Reading strategies to improve reading comprehension of students at Thai Nguyen College of Economics and Technology = Chiến lược đọc nhằm cải thiện kỹ năng đọc h

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES



NGUYỄN THỊ LẬP


READING STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE READING
COMPREHENSION OF STUDENTS AT THAI NGUYEN
COLLEGE OF ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY

Chiến lược đọc nhằm cải thiện kỹ năng đọc hiểu của sinh viên
Trường Cao đẳng Kinh tế - Kỹ thuật Thái Nguyên




M.A. MINOR THESIS


FIELD: ENGLISH TEACHING METHODOLOGY
CODE: 60 14 10





HA NOI - 2010

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY - HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES



NGUYỄN THỊ LẬP

READING STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE READING
COMPREHENSION SKILLS OF STUDENTS AT THAI
NGUYEN COLLEGE OF ECONOMICS AND
TECHNOLOGY

Chiến lược đọc nhằm cải thiện kỹ năng đọc hiểu của sinh viên
Trường Cao đẳng Kinh tế - Kỹ thuật Thái Nguyên



M.A. MINOR THESIS

FIELD: ENGLISH TEACHING METHODOLOGY
CODE: 60 14 10
SUPERVISOR: ĐINH HẢI YẾN, M. Ed.

HA NOI - 2010

iv
TABLE OF CONTENT

Page
PART I: INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………….1
1. Rationale of the Thesis ………………………………………………………………….1
2. Aims of the Thesis ………………………………………………………………………2
3. Significance of the Thesis ……………………………………………………………….2
4. Scope of the Thesis …………………………………………………………………… 2
5. Research Methods used in the Thesis ………………………………………………… 2
6. Design of the Thesis ……………………………………………………………… 3
PART 2: DEVELOPMENT ……………………………………………………………….4
Chapter 1: Literature Review………………………………………………………………4
II.1.1. Definitions of Reading………………………………………………………………4
II.1.2. Reading Comprehension…………………………………………………………….4
II.1.2.1. Definitions……………………………………………………………………… 4
II.1.2.2. Reading Comprehension Models………………………………………………….5
II.1.2.2.1. Bottom-up Model……………………………………………………………… 5
II.1.2.2.2. Top-down Model……………………………………………………………… 6
II.1.2.2.3. Interactive Model……………………………………………………………… 7
II.1.2.3. Characteristics of an Effective Reader…………………………………………….7
II.1.2.4. Teaching Reading Comprehension Skills……………………………………… 8
II.1.3. Reading Strategies………………………………………………………………… 9
II.1.3.1. Defining Strategies…………………………………………………………… 9
II.1.3.1.1. Metacognitive Strategies ………………………………………………………10
II.1.3.1.2. Cognitive Strategies ………………………………………………………… 10
II.1.3.1.3. Social/Affective Strategies …………………………………………………….11
II.1.3.2.The Importance of Strategies in the Learning Process ………………………… 11

II.1.3.3. Strategies in Teaching Second Language Reading Comprehension ………… 12
II.1.4. Summary ………………………………………………………………………… 14
Chapter 2: Research Methodology ……………………………………………………….16
II.2.1. Research Questions ……………………………………………………………….16
II.2.2. Participants and Settings of the Study …………………………………………….16

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II.2.2.1. Participants ……………………………………………………………………16
II.2.2.2. Settings of the Study ………………………………………………………… 17
II.2.3. Instruments ………………………………………………………………………17
II.2.3.1. Tests ………………………………………………………………………… 18
II.2.3.2. Questionnaires …………………………………………………………………19
II.2.4. Data Collection Procedures …………………………………………………… 20
II.2.5. Coding of Questionnaire Data ………………………………………………… 20
II.2.6. Summary ……………………………………………………………………… 22
Chapter 3: Data Analysis and Discussion …………………………………………… 24
II.3.1. Test Results …………………………………………………………………… 24
II.3.1.1. Metacognitive Strategies ……………………………………………………….24
II.3.1.2. Cognitive Strategies ……………………………………………………………25
II.3.1.3. Social/Affective Strategies …………………………………………………… 26
II.3.2. Results of Questionnaires ……………………………………………………… 26
II.3.2.1. Readers’ Attitudes to Reading Comprehension ……………………………… 27
II.3.2.2. Reading Strategies …………………………………………………………… 29
II.3.2.2.1. Metacognitive Strategies …………………………………………………… 29
II.3.2.2.2. Cognitive Strategies ………………………………………………………….30
II.3.2.2.3. Social/Affective Strategies ………………………………………………… 31
II.3.3. Discussion and Recommendations ……………………………………………….31
II.3.4. Summary ……………………………………………………………………… 34
PART 3: CONCLUSION ……………………………………………………………….35
1. Summary of Previous Parts ………………………………………………………… 35

