Nghiên cứu những khó khăn trong việc học từ vựng tiếng Anh chuyên ngành của sinh viên năm thứ hai ngành điều khiển tàu biển tại trường Cao đẳng nghề Bách nghệ H

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Declaration of originality
i
Acknowledgement
ii
Abstract
iii
Table of contents
iv
List of abbreviations
vii
List of tables and charts
viii
Part 1: Introduction
1
1. Rationale of the study
1
2. Aims of the study
2
3. Scope of the study
2
4. Methods of the study
2
5. Significance of the study
3
6. Design of the study
3

Part 2: Development
4
Chapter 1: Literature review
4
1.1. English for Special Purposes
4
1.1.1. Definition of ESP
4
1.1.2. Classification of ESP
5
1.1.3. Maritime English
6
1.1.4. The requirements for ESP teachers
6
1.2. Terminology
7
1.2.1. Definition of terminology
7
1.2.2. Characteristics of terminology
8
1.3. Vocabulary
8
1.3.1. Definition of words
8
1.3.2. Classification of words
9
1.3.3. Four strands in learning vocabulary
9
1.4. Factors affecting vocabulary acquisition
10

1.4.1. Learner styles and learner strategies
10

7
1.4.2. Materials
11
1.4.3. Pronunciation and spelling
12
1.4.4. Prototypes
12
1.4.5. Contextualization
13
1.4.6. Learner autonomy
13
1.5. Strategies to enhance students‟ vocabulary
14
1.5.1. Developing a variety of techniques for the teaching of meaning
14
1.5.2. Encouraging the development of effective strategies
14
1.5.3. Exposing learners to vocabulary through reading and training lexical
inferencing

14
1.5.4. Teaching the effective use of dictionaries
14
1.5.5. Evaluating the vocabulary component of course books
15
1.5.6. Teaching vocabulary explicitly through a range of activity types
15

1.5.7. Developing resources for vocabulary teaching
15
1.6. Summary
15
Chapter 2: Methodology
16
2.1. Context of the study
16
2.2. Research question
16
2.3. Subjects of the study
17
2.4. Data collection instruments
17
2.4.1. Questionnaire
17
2.4.2. Test
17
2.4.3. Interview
18
2.5. Data collection procedure
18
Chapter 3: Data analysis, major findings and suggested solutions
19
3.1. Data analysis
19
3.1.1. Questionnaire
19
3.1.2. Test
26

3.1.3. Interview
30
3.2. Major findings
32
3.2.1. Lack of necessary GE knowledge
32

8
3.2.2. ESP vocabulary pronunciation and meanings
32
3.2.3. Inappropriate materials
32
3.2.4. Lack of effective strategies for learning ESP vocabulary
33
3.2.5. Difficulties in teaching ESP words
33
3.2.6. Lack of learner autonomy
33
3.3. Suggested solutions
34
3.3.1. Enhancing the necessary GE knowledge
34
3.3.2. Developing resources for ESP vocabulary teaching and learning
34
3.3.3. Encouraging the development of effective vocabulary learning strategies
35
3.3.4. Developing the effective ESP vocabulary teaching
36
3.3.5. Encouraging students to form their learning autonomy
36

Part 3: Conclusion
37
1. Summary of the study
37
2. Limitations of the study
38
3. Suggestions for further study
38
References
39
Appendices
I
Appendix 1: Questionnaire
I
Appendix 2: Test
IV
Appendix 3: Answer keys to the test
VII
Appendix 4: Interview questions for ESP teachers
VIII

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ESP:
English for Specific Purposes
EBE:
English for Business and Economics
ESS:
English for Social Science
EST:
English for Science and Technology
EAP:
English for Academic Purposes
EOP:
English for Occupational Purpose
GB:
Great Britain
GE:
General English
UK:
The United Kingdom
USA:

The United States of America

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LIST OF TABLES AND CHARTS
Chart 1: Time length of learning English before college entrance
Table 1: Results in learning basic English
Chart 2: Most difficult part of ESP vocabulary
Table 2: Obstacles with ESP vocabulary learning materials
Table 3: Problems with learning ESP vocabulary in the course books
Chart 3: Teachers‟ instructing the meanings of ESP vocabulary
Chart 4: Teachers‟ instructing the uses of ESP vocabulary
Chart 5: Students‟ ways to learn new ESP words
Table 4: Students‟ practising ESP vocabulary during the class time
Table 5: Ways of revising ESP vocabulary
Table 6: Realization of transcription
Table 7: Realization of stressed syllable positions
Table 8: Recognition of word meanings in contexts
Table 9: Uses of word when describing the subject contents
Table 10: Uses of ESP word





