by teachers and learners.
They have, traditionally, the mark of authority. They are concerned with the achievement of
ends, often, though not always, associated with the pursuance of particular means (Candlin,
1984:30).

While acknowledging that this summary can be challenged, I feel it recognizes most of
the academic and social implications of syllabuses without specifically prescribing the
results and processes of syllabus design. It thus provides a sufficiently broad base from
which to continue my research.
1.2.2. Approaches to ESP Syllabus Design
So far, there have been many different approaches to language syllabus design. Wilkins
(1976) makes a distinction between analytic and synthetic approaches. In contrasts,
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) identify three main approaches to ESP syllabus design as:
the language-centred, skills-centred and learning-centred. These are discussed below.
1.2.2.1. Language-centred approach
This process is the simplest and probably the most familiar to English teachers. It is
particularly prevalent in ESP. Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 65) point out that this
design process “aims to draw as direct a connection as possible between the analysis of
the target situation and the content of the ESP course”. It proceeds as follow:
1. Identify learners‟ target situation + Select theoretical views of language
2. Identify linguistic features of target situation
3. Create syllabus
4. Design materials to exemplify syllabus items

6


5. Establish evaluation procedures to test acquisition of syllabus items
This approach may seem to be a very logical procedure. It starts with the learner,
proceeds through various stages of analysis to a syllabus, thence to materials in use in the
classroom and finally to evaluation of mastery of the syllabus items.
Although this approach seems to be logical and straightforward, it also has a number of
weaknesses: First, it starts from the learners and their needs, but it is, in fact, not learnercentred in any meaningful sense of the term because the learners is simply used as a
means of identifying the target situation. Second, it can also be criticized for being a
static and inflexible procedure. Third, it appears to be a systematic analysis and
presentation of language data will produce systematic learning in the learner. Finally, its
analysis of target situation data is only at the surface level and reveals very little about the
competence that underlines the performance.
1.2.2.2. Skills- centred approach
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 69) “a skills-centred approach aims to get
away from the surface performance data and look at the competence that underlines the
performance”. Thus, a skills-centred course will present its learning objectives in terms
of both performance and competence. It can be seen as helping learners to develop skills
and strategies which will continue to develop after the ESP course itself with the aim of
not providing a specified group of linguistic knowledge but making the learners into
better processors of information. However, it still approaches the learner as a user of
language rather than as a learner of language and it is concerned with the process of
language use not of language learning. It proceeds as follow:
1. Identify target situation
2. Analyze skills/ strategies required to cope in target situation + theoretical reviews
of language + theoretical reviews of learning
3. Write syllabus
4. Select texts and write exercises to focus on skills/ strategies in syllabus

5. Establish evaluation procedures which require the use of skills/ strategies in
syllabus

7


1.2.2.3. Learning- centred approach
Hutchinson and Waters (1987:72) state “learning is seen as process in which the learners
use what knowledge or skills they have in order to make sense of the flow of new
information”. In this approach, learners are not the only concern of the learning process,
and learning process is not totally decided and based on the learners but should be seen in
the context where it take place. This approach takes account of the learners at every stage
of the design process and it does not only consider the learners‟ competence but also how
the learners acquire that competence.
The learning-centred course design process is shown as:
1. Identify learners
2. Analyze learning situation (+ theoretical views of learning) + analyze target
situation (+ theoretical views of language)
3. Identify attitudes/ wants/ potentials of learners; identify needs/ potential/
constraints of learning/ teaching situation + identify skills and knowledge needed
to function in the target situation
4. Write syllabus/ materials to exploit the potential of the learning situation in the
acquisition of the skills and knowledge required by the target situation
5. Evaluation
6. (if needed, back to the 2nd step)
To sum up, the learning-centred approach pays attention to competence and performance
of the learners, while the skills-centred approach views learner as a user rather than a
learner of language. The language-centred approach makes the ESP course too
dependent on the target situation. Each approach has its own advantages as well as the
drawbacks. Having perceived the advantages of the learning-centred approach, I take this

approach as the basis for designing an ESP syllabus for the second - year students of
Marine Engine Department at MCI.
1.2.3. Types of syllabus
Different types of syllabus and multiple approaches to classify them are mentioned by
many authors. So far, syllabi have been organized around structures (Ellis, 1997), words