2. Conclusions ………………………………………………………………………… 35
3. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Study …………………………………… 36
REFFERENCES ……………………………………………………………………… 37
APPENDIXES……………………………………………………………………… I
Appendix 1 …………………………………………………………………………… I
Appendix 2 …………………………………………………………………………… V
Appendix 3 …………………………………………………………………………… .XVII
Appendix 4 …………………………………………………………………………… XX


vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CFL : College of Foreign Language
VNU : Vietnam National University
TNCET : Thai Nguyen College of Economics and Technology

vii
LIST OF TABLES AND CHARTS

Page
Tables
Table 2.1: Background information about the participants………………………………16
Table 2.2: Questionnaire: Reading strategy coding categories ………………………….20
Charts
Chart 3.1: Test Results – Metacognitive Strategies …………………………………… 24
Chart 3.2: Test Results – Cognitive Strategies ………………………………………… 25
Chart 3.3: Test Results –Social/Affective Strategies ……………………………………26
Chart 3.4: Questionnaire Results: Question 1 ………………………………………… 27
Chart 3.5: Questionnaire Results: Question 2 ………………………………………… 27
Chart 3.6: Questionnaire Results: Question 3……………………………………………28
Chart 3.7: Questionnaire Results: Metacognitive Strategies…………………………….29
Chart 3.8: Questionnaire Results: Cognitive Strategies ……………………………… 30

Chart 3.9: Questionnaire Results: Social/Affective Strategies ………………………….31















1

PART 1: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale of the thesis
It is obvious that English language has been widely used in many areas such as politics,
economics, tourism, telecommunication, culture, science and technology, and since
Vietnam carried out the open door policy towards the regional and global integration,
English language has become more and more important. Therefore, it is necessary for
Vietnamese students to have a good command of English to satisfy the growing
requirements in a developing country like Vietnam.
In the process of teaching and learning English as a second or foreign language
(ESL/EFL), reading is an essential skill. For many people, reading is the most important
skill to gain the knowledge and the only means by which learners can access to further
study. So with well-developed reading skills, ESL/ EFL readers will have a chance to make

greater progress and achieve greater development in all academic areas.
Because under Vietnam circumstances, English language is taught and learnt in a non-
native environment, reading is both a means to gain knowledge and a means by which
further study takes place. According to Carrell (1984:1): “for many students, reading is by
far the most important of the four macro skills, particularly in English as a second or a
foreign language”. This is really true to the students at Thai Nguyen College of Economics
and Technology (TNCET). They find that reading not only gives them a wide range of
interesting information but also offers them chances to enlarge their vocabulary, structures
and language expressions which are useful for developing other skills.
Nevertheless, students at TNCET often have difficulties in reading lessons because of the
lack of appropriate reading strategies which are essential for them – ESL/EFL readers.
Researchers believe that effective readers are aware of the strategies they use and that they
use strategies flexibly and efficiently. Therefore, teachers should consider and choose
effective reading strategies to teach students, and help them develop the given strategies
effectively.
In the present process of teaching methods innovation in Vietnam generally, and at
TNCET particularly, equipping students with learning strategies can help them be more
active, take charge of their own learning, and have more positive learning spirit.
For these reasons, it would be necessary to have an investigation into reading strategies
and classroom practice. Through the study, we could recognize useful reading strategies
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and how efficiently they are used in an ESF/EFL classroom to improve reading
comprehension skills of students at TNCET.
2. Aims of the thesis
The aims of the study are:
 To investigate the reading strategies and equipping students with these reading
strategies to improve students‟ ability of reading in English at TNCET.
 To examine how efficiently the reading strategies are used in reading classes.
3. Significance of the thesis

The findings of the thesis will be useful not only to the researcher, but also to the teaching
staff and especially to the students at TNCET in learning reading skills. Besides, the study
will make a great contribution to improve the quality of teaching and learning English at
TNCET. Further more, it will offer the theoretical basis for the application of reading
techniques in classroom.
4. Scope of the thesis
In teaching and learning a language as an ESL/EFL, there are many factors that influence
the learners‟ success or failure. A part from reading, there are also other main skills in
language learning including speaking, listening, and writing. However, due to the limited
scope of a minor thesis, this study only focuses on the investigation of reading
comprehension needs of students at TNCET in the process of teaching methods innovation,
the limitation and difficulties of their reading activity, and the application of reading
strategies in classrooms.
5. Research methods used in the thesis
To achieve the aims mentioned above, the author would like to employ tests and survey
questionnaires to investigate how efficiently the reading strategies are used and analyze
them through data collection instruments.
6. Design of the thesis
There are three main parts in this thesis: introduction, development, and conclusion.
The introduction provides the rationale, the aims, the significance, the scope, the methods,
and the design of the thesis.
The development consists of three chapters:
Chapter 1 presents a review of literature including definitions of reading comprehension
and reading processes, reading comprehension models, teaching comprehension skills, and
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reading strategies. It discusses the three reading strategies: cognitive, metacognitive, and
social/affective strategies; the importance of strategies in learning process; and strategies in
teaching SL reading comprehension.
Chapter 2 focuses on the methodology employed in this thesis including research