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PART 1: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale of the study
Words take an important part in our daily social and occupational communications.
With teaching and learning English, especially English for Specific Purposes, words
appear as the materials and products of these procedures. McCarthy has stated that “no

matter how well the student learns grammar, no matter how successful the sounds of L2
are mastered, without words to express a wide range of meanings, communication in an L2
just cannot happen in any meaningful way.” (1990: viii)
When working as seamen on board the vessels, especially multi-lingual ones, the
Vietnamese seafarers need sufficient knowledge of navigation and good competence of
English of at least an elementary level. Students at the Navigational Faculty of Haiphong
Poly-technical College will become future seamen on board, thus good competence of
English language is necessary for them in both speaking and listening. They have to learn
technical terms about deck equipment, departure, anchoring and pilotage. It is also required
that they should learn specific vocabulary such as the weather station, magnetic compasses,
ventilator, funnel, gyro compasses, GPS, steering stand, navigation lights, engine order
telegraph, control consol, navigation table, communication station, emergency equipment,
anchor, hatch, hawser, and other appliances on board the vessels. They also need to know
English vocabulary about operations in hoisting gangways, mooring ropes, cargo handling,
and keeping watches, hear steering orders and repeat them for confirmation before
operation.
The second-year students of the Navigation Faculty of Haiphong Poly-technical
College start to learn maritime English at the beginning of their third term. Their course
book is English I for Navigation Students, which has been composed and brought into use
for one course. Through my teaching experience, I have discovered that there have been
some obstacles while the students have been learning their maritime English vocabulary,
although the teachers have tried their best to instruct them. After a number of periods
learning maritime vocabulary, the learners seem unable to remember correct words or to
use the right one for their learning purposes. Some admit that they wish to widen their
quantity of vocabulary but they lack suitable ways.
In order to discover the problems with the learning Maritime English vocabulary which
navigation students may face, we carry out this study on the second-year navigation

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students‟ difficulties in learning major vocabulary. Certain ways to overcome the obstacles

for the navigation students will be drawn out from the results of this study.
2. Aims of the study
On doing this minor research, we aim at finding out the difficulties which the second-
year students have in learning maritime English vocabulary and some possible causes of
these difficulties. Five suggested solutions will be provided to help second-year students
overcome these obstacles.
3. Scope of the study
There have been a number of investigations on the difficulties in learning English
vocabulary up to now. This assignment covers some of the navigation students‟ prevailing
obstacles in learning maritime English vocabulary. The participants are 122 second-year
navigation students and four other ESP teachers at Haiphong Poly-technical College. The
results of this study will be used as suggestions for better teaching and learning ESP
vocabulary at Navigation Faculty of the college.
4. Methods of the study
When carrying out this assignment, the author prepares a questionnaire, a test and an
interview to investigate the second-year navigation students‟ difficulties in learning
maritime English vocabulary and find out some possible causes of these difficulties.
The questionnaire consists of 10 questions, basing on the information in the literature
review part and the aims of the study. This questionnaire is prepared in Vietnamese for the
learners to read, think and answer suitably and adequately. After that it is delivered to
second-year navigation students, and the answers are collected and analyzed. The real
difficulties in learning maritime English vocabulary and some possible causes to these
difficulties will be found out.
A test paper with two exercises on maritime vocabulary is also designed for the
learners, who have fulfilled the questionnaire, to take. The results of this minor test will
help find out the students‟ actual difficulties in learning maritime English vocabulary.
Besides, an interview with four other teachers teaching English I for Navigation
Students to the second-year students is also conducted. Each teacher is given four
questions and their answers will contribute to consolidating our findings about the
students‟ difficulties in learning ESP words and suggesting some solutions to overcome

those difficulties.

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5. Significance of the study
Theoretically, this study will help us to uncover the second-year students‟ obstacles in
learning the maritime vocabulary. A clearer look into the reasons for these difficulties will
also be gained, and some suggested solutions will be drawn out.
Practically, it suggests a certain ways in teaching and learning vocabulary to help the
students overcome these difficulties so that they can be confident not only in learning
maritime English vocabulary but also in using these words for their future jobs on board
seagoing vessels.
6. Design of the study
The thesis consists of three main parts as follows:
Part 1: Introduction
This component of the study includes the rationale, aims, scope, methods, significance
and design of the study. The readers are provided with the reasons for choosing the
research issue, the research questions, the boundary of the investigation, the ways to carry
out the study and its organization.
Part 2: Development
This part contains three chapters.
Chapter 1 reviews some theoretical background for this study. It focuses on the English
for Special Purposes, vocabulary, terminology, factors affecting learning vocabulary, and
strategies to enhance students‟ vocabulary.
Chapter 2 introduces the methodology of this study. It provides some necessary
information about the context of the study, research questions, subjects of the study, data
collection instruments and data collection procedure.
Chapter 3 represents the data collection analysis on the questionnaire, test and
interview. Some major findings based on the analysis will be drawn out, and some
suggested solutions to the difficulties which the navigation students cope with when
learning ESP vocabulary, the possible causes of these difficulties and some solutions will

be included in this chapter.
Part 3 is the conclusion, which summarizes the study, states its limitations, and
suggests further investigation into the problem.