8


(Willis, 1990), notions and functions (Finnochiaro & Brumfit, 1983; Wilkins, 1976),
skills (Johnson, 1996), and tasks (Long & Crookes, 1993). White (1988) provides a
diagram for organizing the different options in syllabus design including content, skill
and method. Robinson (1991) revises this diagram and gives her division of syllabus into
content-based syllabus, skill-based syllabus, and method-based syllabus.
1.2.3.1. Structural /grammatical syllabus
Traditionally, structural syllabus is also called grammatical one. This is one of the most
popular ways of designing syllabus for long because grammatical forms are the key to
master a language. Structural syllabus focuses on teaching students the forms, structures
and grammatical of language such as how to use and form nouns, verbs, adjectives or
tenses, voice….Wilkin (1983: 83) stated that the main point of grammatical syllabus is
“teaching the students how to form correctly; how, that is, to manipulate the structures
of the language easily and without error”.
The strongest point of this syllabus is that the strategy of teaching based on the principle
of working from the familiar to the unfamiliar, and using the familiar to teach the
unfamiliar so that the learners find easy to learn. However, the weak point of this type is
that only one aspect of language – formal grammar is concerned. So the learners may not
be able to use the linguistic knowledge in actual communication. Besides, the structure
syllabus seems to bias the teacher-centered rather than the learned-centered approach so
it is not highly appropriate in teaching language nowadays.
1.2.3.2. Functional Notional syllabus

In contrast with the structural syllabus, functional-notional one emphasizes the real
communicative function of language. The content of the language teaching is a collection
of the functions that usually occur in daily life, for example: informing, agreeing,
apologizing, requesting, and so on. And the notions of the language relating to size, age,
color, time, comparison….The advantage of this type of syllabus is that learners are easy
to use their language in the communicative situations with the useful functions or
notions. However, functions and notions are quite abstract and some learners may have
difficulties thinking of communicative functions outside a specific context. And the

9


different kinds of structures are often used to express the same communicative function,
so that it is difficult to follow a progression from simpler to more complex structures.
1.2.3.3. Situational syllabus
Situational syllabus focuses on the content of the language teaching that collects the real
or imaginary situations in which language is used. The language interactions are closely
related to social context and the participants can understand them in the certain context or
setting. So it usually concerns with the question “when and where the learner will need
the target language” and attempts to specify the situations such as seeing the dentist,
buying books at the bookstore, asking the directions, checking in the airport and so on.
The advantage of this type of syllabus is that the content is quite relevant to the interests
and needs of the learners. It is easy for the learners to master and communicate the
language that they are going to use in the real situation. But the limit of this syllabus is
the unpredictable situation and the problem of grading of the items, “there is principle no
way to grade situation in term of difficulty or as to which ones need to be learned before
others” (Long and Crookes: 1993).
1.2.3.4. Topical syllabus
Topical syllabus uses topics or themes as its starting points. The syllabus designers select
the topics that are relevant and necessary for the learners. Resulting of this is the learners

will be interested in the lessons because of their purposes relating to the topics. As
Robinson(1931: 37) stated about this kind of syllabus: “ It motivates the students and as
a basic for the „real syllabus‟ of the language forms, tasks or whatever the course
designers wish to focus on”.
Additionally, Robinson (1991: 36) also emphasized that “More important for ESP,
however, is the topic-based syllabus, which deploys the content of the students‟ work or
specialist duty. One objective of the ESP course may, in fact, be to teach this specialist
content”. This is the strongest point of the topical syllabus. For this reason, I decided to
apply this type of syllabus into designing the ESP speaking syllabus for 2nd year students
of Marine Engine Department of MCI.

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1.2.3.5. Task-based syllabus
In task-based syllabus, the activities or tasks are considered the main organizing
principle. The tasks are focused rather than the language or topics. They are a series of
complex and purposeful tasks that the students want to practice with the language they
are learning, for instant, applying for a job, talking to a social worker, getting housing
information over the telephone so on. Concerning about this syllabus, Robinson stated:
“The procedural or task syllabus, consisting a set of tasks or activities ordered according to
cognitive difficulty. Class time is devoted to performance of the task and attention is only
directed to language if this is necessary for completion of the task. A major concern
throughout is that students understand the task and what they are doing, and do not act in
mechanical way” (Robinson 1991: 39).