questions, participants and instruments. The instruments consist of tests and classroom
observation.
Chapter 3 reports the results of tests and classroom observation. This chapter discusses in
the three strategies.
The conclusion provides a brief summary of main parts being present in the study, the
conclusions drawn out and the limitations of the study. It also suggests directions for
further study.




















4

PART 2: DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 1: Literature Review
This chapter reviews theories related to reading, reading comprehension, and reading
strategies. All of these serve as a basis for the aim of the thesis which is to use reading
strategies to improve reading comprehension skills of students at TNCET.
II.1.1.Definitions of reading
The act of reading is not easily understood and described. In the most general terms we
may say that reading involves the reader, the text, and the interaction between reader and
the text (Rumelhart 1977).
The process of reading has been intensively studied, and there have been many different
approaches to it, and the term „reading‟ has been given many interpretations.
Mitchell has a basic definition of reading:
Reading can be defined loosely as the ability to make sense of written or printed
symbols. The reader uses the symbols to guide the recovery of information from his
or her memory and subsequently uses this information to construct a plausible
interpretation of the writer’s message.
(Mitchell 1982:1)
Goodman (1971:35) defines reading as
a psycholinguistic process by which the reader, a language user, reconstructs, as
best as he can, a message which has been encoded by a writer as a graphic display.
Simply and clearly, Eddie Williams (1984: 2) defines reading as “a process whereby one
looks at and understands what has been written”. This definition of reading does not mean
that a reader needs to understand everything in text. Reading can be a struggle after
understanding, especially where language learners are concerned. He emphasizes that part
of the teacher‟s job is therefore to develop within the learner strategies that will help them
in this struggle.
From the ideas above, we can come to the conclusion that reading is a complex process
which involves a triangular interaction between the reader, the writer and the text. Reading
is also an interaction between purpose and manner of reading, and it is an interaction
through reading strategies (J.A. Aebersold and M.L. Field, 1997).
II.1.2. Reading comprehension

II.1.2.1. Definitions
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Reading comprehension plays a very important part in teaching and learning reading a
foreign language. It is the ability to obtain the information as required in the reading
lessons as efficiently as possible. Thus, three elements – reading text, background
knowledge of the reader, and the contextual aspects relevant for the interpretation of the
text – are involved in the reading process.
Research on ESL/EFL reading comprehension, there are some definitions of reading
comprehension from researchers
Richard and Thomas, (1987:9), state: “Reading comprehension is best described as an
understanding between the author and the reader”.
According to Swam, (1975: 1)
A student is good at comprehension we mean that he can read accurately and
efficiently so as to get the maximum information of a text with the minimum of
understanding.
In line with Swam, Grellet, (1981:3) accepts that
Reading comprehension or understanding a written text means extracting the
required information from it as effectively as possible.
The definitions of reading comprehension above are general ones. In order to understand
more about reading comprehension, it is necessary to take a closer look at actual process
that really takes place in the reader‟s mind. So far, several models of reading have been
proposed to describe this process. The next section is going to present these models of
reading and their strengths and weaknesses.
II.1.2.2. Reading comprehension models
In looking for ways to describe the interaction between the reader and the text, researchers
have created models that describe what happens when people read. According to the
researchers, there are three main models of how reading occurs.
II.1.2.2.1. Bottom-up model
With the bottom-up model, reading was viewed as “the process of meaning interpretation”

in which “the language is translated from one form of symbolic representation to another”
(Nunan, 1991).
According to Carven, bottom-up model describes reading as being a linear process from
graphic symbols to meaning responses, and the readers check words individually, and
sound them out phonetically. With this type of reading, the readers passively perceive
6