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PART 2: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter introduces some background information about English for Specific
Purposes, vocabulary, terminology, factors affecting learning vocabulary, and some
strategies to enhance students‟ vocabulary.
1.1. English for Specific Purposes
1.1.1. Definition of ESP
To understand the term ESP correctly, we will ponder on certain following
clarifications. The first one is that of Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 19). They define ESP
as „an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are
based on the learners‟ reason for learning‟. This elucidation emphasizes that ESP should
pay suitable attention to the learners and their motions for studying it.
In an understandable way, Martin (1992: 16-23) has explained the E, S and P elements
of ESP. The „S‟ element is inclined to mean „specifiable‟. For the „E‟ of ESP, there is a
general field of „languages for specific purposes‟ (LSP). The „P‟ in ESP refers to the
learner‟s purpose, which was defined as „a combination of pre-determined or pre-selected
goal and ongoing intentionality and motivation‟. This definition of ESP shows us a simple
segregation of the three elements and explanation of each one. We can see that the
learner‟s purposes on learning specific English have been mentioned clearly.
Evans and St John (1998: 2-5) use „absolute‟ and „variable‟ characteristics to clarify
the term ESP. Their definition is as follows: „1. Absolute characteristics: ESP is designed
to meet specific needs of the learner; ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and
activities of the discipline it serves; ESP is centered on the language (grammar, lexis, and

register), skills, discourse and genres appropriate to these activities. 2. Variable
characteristics: ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines; ESP may use, in
specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of general English; ESP is
likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution of in a
professional work situation. It could, however, be used for learners at secondary school
level; ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students. Most ESP courses
assume basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used with beginners.‟ This
description broaches the ESP as satisfaction for a wide range of learner and their needs. It
consists of activities and some language factors suitable for the learners.

15
As a teacher of ESP, the author shares the opinions that ESP serves the learner‟s needs.
This determines the learner‟s motivation, attitude and effort in learning ESP. For
vocational learning purposes, ESP may be a particular English language environment in
which learners study both the specific knowledge represented in this foreign language and
the communicative language skills needed for each specific field.
1.1.2. Classification of ESP
From the elucidation of ESP, it is inferred that the learners‟ needs lead to a number of
areas in ESP because these needs will differ from individuals to individuals and from
groups to groups. Different trends in classifying the term will be explored for particular
discussion.
In the „tree of ELT‟, Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 16-18) divide ESP into three
branches: English for Science and Technology (EST), English for Business and Economics
(EBE) and English for Social Studies (ESS). Each of these branches is split into two
smaller parts: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational
Purposes, English for Vocational Purposes or Vocational English as a Second Language
(EOP, EVP or VESL). This classification, as they admit, „is not a clear-cut distinction:
people can work and study simultaneously; it is likely that in many cases the language
learnt for immediate use in a study environment will be used later when the student takes
up, or returns to, a job‟.

Martin (1992: 39-41) suggests the varieties of ESP. He introduces five basic degrees of
specificity. These vary in the way that the learners‟ target objectives (skills, knowledge and
affect) are specifiable (whether by the teacher, the course sponsor or the learner).
- Type I: The targets are very specifiable, predictable or routine. Objectives are narrow
skills (content secondary) with specific and routine text-types encountered. For example,
an international hotel needs to train waiter or waitresses to serve in their restaurant.
- Type II: The targets are specifiable or predictable in terms of types. Objectives include
skills and some content. The text-types encountered can be identified as genres, routine
and non-routine. One example of this type is the English course not for specific company.
- Type III: The targets are half specifiable, half unpredictable. The objectives consist of
content and skills balanced. The text-types encountered contain a wide range of definable
types. An example of this type is the case in which the students of a polytechnic need to
cope with the English needed in the world of work after graduation.

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- Type IV: The targets are not primarily predictable, but with some important specifiable
elements. Objectives are content-focused and skills subordinate with a wide range of
variable and unpredictable text-types. For instance, the students need competency in all
skills, and at an advanced level, over a wide range of unpredictable content and text-types.
- Type V: There are very few specifiable or unpredictable targets. The objectives include
balanced content and skills with a wide range of definable text-types. Examples of this
type are general purpose courses for adults.
In the relation of five degrees to the traditional types of ESP, Martin (1992: 42-43)
specifies EOP objectives at Type I, II and II degrees and correlates EAP with type IV
specifiability.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) see the division of ESP branches as results of learner‟s
purposes in learning English. This way of classification only points out the names and the
learning targets of ESP division. In a different way, Martin also mentions the target ESP
objectives, and he introduces the varieties of ESP with the use of such terms as „learner‟s
target objectives‟ and „specifiable‟. The first way of classifying ESP seems a traditional

one, and the second appears as a modern one. The second division is preferable because it
presents the target, objectives and text-types.
1.1.3. Maritime English
From the above mentioned classification of ESP, it is inferred that maritime English is
considered as part of the EST, EOP and type III degree of specificity. This field of English
is used by seamen on board most kinds of vessels and in most countries in the world.
Jackson and Amvela (2000: 141-142) mentioned maritime English or sea-speak with air-
speak as kinds of restricted language. „Its restrictedness is meant to facilitate
communication between air and ground and between sea and land, both by being a limited
set of words to learn and speak, and by being limited set of words and combinations of
words to hear and understand in radio transmission‟. This view classifies maritime English
as a small component of ESP, in which a sufficient boundary of language content is used to
exchange information.
1.1.4. The requirements for ESP teachers
Whether the ESP teacher should master the materials or content of the subject matter
seems a debating issue. Two points of view will be introduced in this part for typical
consideration.