Additionally, task-based syllabus shares a concern with the classroom processes which
stimulate learning. The focus is on the linguistic items that students will learn or the
communicative skills that they will be able to display as a result of instruction. The
syllabus consists of the specification of the tasks and activities that learners will engage it

in class. However, the problem for the task-based syllabus designer is that a variety of
factors will interact to determine task difficulty: the degree of contextual support and the
amount of assistance provided to the learner, the cognitive difficulty of the task, the
complexity of the language, the amount and type of background knowledge required.
1.2.3.6. Principles to syllabus choice
It is obvious that there is hardly any single type of syllabus content, which can
be exclusively used in actual teaching settings for: Syllabi are usually combined in a
more or less integrated ways, with one type as organizing basis around which the others
are arranged and related (Krahnke, K.1994). Thus, before making a final decision of
the syllabus type or types chosen, several questions must be posed. For instance, what
kinds of syllabus types can lead to the outcome desired? Should it be a product or
process oriented syllabus? What are the objectives of the course as well as the needs of
the students? This leads to an examination of the ranking of various elements, which
will possibly be integrated. As White (1988: 92) comments:
A complete syllabus specification will include all five aspects: structure, function, situation,

11


topic, and skills. The difference between syllabuses will lie in the priority given to each of
these aspects.

Attempting to combine the various aspects of language has also been exemplified
specifically by Hutchinson and Waters (1986). In writing a functional syllabus, a
structural syllabus is automatically produced since every function is realized by one or
more structures. Likewise, text must be about something, resulting in the fact that all
textbooks have „willy-nilly‟ a topical syllabus. As follow:
Any teaching material must, in reality, operate several syllabuses at the same time. One of
them will probably be used as a principle organizing feature, but the others are still there,
even when they are not taken into account in the organization of the material.

Krahnke (1994) also comes to the same conclusion with Hutchinson and Waters in
choosing and integrating syllabi: In discussing syllabus choice and design, it should be
kept in mind that the issue is not which type to choose but which types, and how to relate
them to each other. In conclusion, it is sensible to take an eclectic approach, taking what
is useful from each theory and trusting also in the evidence of your own experience as a
teacher.

1.3.

Overview of ESP

1.3.1. Definition of ESP
ESP has become an essential and innovative activity with the teaching of English as a
foreign language today. In ESP setting, there is a wide range of different definitions
depending on researchers‟ standpoints and approaches to the target issue or their different
emphases on the variety of elements that characterize ESP. Robinson (1991:2) states:
“ESP is normally goal directed and an ESP course is based on a need analysis, which
specify as closely as possible what exactly is that students have to do through the medium
of English”.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) see ESP as an approach rather than a product, by which
they mean that ESP is not a particular kind of language or methodology. They point out
that ESP is an approach to language learning, which is based on learner need. “ESP is an
approach to language teaching which aims to meet the needs of particular learners”
Hutchinson and Waters (1987:21). The foundation of all ESP is the simple question:

12


Why does this learner need to learn a foreign language? They conclude: “ESP, then, is an

approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based
on the learner‟s reason for learning” Hutchinson and Waters (1987:19).
From a different perspective, the definition proposed by Dudley-Evans and John
(1998:4) seems more adequate and detailed. In their definition, they use absolute and
variable characteristics:
1. Absolute characteristics:
-

ESP is designed to meet specific needs of the learner;

-

ESP makers use of the underlying methodology and activities of the disciplines it

serves;
-

ESP is centred on the language (grammar, lexis, and register), skills, discourse

and genres appropriate to these activities.
2. Variable characteristics:
-

ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines;

-

ESP may use, in specific teaching situation, a different methodology from that of

general English;

-

ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in

a professional work situation. It could, however, be used for learners at secondary school
level;

-

ESP generally designed for intermediate or advanced students. Most ESP courses

assume basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used with beginners.
1.3.2. Benefits of ESP
There are clear advantages in setting up an ESP course where students have specific
needs. Strevens (1988) summarizes the advantages of ESP with the following four
points:
-

being focused on the learners‟ need, it wastes no time;

-

it is relevant to the learner;

-

it is successful in imparting learning;

-

it is more cost-effective than „General-English‟.

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ESP certainly brings about a number of benefits while it enables learners to accomplish
certain skills and aspects of language that they need. Firstly, it is learning speed for ESP
results in faster acquisition of required linguistic items: trainees just learn what they need,
when they need it, in authentic, content-based and intensive context. In addition, trainees
are prepared for further job-related training in English, which will result in better
performance since no time is wasted in acquiring necessary language.
Secondly, it is learning efficiency for trainees can make the maximal use of their learning
resources on an ESP course. Useful, specific, and pre-identified linguistic items and skills
needed for the purpose of learning are acquired during the course. Needless to say, the
needs analysis is of central magnitude here as it enables trainers to determine the specific
requirements of trainees.
Thirdly, it is the learning effectiveness that on the completion of on ESP course, trainees
are ready to use language appropriately in job-related tasks, the tasks which have been
previously identified by means of a comprehensive needs analysis. As such, when
completing the ESP course, the English acquired by trainees can be instantly useful in the
employment context.
1.3.3. Types of ESP
According to Dudley-Evans and John (1998:6), ESP is divided into two branches,
namely English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes
(EOP). English for Academic Purposes is further divided into: English for Academic
Science and Technology, English for Academic Medical Purposes, English for
Academic Legal Purposes and English for Management, Finance and Economics.
English for Occupational Purposes is also further divided into: English for Professional
Purposes and English for Vocational Purposes. Within English for Professional
Purposes, there are two sub-sections: English for Medical Purposes and English for