input which progresses from the lowest level of reading – the interpretation of symbols – to
the higher levels such as the assigning of meaning.
According to Gough (1972), reading should be bottom-up. He believes readers should
follow five stages: eye fixation, absorption of the visual stimulus, letter identification,
phonological representation, and understanding of words serially from left to right.
Gough specifically assumes that the reader is not a guesser. However, many researchers
have shown his bottom-up explanations are not adequate.
Rumelhart (1977a) showed that bottom-up models fail to allow for the fact that the
comprehension of letters, words, and sentences are all affected by higher level processing.
In most cases, higher level processes are not suitable to lower level input. It is clear that the
process of reading can not be a simple linear progression from lower processes upwards.
Having the same opinion with Rumelhart, Samuel and Kamil (1988: 31) pointed out the
shortcomings of these models as follows:
Because of the lack of feedback loops in the early bottom-up models, it was difficult to
account for sentence – context effects and the role of prior knowledge of text topic as
facilitating variables in word recognition and comprehension.
Due to this limitation, the bottom-up model of reading fell into disfavor.
II.1.2.2.2. Top-down model
In this model, reading has been seen as the process in which reader moves from the top, the
higher level of mental stages down to the text itself. This theory focuses on the
reconstruction of meaning rather than the decoding of form, the interaction between the
reader and the text than the graphic forms or printed pages.
Top-down theory argues that readers bring a great deal of knowledge, expectations,

assumptions, and questions to the text and, given a basic understanding of vocabulary, they
continue to read as long as the text confirms their expectations (Goodman, 1967).
Goodman also suggests that reading is driven by hypotheses – the readers follow a cyclical
procedure of sampling the text, predicting what will come next, testing predictions, and
adjusting of confirming them (Goodman, 1975).
In this model, the reader, far from being a passive receiver, plays an active part in the text
interpretation, using background knowledge to form inferences, and only decoding
symbols when it is necessary for comprehension.
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Having the same ideas with Goodman, Smith (1998) assumes that “Readers can go straight
to meaning in the text by means of prediction. Reading is not a matter of identifying words
after words.”
Clearly, the strong points of top-down model are that it proves the readers‟ active role and
the readers‟ center position of reading process. However, for some researchers, top-down
models still reveal certain weak points. According to Stanovich (1980), Goodman and
Smith‟s top-down theory is on a belief that the actual decoding process is slow, and that is
therefore faster and more economical for the reader to get to know what the text will
contain next, so that the slow decoding process can to some extent be avoided. He accepts
that the readers do form inferences while reading, and the background knowledge has a
powerful effect on comprehension, but assumes that it is false to imply the generation of
hypotheses concerning subsequent words in a text is quicker than processing the words
according to purely visual information.
Due to limitations of both bottom-up and top-down models, a new and more insightful
reading process has been proposed under the name of interactive model.
II.1.2.2.3. Interactive model:
Interactive theorists appreciate both the role of knowledge and the prediction, and at the
same time emphasize the importance of rapid and accurate processing of the actual words
of the text. According to Grabe (1988), the expression “interactive” is sometimes
interpretered to refer to the interaction between the text and the reader, and sometimes to

the interaction between top-down and bottom-up reading processes.
According to Hayes (1991:7),
In interactive models, different processes are thought to be responsible for
providing information that is shared with other processes. The information
obtained from each type of processing is combined to determine the most
appropriate interpretation of the printed pages.
With the strong points of the interactive model, the reading teachers can develop it in their
reading classrooms. The teachers also need to develop the ability to take the advantages of
these models and therefore can anticipate the types of processes and potential problems
that the students will experience.
II.1.2.3. Characteristics of an effective reader
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This concept from Eddie Williams (1984) will begin with characteristics of an effective
reader:
The effective reader knows the language of the text he is reading. He knows the
content words and what they mean (through perhaps not all of them). He also
knows the syntax (or grammar) of the language, that is to say the operation and
effect of structural words, or word form, or word order. He may not be able to talk
about or explain these issues but he can use this knowledge to help him read the
text.
Eddie Williams (1984:4)
In other words, many researchers have generally shown that an effective reader knows how
to use reading strategies that work for himself/ herself. According to Wassaman and
Rinsky (1993:5), an effective reader needs „an understanding of the reading process and an
understanding of how to go about reading different types of printed information‟. In this
way, if a second or foreign learner wants to become an effective reader, he/ she can
practice techniques that will help him/ her succeed. Besides, they also assume that there are
two ingredients for an effective reader. The first is the willingness to change reading habits
that limit the learner‟s reading ability and the second is the willingness to practice.

Apart from these, there are other factors that can help the readers to become effective such
as organize properly for reading and study, improve the concentration, and maintain
confidence.
II.1.2.4. Teaching reading comprehension skills
According to Day and Bamford (1998:124-141), there are at least four distinctive
approaches to the teaching EFL/ESL reading around the world. These are given below:
- Grammar – translation: Under this approach, students may be taught to read texts written
in a foreign language by translating them into a native language. As a result, meaning is
taken at the sentence level with less attention paid to the meaning of the text as a whole
and meaning is constructed via the native language, not directly from the foreign language.
- Comprehension questions and language work: This approach focuses on teaching a
textbook, containing short passages that demonstrate the use of foreign language words or
points of grammar. These texts, short enough to encourage students to read them word by
word, are followed by comprehension questions and exercises.
9