17
Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 157) think that „ESP teachers do not need to learn
specialist subject knowledge‟. They list three requirements of the ESP teachers as follows:
- a positive attitude towards the ESP content;
- a knowledge of the fundamental principles of the subject area;
- an awareness of how much they probably already know.
When mentioning the roles of the ESP practitioner, Evans and St John (1998: 13-14)
claim that „the teacher is not in the position of the „primary knower‟ of the carrier content
of the material‟. They also believe that „the teachers have clear objectives for the class and
a good understanding of the carrier content of the teaching material. ESP teachers also
need to have a great deal of flexibility, to be willing to listen to learners, and to take an
interest in the disciplines or professional activities the students are involved in.‟

Both of the ways to point out the roles of ESP teachers have their own importance.
They imply that the teachers should be aware of the students‟ needs, have basic knowledge
of the subject areas, and act as actual learners. In the author‟s point of view, ESP teachers
need to master somehow the specific knowledge of the major subject and fundamental
teaching knowledge so that they can help the learners better and more thoroughly.
Vocational students need to use simple but effective specific English in their working
conditions, therefore, the language skills are learnt in a combination with specific
knowledge for better communication.
1.2. Terminology
1.2.1. Definition of terminology
Terminology is defined as „the process of compiling, describing, processing and
presenting the terms of special subject fields in one or more languages‟. It is „not an end
itself, but addresses social needs and attempts to optimize communication among
specialists and professionals by providing assistance either directly or to translator or to
committees concerned with the standardization of a language‟. (Cabré, 1999: 10-12)
Terminology may be considered as a system of words or symbols to name a typical
phenomenon or phenomena in natural and social research fields in a scientific way. It also
includes necessary methods in language contents and study to reach sufficient and suitable
terms. Additively, there may be terms which are accepted and used by a large number of
individuals and terms which are admitted by a restricted group of persons.


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1.2.2. Characteristics of terminology
Features of terminology have been mentioned in certain research works since the
appearance of this field. One of the theories in terminology concentrates on „assigning
terms to concepts‟. This research field is „primarily concerned with the relationship
between the real objects in the real world and the concepts represent them‟. (Cabré, 1999:
7-8) Terminology also cares about the „nature of things in the real world‟ and the
relationships formed in this world. (Cabré, 1999: 8) In addition, it is considered as „closely

linked to the special subject fields‟. Subject specialists and terminologists may cooperate to
arrange and standardize „the concepts and terms for each special field‟. (Cabré, 1999: 9)
In summary, terminology focuses on the process from the concept to the term. It also
concerns the features of things in the reality and the relationships in that real world, and
may be used for specific subject field. Within the limit of this study, the author follows the
viewpoint by Nguyen Thien Giap (1998) on the basic characteristics of terminology. The
first characteristic is preciseness, which mentions the concepts in terminology as accurate
concepts of a particular science. The second feature is systematization, which asserts that
the terms cannot exist individually, but they are always present as elements of a particular
term system. The last characteristic of terminology is internationality, which refers to
terminology as special part of vocabulary presenting general scientific concepts for persons
speaking different languages. (Nguyen, 1998: 271-275, self translation)
1.3. Vocabulary
1.3.1. Definition of words
It is widely agreed that words help forming a language, their meanings can be exposed
in real communication and usage, and successful usage of a word depends on intelligent
and positive minds.
We may see vocabulary of a language as the words of that language. Words are
considered as „freestanding items of a language that have meaning.‟ (McCarthy, 1990: 3)
According to Ur (1996: 60), “vocabulary can be defined, roughly, as the words we teach in
the foreign language.”
Jackson and Amvela (2000: 50) consider the word as „an uninterruptible unit of
structure consisting of one or more morphemes and which typically occurs in the structure
of phrases. The morphemes are the ultimate grammatical constituents, the minimal
meaningful units of language‟. They also state that “lexical words are nouns, verbs,

19
adjectives and adverbs‟ and „grammatical words are elements like prepositions, articles,
conjunctions, forms indicating number or tenses, etc.‟
In conclusion, the researchers have their particular ways of defining the term „word‟.