Business Purposes.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987:16) identify three types of ESP as: English for the Science
and Technology (EST), English for Business and Economics (EBE) and English for the
Social Sciences (ESS). Each of these subject areas is further divided into two branches:
English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP).

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Nevertheless, Hutchinson and Waters do emphasize that there do not exist a clear
distinction between EAP and EOP because: “people can work and study simultaneously;
it is likely that in many cases the language learnt for immediate use in a study
environment will be used later when the students take up, or return to a job”.
In sum, studying various types of ESP will provide ESP teachers with an overall picture
of the group of learners they are going to work with. This is the initial step which enables
the ESP teachers to succeed in conducting a needs analysis in order to design an
appropriate ESP course for their target students.
Based on the classification of ESP above, Maritime English could be seen as English for
the Science and Technology in general and English for Occupational Purposes in detail.
1.3.4. Needs analysis in ESP
1.3.4.1.

The definition of needs

“Needs are the terms used to refer to wants, desires, demands, expectation, motivations,
lacks, constraints, and requirement” (Brindley, 1989: 28). Needs are often described in
terms of linguistic deficiency, that is, as describing the difference between what a learner
can presently do in a language and what he or she should be able to do. This suggests that
needs have objective reality and are simply there waiting to be identified and analyzed.
“Needs are described as objective and subjective” (Brindley, 1989: 65), “perceived and

felt” (Berwick, 1989:55), “target situation/goal oriented and learning, process-oriented
and product oriented” (Brindley, 1989:63); in addition, “there are necessities, wants and
lacks” (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987:55).
1.3.4.2.

The definition of needs analysis

An important principle of ESP approaches to language teaching is that the purposes for
which a learner needs a language rather than a syllabus reflecting the structure of general
English should be used in planning an English course. Rather than developing around an
analysis of the language, an ESP approach starts instead with an analysis of the learners‟
needs. Different types of students have different language needs and what they are taught
should be restricted to what they need. These needs are fairly specific; they can be
identified and they should determine the content of any course.

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In ESP, learners‟ needs are often described in terms of performance, that is in terms of
what the learner will be able to do with the language at the end of the course of study.
Whereas in a General English course the goal is usually an overall mastery of the
language that can be tested on a global language test, the goal of ESP course is to prepare
the learners to carry out a specific task or set of tasks. Robinson (1980: 11) comments:
The students of ESP are usually studying to perform a role. The measure of success for
students learning English for hotel waiters, or the English for food technology, is
whether they can perform convincingly as hotel waiters in English or whether they can
act appropriately as food technologists in English.

These authors are supported by Richards (2001), who see needs analysis procedures used
to collect information about learners‟ needs or Nunan who suggests needs analysis “is a

set of procedures for specifying the parameters for a course of study” (1988: 43).
1.3.4.3.

The purposes of needs analysis

Needs analysis in language teaching may be used for a number of different purposes.
Richards (2001:53) suggests a list of such purposes as follows:
 To help determine if an existing course adequately addresses the needs of potential
customers;
 To determine which students from a group are most in need of training in particular
language skills;
 To identify a change of direction that people in reference group feel is important;
 To identify a gap between what students are able to do and what they need to be
able to do; and
 To collect information about a particular problem learners are experiencing.
Needs analysis may take place prior, during or after a language program.
Needs analysis is fundamental in Business English as learners‟ needs can be much more
varied and the spectrum of language and skills is less predictable. Dudley Evans and St
John (1998: 57) point out that “the approach to needs analysis depends on the situation
and context” and suggest three types of needs analysis. A Target Situation Analysis
(TSA) includes objective, perceived and product-oriented needs; a Learning Situation
Analysis (LSA) includes subjective, felt and process-oriented needs; a Present Situation

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Analysis (PSA) estimates strengths and weaknesses in language, skills, learning
experience.
1.3.4.4.

Target Situation Analysis

As noted by Pibeam (1979), Target Situation Analysis is a target profile of language
skills which sets down the actual activities that the participants have to carry out or a
needs analysis which focuses on students‟ needs at the end of a language course can be
called a target Situation analysis. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) hold that the analysis of
target situation needs is in essence a matter of asking questions about the target situation
and the attitude towards that situation of various participants in the learning process.
1.3.4.5.