- Skills and strategies: In this approach, the teacher has to prepare for students to read one
or two – page passage from a textbook by providing or activating any background
knowledge needed for comprehension. This preparation may include pre-teaching
vocabulary that appears in the reading passage. Then students read the passage silently
while keeping in mind two or three while reading questions.
- Extensive Reading: This approach‟s goal is for students to become willing and able
readers in a second a foreign language. Students individually read books and other
materials at their own speed mainly for homework.
The four reading teaching approaches with the characteristics above should be used
flexibly in each case of reading classrooms. The teachers also need to distinguish and
develop the ability to take the advantages of these and therefore can use them efficiently to
help students in their reading comprehension.
II.1.3. Reading strategies
II.1.3.1. Defining strategies

The study of learning strategies has been contributed for over the last two decades.
According to R.Ellis, 1994, the study of learning strategies has seen an „explosion of
activity‟. There have been many contributions from well-known researchers such as
Tarone (1981), Weinstein and Mayer (1986), Rubin (1987), O‟Malley and Chamot (1990),
Oxford (1990) and Cohen (1998). Their studies have helped figure out a comprehensive
overview of learning strategies.
Concerning the definition of learning strategies, there have been some considerable
differences. Rubin (1987:23) gave a general definition of learning strategies:
Learning strategies are strategies which contribute to the development of the
language system which the learner constructs and effect learning directly.
According to Oxford (1990: 5)
Learning strategies are specific actions taken by the learner to make learning
easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self directed, more effective and more
transferable to new situation
These definitions are judged as quite comprehensive because they cover both cognitive and
affective aspects of learning strategies.
The definition that has been widely accepted to date was proposed by O‟Malley and
Chamot (1990). They assumed that learning strategies are “the special thoughts or
10

behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn or retain new information”
(1990: 1). Although the definition is short, it covers the most important aspects of learning
strategies that is learning strategies are both mental and behavioral, and learning strategies
are individually characterized. Because their definition is comprehensive, the present study
utilizes it as the key direction in its investigation.
Language Learning Strategies have been classified by many scholars. But the framework
that has been most widely welcomed and useful is the framework of O‟Malley and Chamot
(1990). In O‟Malley and Chamot‟s framework, three major types of strategies named as
metacognitive, cognitive, and social/affective are distinguished in accordance with the
information processing model, on which their research is based. The three categories of

language learning strategies will be presented in the three following parts.
II.1.3.1.1. Metacognitive strategies
Metacognitive strategies are “higher order executive skills that may entail planning or,
monitoring, or evaluating the success of a learning activity” (1990:44). The metacognitive
learning strategies identified into seven categories by O‟Malley and Chamot (1990:119)
and all of them are applicable to a variety of learning task. Among the strategies that would
be used as metacognitive strategies for language reading comprehension tasks are:
1. Planning: previewing the main ideas and concepts of the material to be learnt, often by
skimming the text for the organizing principle.
2. Monitoring: Checking one‟s comprehension during listening or reading checking the
accuracy and/ or appropriateness of one‟s oral or written production while it is taking place
3. Self-evaluation: Checking the outcomes of one‟s own language against a standard after
it has been completed.
II.1.3.1.2. Cognitive strategies
Cognitive strategies are “more directly related to individual learning tasks and entail direct
manipulation or transformation of the learning material” (1990: 8). According to O‟Malley
and Chamot (1990:119), the cognitive learning strategies are identified in fourteen
categories. However, those cognitive strategies may be limited in application to the
specific type of task in the learning activity. Typical strategies that have been discussed in
the cognitive category for reading comprehension are:
1. Repetition: Imitating a language model, including overt practice and silent rehearsal.
11

2. Grouping: Classifying words, terminology or concepts according to the attributes or
meaning.
3. Deduction: Applying rules to understand or produce the second language making up
rules based on language analysis.
4. Imagery: Using visual images (either mental or actual) to understand or remember new
information.
5. Elaboration: Relating new information to prior knowledge, relating different parts of

new information to each other, or making meaningful personal associations with the new
information
6. Transfer: Using previous linguistic knowledge or prior skills to assist comprehension or
production.
7. Inferencing: Using available information to guess meaning of new items, predict
outcomes or fill in missing information.
8. Summarizing: Making a mental, oral or written summary of new information gained
through listening and reading.
II.1.3.1.3. Social/ Affective strategies
Finally social/ affective strategies are referred to as “a broad grouping that involves either
interaction with another person or ideational control over affect” (1990: 45). The social/
affective strategies and their definitions are as follow:
1. Questioning for clarification: Eliciting from a teacher or peer additional explanations
rephrasing, examples or verification.
2. Cooperation: Working together with one or more peers to solve a problem, pool
information, check a learning task, model a language activity, or get feedback on oral or
written performance.
3. Self-talk: Reducing anxiety by using mental techniques that make one feel competent to
do the learning task.
Generally, the given affective strategies are considered applicable to a wide variety of
tasks. However, they would be used in listening comprehension task rather than in reading
comprehension one.
II.1.3.2. The importance of strategies in the learning process
In the field of second language acquisition research, focus has been shifted away from
finding teaching methodologies to investigating why some learners are very successful in
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their language learning while others are not successful though they have made much effort
learning the language. Many researchers such as O‟Malley and Chamot (1990), Nunan
(1991), Rubin and Thompson (1994) and Cohen (1998) have shown that one of the most