Taking the learning and teaching ESP into account, words may be considered as what to
learn and to teach and also what to help the two procedures to happen smoothly. When
dealing with new ESP words, we should learn their meanings, pronunciation, spelling and
uses in real communication on board vessels.
1.3.2. Classification of words
There are a number of ways to divide words into their corresponding groups. We can
consider the following ways of classifying them.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 165-166) mention four types of vocabulary: structural
(because, we, just, those, etc.), general (cargo, vessel, anchor, seaman, habour, etc.), sub-
technical (boiler, derrick, pump, piston, etc.) and technical (starboard side, port side,
evacuation, gypsy, etc.).
Another categorization by McCarthy (1990) considers the terms core vocabulary and
procedural vocabulary. Core words may be „the most frequently occurring ones‟ in any
given lexical field. We use procedural vocabulary to state other words, to rephrase them
and explain them and to arrange them in communication. (1990: 49-52)
The first arrangement of words seems simpler and lists the ESP word types of technical
fields. The second one, on the other hand, uses two general concepts to segregate the
vocabulary in usage. For the goals of using the ESP vocabulary in real communication on
board vessels, we should divide the English words into sub-groups: one sub-group based
on the learners‟ needs, the other depending on the usefulness of the vocabulary items and
the last not of these two aspects. (Meara, 2002: 37)
1.3.3. Four strands in learning vocabulary
In his researches into vocabulary teaching and learning, Nation (2003: 133-134) has
broached four strands which applied for all aspects of language in general and for
vocabulary learning in particular. These strands have disclosed the relationship between
learning vocabulary with the four language skills, fluency and language features.
1.3.3.1. Learning from meaning-focused input
This strand includes learning vocabulary from listening and reading. The learners of
English should have known ninety-eight percent of the occurring words, and the rest will

20
be conjectured from the contexts and will not prevent „comprehension of the text‟. (Nation,
2003: 133)
1.3.3.2. Deliberate learning
The deliberate learning strand (form-focused instruction, language-focused learning or
language study) comprises „paying deliberate attention to language features such as sounds,
spelling, vocabulary, grammar, or discourse that are presented out of context‟. The clearest
technique is „learning new vocabulary by memorizing their first language translation‟.
(Nation, 2003: 134)
1.3.3.3. Learning from meaning-focused output
This strand consists of learning vocabulary „through speaking and writing where the
learners‟ main attention is on communication messages‟. Using the „productive skills as
sources of vocabulary learning‟ can enhance learning. (Nation, 2003: 134)
1.3.3.3. Fluency development
The fluency development strand of a language course intends to assist learners in
making „the best use of what they already know‟. Fluency may be considered as related to
each of the four language skills with fluency requiring to be developed individually in each
of these skills. (Nation, 2003: 134)
1.4. Factors affecting vocabulary acquisition
For the purpose of the study, learner styles and learner strategies, materials,
pronunciation and spelling, prototypes, contextualization and learner autonomy are
mentioned and discussed as factors affecting vocabulary acquisition.
1.4.1. Learner styles and learner strategies
According to Hedge (2000: 18-19), learning style can be generally defined as „a
characteristic and preferred way of approaching learning and processing information‟. She
also adds that „culture, as learned by the child from family, community, and school, has a
strong influence on learning style‟.
Learning strategies are „techniques used by learners to deal with input, assimilate new
language, store, retrieve, and practise using it‟. (Hedge, 2000: 19) Teachers and textbook
writers „have attempted both to find ways of improving the strategies learners already have

and to raise their awareness about others they might develop‟. (Hedge, 2000: 19) There are
some types of learner strategy to consider such as cognitive, meta-cognitive,
communication and socio-affective strategies.

21
Willing (1989: 9-10) thinks cognitive style as the „individuals‟ unique methods of
operation in the mental sphere.‟ These styles also correlate very highly with certain broad,
psychological and personality factors.
„Learning strategies may mean possession of specific study skills or techniques; a
general ability to take the initiative or simply, an enthusiasm for learning.‟ They can be
grouped into two parts. The first one is managing the learning processes, which includes a
number of activities „suggested to help learners become aware of the nature of language
and language-learning and of their own preferences, habits, strengths and weaknesses as
learners‟. The second part is managing information, which encourages „learners to take
more responsibility for planning and evaluating their own learn‟. (Willing, 1989: 1-5)
As a whole, learning styles refer to individual choice of cognition. A number of
elements such as culture, psychology and personality make influence on learning styles.
Selecting the suitable manner for a student requires his or her learning experience and
assessment. Thus, as teachers, we should suggest choosing the most appropriate learning
style for each learner as well as encouraging them to follow their right styles.
Learning strategies refer to techniques in mastering a language item or skills. The
former view point has listed four groups of learning strategy in a brief way. The latter
classifies these into two parts (managing the learning processes and managing information).
This classification seems a detailed and useful guidance for learners and teachers to
improve English language acquisition processes.
1.4.2. Materials
It appears as an agreement that materials affect the learning vocabulary in a supportive
way. Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 107-108) define some principles in the actual writing
of the materials as follows:
a. Materials provide a stimulus to learn. Good materials do not teach: they encourage

learners to learn.
b. Materials help to organise the teaching-learning process, by providing a path through
the complex mass of the language to be learnt.
c. Materials embody a view of the nature of language and learning.
d. Materials reflect the nature of the learning task.
e. Materials can have a very useful function in broadening the basis of teacher training,
by introducing teachers to new techniques.