Present Situation Analysis

Proposed by Pilbeam (1979), Present Situation Analysis is a profile of personal ability in
which the participants‟ proficiency in these activities is evaluated. Richterich and
Chancerel (1977) share the same idea as they state that a Present Situation Analysis
concerns the students‟ state of language development at the beginning of the language
course.
„A Present Situation Analysis seeks to establish what the students are likely at the start of
their language course, investing their strengths and their weaknesses‟ (Robinson,
1991:9). Richterich and Chancerel (1987) suggest that to establish the Present Situation
Analysis there are three basic information sources: the students themselves, the language
teaching establishment and the user institution. For each of these we shall seek
information regarding their respective level of ability: their resources, their views on
language teaching and learning. We might also study the surrounding society and culture,
their attitude held towards English and towards their learning and use of a foreign
language.
1.3.4.6.

Learning Needs Analysis

Target Situation Analysis and Present Situation Analysis help to point out the learners‟
gaps in their linguistic competence and performance as well as constraint of learning
conditions particularly of time and money. According to Hutchinson and Waters, in
order to solve these problems, Learning Needs Analysis should be carried out. “The
whole ESP process is concerned not with knowing or doing, but with learning.” (1987:

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61). The Target Situation Analysis can determine destination but we must choose our
route. The needs, potential and constrains of the route must also taken into account, if we
are going to have any useful analysis of learners‟ needs (1987: 61).

1.4.

Speaking

1.3.1 Definitions of speaking
Speaking is “the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and
non verbal symbols, in a variety contexts” (Chaney, 1998: 13). Bailey (2005: 2) shares
the same view that “speaking is the productive, oral skill. It consists of producing
systematic verbal utterances to convey meaning.”
In addition, Florez (1991: 1) defines speaking as “an interactive process of constructing
meaning that involves producing and receiving and processing information” (cited in
Bailey, 2005:2).
According to Mackey (1965) “ oral expression involves not only the use of the right
sounds in the right patterns of rhythm and intonation, but also a choice of words and
inflections in the right order to convey the right meaning”, (cited in Bygate, 1987:5).
From the above definitions, it can be concluded that speaking is the productive skill used
to convey meaning.

1.3.2. Importance of speaking in foreign language learning
From the teaching point of view, language skills consist of four macro skills: listening,
speaking, reading and writing. Those four skills have a supportive relationship. Of those four
skills, speaking plays the most important role since it is fundamental to human
communication (Ur, 1996: 120). It can not be denied that in our daily lives, people spend
more time on speaking rather than on writing.
In social contexts, speaking is particularly useful as it is the key to communication. Kayi
(2006) and Bygate (1987) share the same view that the learners need to have ability to speak
confidently to carry their most basic transactions. In short, because of the importance of oral
skill in language teaching and learning, it is vital that speaking skill should be paid great
attention to.

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1.3.3. Speaking activities to be employed in the syllabus
Speaking activities often just provide a scenario for interaction whereas learners might
find it helpful to consider first what the features of a successful interaction would be.
This would focus their attention on appropriate language and skills, and provide a basis
for evaluation at the feedback stage.


Role-play: The students in the class are divided into pairs or groups and given

situations and roles to act out.
Role-play is relatively free acting out of specified roles and functions. Distinguished
from cued dialogues, cueing is provided only minimally at the beginning, and not during
the activities.
According to Ellis and Johnson (1994) getting students to role-play dialogue has
various advantages. Firstly, it is enjoyable so it is likely to motivate students. Secondly,

and more importantly, it should help students to realize how to discrete bits of language
“fit together” in real life use. Thirdly, role-play gives students an opportunity to
develop fluency and confidence. Finally, students' awareness of cultural differences in
the international business environment should increase as you point out inappropriate
behavior for specific situations. In conclusion, since role-play involves simulated real
life language use, it should be the mainstay of classroom practice.



Problem solving: The class is divided into groups of about four students and is

given “problems”. Each group selects a representative to report in front of the class after
working out a solution to that problem.
Problem solving has the following features:
-

Activity involving specific problems and limitations of means to resolve it
require cooperative action on part of participants in a small or large group.

-

Problem solving group techniques focus on the group‟s solution of a
specified problem. Problem solving techniques center students' attention on
meaningful cognitive challenges and not so much on grammatical or
phonological forms.



Discussion: groups of four or five students are working on a topic of common

interest for ten or fifteen minutes. A representative is selected in the group to report what
they have discussed.

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