important factors that distinguish successful learners from unsuccessful ones is their
learning strategies. In other words, successful learners do use some effective learning
strategies to deal with problems that emerge during their learning process while
unsuccessful ones employ inappropriate or ineffective strategies resulting in their failure in
their language learning.
Therefore, knowledge of strategies is very important because if a learner is conscious of
the processes underlying the learning, he/she will be more effective in language learning.
The fact showed that learners who are taught learning strategies are more highly motivated
than those who are not. However, not all learners automatically know which strategies
work best for them. On the other hand, learning strategies in Vietnam in general and in
TNCET in particular have also become a topic of interest in recent years when the
concepts of “self-learning”, “life-long learning”, and “teaching methods innovation” have
been familiar to the ears of both teachers and students. For these reasons, explicit strategy
training and experimenting with different strategies can lead to more effective learning.
Oxford (1990:1) assumes that strategies are important for two reasons. In the first one,
strategies “are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing
communicative competence”. The second one is that learners who have developed
appropriate learning strategies have greater self-confidence and learn more effectively.
According to Oxford, language learning strategies:
- contribute to the main goal, communicative competence
- allow learners to become more self-directed
- expand the role of teachers
- support learning both directly and indirectly
1.3.3. Strategies in teaching second language reading comprehension
Much attention has been paid to the study of reading in general and reading strategies in
particular. The current explosion of research in second language reading has begun to
focus on reader‟s strategies. Reading strategies are of interest for what they reveal about
the way readers manage their interaction with written text and how these strategies are
related to text comprehension. Research in second language reading suggests that learners
13

use a variety of strategies to assist them with the acquisition, storage, and retrieval of
information (Rigney, 1978). Reading strategies, on the other hand, indicate how readers
conceive of a task, how they make sense of what they read, and what they do when they
don‟t understand. Reading strategies enhance reading comprehension and overcome
comprehension failures.
Many researchers have similarities in categorizing reading strategies. For example,
Anderson (1999), Brantmeier (2002), Almasi (2003) and Sugirin (1999) emphasized the
role of prior knowledge in reading. Brantmeier (2002) and Brown (1990) introduced
skimming, scanning and guessing as effective strategies in reading. However, there have
been some differences in their classification.
According to C.R. Adler (2004), comprehension strategies are conscious plans – sets of
steps that good readers use to make sense of text. He gives seven strategies to have a firm
scientific basis for improving text comprehension: monitoring comprehension,
metacognition, graphic and semantic organizers, answering questions, generating
questions, recognizing story structure, and summarizing.
Brantmeier (2002) summarizes reading strategies as follow: “The strategies may involve
skimming, scanning, guessing, recognizing cognates and word families, reading for
meaning, predicting, activating general knowledge, making inferences, following
references, and separating main ideas from supporting ideas” (2002: 1).
Furthermore, reading strategies can consist of evaluating content, such as agreeing, making
an association with prior knowledge or experience, asking and answering questions,
looking at the key words, using sentence structure analysis such as determining the subject,
verb or object of the sentences, skipping and rereading (Almasi, 2003; Sugirin, 1999). It is
clear to see that not all strategies are equal effectiveness due to the different types of
reading texts and tasks, and reading strategy use by each reader.
Brown (1990: 3) gives five strategies that can help students read more quickly and
effectively: previewing, predicting, skimming and scanning, guessing from context, and
paraphrasing
Anderson (1999: 4) introduces six strategies for consideration when teaching reading: A -