22
f. Materials provide models of correct and appropriate language use.
Evans and St. John (1998: 170-172) introduce some reasons for using materials
significant in the ESP contexts. Materials can be a source of language, a learning support,
for motivation and stimulation and for reference. As a source of language, „materials need
to present real language, as it is used, and the full range that learners require‟. As a learning
support, materials need to „involve learners in thinking about and using the language. The
activities need to stimulate cognitive not mechanism processes. The learner also needs a
sense of progression.‟ Materials also need to be challenging yet achievable; to offer new
ideas and information; to encourage fun and creativity. For self-study or reference
purposes, materials need to be complete, well laid out and self explanatory.
It can be concluded that materials assist the learning and teaching procedures.
Materials act as resources for language learning. For ESP vocabulary learning, the
materials should be utilized for acquiring the word meanings and practising the word uses.
1.4.3. Pronunciation and spelling
The difference between pronunciation and spelling among the languages may lead to
difficulties in learning the vocabulary of a particular language as a foreign one. Schmitt
and McCarthy (1997: 142-145) conclude that „there may be a gap between the learner‟s
ability to perceive a word and his/ her ability to pronounce it correctly‟. Correct
pronunciation of a word inquires the correct stress syllable. Also, there may be difficulties
due to „the learner‟s inability to discriminate between some phonemes and subsequent
confusion of words differing precisely in these problematic phonemes‟. (Schmitt and

McCarthy, 1997: 143) In addition to this, „the degree of sound-script correspondence in a
word is a facilitating- or difficulty-inducing factor‟. (Schmitt and McCarthy, 1997:144) An
English written word may give no evidence for its similarity in pronouncing. Long words
are considered as more problematical ones than the short because of the quantity of input.
1.4.4. Prototypes
Hedge (2000: 123) introduces the prototypes as one of the culturally affected factors
influencing acquisition. These prototypes are defined as the foremost example of a
particular conceptual category, the one that springs most easily to mind when a learner
hears a word. For example, we may see or hear the word „vessel‟. If a general cargo vessel
is the kind of vessel the learner first thinks of, it is a prototype, and other vessels are non-
prototypes.

23
McCarthy (1990: 45) states that „in any given field, some words will seem more salient,
will spring more immediately to mind, and will be perceive as classic example of that
field‟. He also says that „for a variety of reasons, some cultural, some personal it seems
shared widely across speech communities, certain entities are seen as more central
representatives of their class than others.‟
Both of the researchers may share the same ideas that prototypes refer to the first image
or notion of a word occurring in the learner‟s head when he or she hears or reads it.
Learners need to be provided with precise and typical pictures related to the vocabulary
items to form suitable prototypes.
1.4.5. Contextualization
Davies and Pearse (2000: 63) state that „an appropriate context helps learners begin to
understand the use of the item as well as its basic meaning. The item is associated with a
certain type of context or situation.‟
„If learners have to perform certain activities on unfamiliar words in texts, there is a
good chance of retaining the words. The activities comprise guessing meaning from
context and from word to word, verifying meaning by checking in a dictionary, and
analysis of the word form to recognize relationships between the new word and others

already known.‟ (Hedge, 2000: 120)
It is agreed that vocabulary is better acquired not in an isolated form but in a context or
situation. Although a learner has grasped the pronunciation, spelling and meaning of a
word, a text with the appearance of that word will help deepen the word storage in the
learner‟s mind.
1.4.6. Learner autonomy
The first sentiment to the learner autonomy states that „learners can be encouraged to
develop their own personal learning styles for vocabulary, in such areas as memorizing and
retaining new words‟. (McCarthy, 1990: 129-130)
Another view by Hedge (2000) draws out the perceptions of the self-directed learners,
from which some key characteristics of a learner who can take responsibility for learning
are introduced. These are „an ability to define one‟s own objectives; awareness of how to
use language materials effectively; careful organization of time for learning, and active
development of learning strategies‟. (Hedge, 2000: 76-79)

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Both viewpoints suggest that learners should build their own responsibility for learning
English language in general and learning vocabulary in particular. The second one goes in
details when mentioning the learners‟ cognition purposes, effective materials usage,
attentive arrangement of time, and development of learning strategies. This factor may help
learners commence forming their solid motivation for learning English vocabulary, and
impulse the learning of English vocabulary.
1.5. Strategies to enhance students’ vocabulary
There have been a number of useful strategies to develop the students‟ words. Hedge
(2000: 125-138) suggests some important implications for the vocabulary teaching.
1.5.1. Developing a variety of techniques for the teaching of meaning
Learners may hear or see new words in many ways in the classroom through materials,
the teachers‟ language and other students‟ language. It is necessary for teachers to give an
explanation of those words. There are various techniques to use such as a physical
demonstration, verbal explanation, synonym, translation, pointing to the objects, using

visual aids, using antonyms, or asking the learners to check the word meanings in a
dictionary.
1.5.2. Encouraging the development of effective strategies
During class hours, we ought to help students to form and expand their new strategies
in learning vocabulary as well as consolidate existing ones. For instance, learners may be
encouraged to copy new words in their notebooks or make a word network of vocabulary
related to a particular item.
1.5.3. Exposing learners to vocabulary through reading and training lexical inferencing
If the textbook misses a comprehensive approach, the teacher will need to help students
develop inferencing strategies, drawing attention to the available instruction and applying
it through careful and repeated work. „The more active the learner needs to be; the more
likely the word will be remembered‟. (Hedge, 2000: 130) The teacher will need to exploit
texts both for reading strategy development and for vocabulary acquisition.
1.5.4. Teaching the effective use of dictionaries
Dictionaries have become one of the important classroom and individual resources.
Teachers can advise students to make suitable use of dictionaries, especially technical ones.
If a good monolingual dictionary is stored as a class resource, the teacher can ask a student
to look up an unknown word.

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1.5.5. Evaluating the vocabulary component of course books
Contemporary course books vary a great deal to the extent that they represent a concern
with vocabulary learning. Teachers need to assess the vocabulary components of the book
and supplement it where necessary. The first step is to evaluate the book in terms of its
professional targets with relation to vocabulary or to check the claims in the teacher‟s book.
Then the teacher will need to evaluate the particular lexicon and methodology related to
the learners‟ needs.
1.5.6. Teaching vocabulary explicitly through a range of activity types
Teachers need to establish rules for their own classroom practice in this area.
Vocabulary is well-contextualized through listening or reading materials. We should use

the opportunities formed by the students‟ own requirements or attempts to use the
vocabulary, and concentrate for a few periods of time on a word and other relevant ones.
Additively, we should also allocate time in every lesson to some kind of vocabulary work
and to develop a checklist of the covered contents during a year‟s programme.
1.5.7. Developing resources for vocabulary teaching
Different types of resources for vocabulary teaching should be developed, such as
monolingual dictionaries, pair-work in class, a bank of word puzzles, topic-based
crosswords, etc. When building these resources, teachers need to clarify a number of issues
such as kinds of visuals to include, criteria guiding the selection of the various kinds, ways
to gather together the resources, ways to classify them, the best format for storing them,
and the person in charge of maintenance, security and additions.
Each of the implications has its own advantage or advantages in teaching vocabulary.
For teaching ESP vocabulary to navigation students, teachers need to choose suitable and
relevant strategies depending on the requirements of the lesson and the learners‟ needs.
1.6. Summary
In Chapter 1, we have discussed significant information about English for Special
Purposes, terminology, vocabulary, factors affecting the English vocabulary acquisition
and some strategies to enhance students‟ vocabulary. This theoretical review is necessary
for the next chapters of methodology and data analysis.




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CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY
Chapter 2 includes the context of the study, research questions, subjects of the study,
data collection instruments and data collection procedure.
2.1. Context of the study
Haiphong Poly-technical College has had a short standing tradition of training seafarers,
technicians and workers in the areas of maritime, informatics, ship-building and electronics

since its foundation in 2001. ESP has become one of the main subjects in the major courses
of the training fields, one of which is maritime profession. Maritime English is one of the
two basic education backgrounds for seamen to pass their entrance interviews and to find
their jobs on board vessels.
English subject for the college level students is divided into two stages: basic English
(or general English) and major English. The first stage of basic English covers 120 class
periods for college level, which are divided into two 60-period terms. The second stage
depends on each major subject such as information technology, navigation, marine
engineering, accounting and enterprise administration. The students of navigation will
learn three terms of major English. The third term includes 90 periods of maritime English,
the fourth 60 and the fifth 45. During the second year‟s time, they will study the course
books English I for Navigation Students and English II for Navigation Students in
corresponding 90 period and 60 period stages.
Ten teachers in the Foreign Language Department of the college differ in their ages
(the teachers‟ ages range from 24 to 40) and ESP teaching experience. The teachers are
supposed to fulfill both GE and ESP classes during each school-year. ESP teaching plans
include classes for English on Navigation, Marine Engineering, Information Technology,
Electricity and Electronics, Accounting, Marine Administration and Shipbuilding
Technology. New teachers tend to be assigned to cover GE periods. After one or two
years‟ teaching experience, the department has some professional meetings and decides to
designate suitable teacher for each major.
2.2. Research question
In order to achieve the aims of the study, the following question will be answered in
this minor research:
What difficulties do the second-year navigation students have in learning maritime
English vocabulary?

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2.3. Subjects of the study
The 122 participants in this research come from ten classes of the navigation vocational