Active prior knowledge, C - Cultivate vocabulary, T - Teach for comprehension, I -
Increase reading rate, V - Verify reading strategies, and E - Evaluate progress.
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Based on O‟Malley and Chamot‟s (1990), reading strategies can be understood as the
special thoughts and behaviors that individuals use to help them to comprehend, learn and
retain new information from the reading text. These strategies are both observable and
unobservable and individually different. According to O‟Malley and Chamot, reading
strategies can be classified into three main types including the metacognitive, cognitive
and social/affective strategies. A categorization scheme of these strategies has been
provided in section II.1.3.1.
II.1.4. Summary
This chapter has reviewed related theories on reading, and reading comprehension in
general, and reading strategies in particular. Some of the main points can be summarized as
follows.
In the first two parts of this chapter, some important definitions of reading and reading
comprehension have been reviewed. Reading is considered to be a complex process which
involves a triangular interaction between the reader, the write, and the text. It is highly
agreed with J.A. Aebersold and M.L. Field‟s point of view that reading is an interaction
between purpose and manner of reading, and it is an interaction through reading strategies.
Concerning reading comprehension definitions, some researchers see reading
comprehension as an understanding between the author and the reader, and extracting the
required information from a text as effectively as possible. These researchers view reading
based on the three reading models namely bottom-up, top-down, and interactive ones. The
interactive model, which most researchers currently endorse, assumes that both top-down
and bottom-up processes occur in reading, either alternative or at the same time depending
on the type of text as well as the reader‟s background knowledge, language proficiency,
motivation, and strategy use.
It has also been mentioned that characteristics of an effective reader and teaching reading
comprehension skills in this part. Wassaman and Rinsky (1993) assume that an effective

reader needs an understanding of the reading process and how to go about reading different
types. He/She is willing to change reading habits and practice, improve the concentration
and maintain confidence. In order to help students to be more effective in reading, Day and
Bamford (1998) give the four reading teaching approaches which should be used in each
case of reading classrooms.
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The last part of the chapter discusses reading strategies, the focus of the thesis, in details.
Before emphasizing the importance of strategies in the learning process in Vietnam in
general and in TNCET in particular and reviewing some prominent studies on reading
strategies that have been conducted so far, this part presents some definitions of learning
strategies by some researchers. It reviews the classification of learning strategies from
O‟Malley and Chamot‟s schemes. Their framework has been most useful and generally
accepted to date. In O‟malley and Chamot‟s framework, there are three major types
including metacognitive, cognitive, and social/ affective strategies. The detailed strategies
and classification of learning strategies in part II.1.3.1 and appendix 1 is going to be
adopted for the investigation of reading strategies for this study.
The next chapter is study on reading strategies used by TNCET students, which will be
conducted in the light of the theories discussed above.

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Chapter 2: Research Methodology
The previous chapter has presented a literature review on theory of reading
comprehension, learning strategies in general and reading strategies in particular. It has
also provided a theoretical background for the present study. This chapter presents the
methodology and analysis of the study.
II.2.1. Research questions:
This study seeks to answer the following research questions:
1. What are effective reading strategies that help students improve their ability of
reading comprehension in English at TNCET?
2. How efficiently the reading strategies are used in reading classes?
II.2.2. Participants and setting of the study
II.2.2.1. Participants
The participants in this study are 30 first-year non-English majors specializing in
Economics and Business Management at TNCET. Of them there are twenty-two females
and eight males, who mostly come from the countryside and mountainous area. Only two
students are twenty years old and the other twenty-eight students are nineteen years old.
All of them spent between 3 – 10 years learning English (two students learnt English for 3
years, twenty-one students learnt English for 7 years, and seven students left learnt English
for 10 years). Their English proficiency levels were generally reported to be at pre-
intermediate. Table 2.1 summarizes the background information about the participants

such as the genders, ages, number of years learning English and their self-assessed
proficiency.
Total
number of
participants
Gender
Age
(years)
Number of years
learning English
English
Proficiency
Male
Femal
e
19
20
3
years
7
years
10
years
Pre -
intermediate

30

7

23

28

2

2

20

8

30
Table 2.1.Background information about the participants
These students belong to the Department of Economics and Business Management. They
had high scores in the entrance exam to college, which means they are excellent in
Mathematics, Physics, and Chemistry. At TNCET the English course, which is designed
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for these students, lasts from the first year to the third year of training at the college. The
course includes the GE (General English) course, which is delivered in two terms of the
first year and the ESP course (English for Economics) delivered in the third year.
Therefore, for these students, English is not a minor subject but plays an important role in
their study at the college.
There are some reasons for choosing the first-year Economics and Business Management
students as the participants of this study. The first is that the training quality of these
students is always of great concern to both college administrators and teachers at TNCET.
The findings of this study would provide essential information for teachers of English to
help students improve their reading comprehension in particular and contribute to the
overall training quality of these students in general. Especially, it also makes a great