subject. The students are typical in gender, English background knowledge, motivation and
purposes of study. Because of the characteristic of the profession, all the learners are male
students of the Navigation Faculty. Before their entrance into the college, about 59.8% of
the students have learnt basic English for seven years, and 16.4% did for more than seven
years. Only 23% of the participants have not satisfied the requirements of basic English
knowledge. Besides, they have strong wish to learn maritime English sufficiently and
comprehensibly for their future jobs on board vessels.
2.4. Data collection instruments
To fulfill the requirements of the study, we employ three kinds of instrument: a
questionnaire, a test and an interview. Each of them contributes to the overall mission with
their own advantages. The samples of these data collection instruments are printed in the
appendix part at the end of the study report.
2.4.1. Questionnaire
The questionnaire consists of two forms: self-administered and group-administered. In
this study, the group-administered form of questionnaire is chosen because it can give a
fast return rate. The purpose of this questionnaire is to find out the students‟ difficulties in
learning ESP words and some possible causes for these difficulties, based on their answers
to the 10 questions. Their contents have been prepared in Vietnamese so that the
navigation students can read the questions and give suitable answers. These contents focus
on time length of learning English before entering college, difficulties with the learning
materials, teachers‟ instructing meanings and uses of ESP vocabulary, the ways in which
the students learn, practise and revise their ESP words.
2.4.2. Test
The test includes 17 word items arranged into two exercises. The first exercise is a
multiple choice task checking the pronunciation, uses and meanings of the maritime
English words. The second one contains five sentences for translation from Vietnamese
into English to check the use of five word items to express the major contents. Some GE
word items are also included in some questions because lack of GE words may result in the
navigation students‟ difficulties in expressing and understanding the ESP texts. The
requirements of each exercise have been provided in Vietnamese language for easy

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interpretation. The overall purpose of this test is to find out the actual problems in learning
ESP words.
2.4.3. Interview
As part of our research, we gave four questions to four English subject teachers. Our
purpose is to receive their own opinions about the difficulties in learning ESP words, some
possible causes of these difficulties and the suggested ways to overcome them. Interviews
are considered as „procedures used for gathering oral data in particular categories, but also
for gathering data that was not anticipated at the outset.‟ (Brown, 2001: 5) Individuals,
groups and telephone are the ways to conduct interview. Individual and telephone
interviews are chosen to gather data from the English subject teachers to gain their true
opinions.
2.5. Data collection procedure
The questionnaire was distributed to 122 learners during their class time. The students
were instructed to fulfill all the questions freely and trustfully. The test papers were also
delivered to them simultaneously for completion as part of the study. The statistics were
collected when the second-year students had gone through thirty periods of ESP, and they
have finished two modules of their course books as planned.
In addition, four other ESP teachers were invited to take part in the individual
interviews. Their answers were significant and essential sources, and their suggestions help
to draw out the solutions for the problems in learning ESP vocabulary at the college.
The answers to the questionnaire and the test were collected, synthesized, categorized,
described and interpreted to draw out relevant comments and conclusions. The information
was presented in percentage in the tables and chart. The data gained from the interview
was synthesized, summarized and grouped according to each question.
Based on the study context and conditions, three data collection instruments have been
selected so that the students‟ real problems of learning ESP vocabulary can be discovered.
The accuracy and reliable results obtained during the process of study required great care
and precautious analysis on the outcomes.

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CHAPTER 3: DATA ANALYSIS,
MAJOR FINDINGS AND SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS
3.1. Data analysis
In this chapter, the analysis of the questionnaire, test and interview will be conducted.
Research results will be discussed in details for clear and sufficient inference from the
participants‟ answers to each item.
3.1.1. Questionnaire
3.1.1.1. Aims of the questionnaire
The survey questionnaire aims at finding out the navigation students‟ problems in
learning ESP vocabulary and some possible causes of these problems, based on the
students‟ answers to ten questions.
3.1.1.2. Participants
The participants of this questionnaire include 122 second-year navigation learners in
ten classes of the Navigation Faculty of the college. These students have finished their
basic English stage, and their English has reached the intermediate level.
3.1.1.3. Data analysis
The questionnaire responses are segregated into ten groups corresponding to the ten
questions for complete analysis.
3.1.1.3.1. Question 1: How long have you been learning English before you entered the
college?


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Chart 1 shows the time length of learning English before college entrance. It can be

seen from the above bar graph that most navigation second-year students have learnt basic
English for seven years (about 59.8%). About 19.7% have learnt English for three years,
while 16.4% have done for more than seven years. A small number of learners (4.1%) have
never studied the language before. From the information given, it can be inferred that the
navigation students participated in this study differed in their starting points of learning
English before the college entrance.
3.1.1.3.2. Question 2: At what level was your result in Basic English I and II?
Table 1 demonstrates the results in learning basic English, based on the navigation
students‟ final marks and own assessments at the end of basic English I and II sub-terms.
As presented in this table, no answer goes to the very good level, while most responses
(61.5%) fall into average one. The number of students good at English subject only
accounts for nearly one fifth of the statistic results. About 23% of the survey participants
gained unsatisfactory outcomes. From the statistics given, it can be concluded that about
one quarter of navigation students have not met the requirements of basic English
knowledge to continue their ESP subjects.

Contents
Percentage
Very good
0%
Good
19%
Average
61.5%
Under average
23%

Table 1: Results in learning basic English

3.1.1.3.3. Question 3: What is the most difficult to you when you are learning ESP

vocabulary?
Chart 2 illustrates the most difficult part of ESP vocabulary for the navigation learners.
We can see from Chart 2 that about one fourth of the participants consider the word use,
pronunciation and meanings of word as the most difficult to learn. Ranking the next
positions are grammar forms (17.2%) and spelling (7.4%). From the information given, it
can be concluded that the students have been weak in almost all aspects of ESP