contribution on the present process of teaching methods innovation at TNCET. Secondly,
the first-year Economics and Business Management students are suitable participants for
the study because they had the higher entrance exam scores than the remaining students at
TNCET and they are considered to have quite good reading abilities. Last but not least,
these students are the ones who I have been directly teaching and I understand their
strengths and weaknesses, I will have favorable conditions to carry out all the steps of the
study process.
II.2.2.2. Settings of the study
This study was conducted from early February to mid May 2010 when the students were in
the second term of the first year. Up to the time of the study, they had been studying
English at the college for more than half a year with 150 periods. They had finished
learning a series of units in New Headway – Elementary by Liz and John Soars and some
other materials adapted to suit their proficiency levels such as Inside Out – Elementary by
Sue Kay & Vaughan Jones, and Know How 1 by Angela Blackwell & Therese Naber. At
this time of the study, they were learning the last units in New Headway – Elementary by
Liz and John Soars. All of the textbooks and materials aimed at providing the students with
basic knowledge of English and skills which serves as a foundation for the ESP course to
be delivered in the third year.
II.2.3. Instruments
The present study includes tests and questionnaires to collect data on the reading strategies
employed by the first-year Economics and Business Management students. Firstly, the
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reading comprehension tests were given to the students in order to identify their reading
proficiency before and after introducing reading strategies. Then, the questionnaires were
administered to identify their reading strategies and examine how efficiently the reading
strategies were used in reading comprehension tasks.
The reason why I chose tests and questionnaires to collect data is that different types of
instruments may lead to the conclusions about reading strategies employed to improve the
students‟ reading comprehension. This combination of instruments would provide

comprehensive overview of reading strategies used by my students. Following is a detailed
description of the given research instruments.
II.2.3.1. Tests
A test is a procedure used to collect data on subjects‟ ability or knowledge of certain
disciplines. In a second language acquisition research, tests are usually used to collect data
about the subjects‟ ability in and knowledge of the second language in areas such as
vocabulary, grammar, reading, metalinguistic awareness and general proficiency. In this
study, two reading comprehension tests were given to the first year Economics and
Business and Management students in two months. The first reading comprehension test
was given to the students to investigate their reading strategies and the second one was
given after equipping them the reading strategies. The reason for using tests and test scores
as a main data collection instrument for my study was that the investigation and the
equipment of the reading strategies among the students was very important to the success
of the study and the only way to do it was by using tests and test scores.
As the tests and the test scores play such an important part in this study, I had to choose
good reading comprehension tests that can help me identify the reading strategies
appropriate for my students. When deciding the tests for my students, I had to take into
consideration their reading abilities. At the time of the study, their English proficiency was
at the pre-intermediate level. Thus the reading comprehension tests chosen for them should
be suitable for this proficiency level.
The two reading comprehension tests were taken from Insights for Today by Lorraine C.
Smith and Nancy Nici Mare (1993). The two reading tests are included in Appendix 2. The
reason for selecting them as the reading tests for my study is that all of these can be
regarded as standardized tests. They are high-beginning reading skill texts and they are
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developed by experts and therefore considered to be well constructed. However, I have
made some replacement and substitution from the book in order to satisfy the study‟s aims.
The two reading comprehension tests used in this study have the same form. Each reading
comprehension test consists of a pre-reading preparation, a reading text, and twelve

questions in the three tasks of Main Ideas and Fact-Finding Exercise, Reading Analysis,
and Information Recall. The three tasks represent for metacognitive, cognitive, and
social/affective strategies respectively. The first task includes three questions (From
question 1 to question 3) representing for planning, monitoring, and evaluation strategies.
The second one consists of eight questions (from question 4 to question 11) including
repetition, grouping, deduction, imagery, elaboration, transfer, inferencing, and
summarizing strategies respectively. The last task, question 12 refers cooperation strategy.
II.2.3.2. Questionnaires
The second instrument in this study is questionnaires. In view of several authors such as
Oxford, 1990; O‟Malley and Chamot, 1990; Naiman et all, 1989 survey questionnaires are
a common tool to collect data on learning strategies in general and reading strategies in
particular. As Selinger and Shohany (1989) pointed out, questionnaires have the following
advantages. The first is that they do not take so much time to administer as other
procedures. The second one is that since the same questionnaire is given to all subjects at
the same time, the data are more uniform, standard and accurate. Lastly, questionnaires can
be easily quantified because multiple choice questions are used. These are the reason I
used questionnaires for the second data collection method in this study.
Nevertheless, one of the biggest problems with questionnaires is that constructing a
reliable one is extremely time consuming. When designing questions the researcher should
be careful because the ambiguity in the question may lead to irrelevant answers. Moreover,
responses may not always be true as students may over-estimate or under-estimate the
frequency of use of certain strategies. They may also be unaware if they use a given
strategy and even how they are using it. So I was very careful with the questionnaire. This
questionnaire was developed based on O‟Malley and Chamot‟s learning strategy
classification and literature on reading strategies (section II.1.3).
The questionnaire used in this study consisted of two main parts. The first part required
subjects to give information about their names, ages, genders, the number of year learning
English, their proficiency levels (self-evaluated). The second one was included 13