Teacher’s attitudes towards and practice in cognitive reading strategies instruction = Nhận thức và thực tiễn của giáo viên về chiến lược dạy đọc hiểu theo nhận

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY-HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
  





BÙI THỊ VÂN ANH

TEACHER’S ATTITUDES TOWARDS AND PRACTICE IN
COGNITIVE READING STRATEGIES INSTRUCTION
(Nhận thức và thực tiễn của giáo viên về chiến lược dạy
đọc hiểu theo nhận thức)


M. A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS



Field: English Language Teaching Methodology
Code: 601410

HANOI - 2012




iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pages
Declaration
i
Acknowledgements
ii
Abstract
iii

Table of contents
iv
List of Tables, Figures
vii
List of Abbreviations
viii


PART I: INTRODUCTION

1. Rationale
1
2. Aims and Objectives of the study
2
3. Research questions
3
4. Method of the Study
3
5. Scope of the study
4
6. Significance of the Study
4
7. Organization of the thesis
4


PART II: DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER ONE : LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1. Reading and reading models
5
1.2. Reading strategies
7
1.2.1. Definition of reading strategy
7
1.2.2. Reading strategies and reading comprehension
8
1.2.3. Cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies
8
1.3. Teacher‟s beliefs and classroom practice
12
1.4. Reading strategy instruction
13
1.5. Review of related studies on teacher‟s reading strategy instruction
14
1.6. Summary
16
CHAPTER TWO: THE STUDY


2.1. Context of the study
17
2.2. Participants
17
2.3. Research design
18
2.4. Data collection instruments
18
v

2.5. Data collection procedure
21
2.6. Data analysis procedure
22
2.7. Summary
23
CHAPTER THREE: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION


3.1. Teachers‟ beliefs about cognitive reading strategies
24
3.2. Correspondence between teachers' beliefs and their self-reported
instructional practices
28
3.3. Cognitive reading strategies teachers actually instruct at
classrooms
31
3.4. Factors affecting teacher‟s instructional practice of cognitive
reading strategies
35
3.5. Summary
38


PART III: CONCLUSION


1. Summary of the main findings
39

2. Pedagogical Implications
41
3. Limitations of the study
44
4. Suggestions for further study
44


REFERENCES
46

APPENDICES


Appendix A: Questionnaire on Reading Strategies
I
Appendix B: Observation Checklist
IV
Appendix C: Semi-structured Interview Questions
V
Appendix D: Paired Sample Correlations
VI
Appendix E: Suggested Activities for Some Strategies
VII





vi

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES


Pages
Figure 3.1
Teachers‟ familiarity with the concept of reading
strategies
24
Figure 3.2
Teachers‟ reasons for teaching reading strategies at class
25
Table 3.1
Teachers‟ beliefs about the importance of instructing pre-
reading strategies in reading comprehension
26
Table 3.2
Teachers‟ beliefs about the importance of instructing
while-reading strategies in reading comprehension
27
Table 3.3
Teachers‟ beliefs about the importance of instructing
post-reading strategies in reading comprehension
28
Table 3.4
Teachers‟ beliefs and self-reported practices on reading
strategies
29
Table 3.5
Most-instructed strategies in comparison with rank of

importance
30
Table 3.6
Teachers‟ actual instruction of reading strategies
32
Table 3.7
Correlation between age and instruction of reading
strategies
35
Table 3.8
Correlation between qualification and instruction of
reading strategies
36
Table 3.9
Correlation between years of experience and instruction
of reading strategies
36

vii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

LVT
Luong Van Tuy
EFL
English as a Foreign Language
ESL
English as a Second Language
L1
First Language

L2
Second Language
MOET
Ministry of Education and Training
M
Means
N
Number of Cases or Subjects of the study
p
Probability of chance (indicator of significance)
SD
Standard Deviation
SPSS
Statistic Package for Social Science







1

PART I: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
Reading is considered one of the most important skills which language learners
should acquire, particularly as it helps to build vocabulary and leads to lifelong
learning and improvement in second language skills (Bernhardt, 1991 as cited in
Zhang & Guo, 2005, p. 111). In Vietnam, students have historically studied English
as a foreign language mainly through reading in classroom settings. In most cases,

their teachers are also users of English as an additional language, with all sharing
Vietnamese as their mother tongue.
In the review of the current situation and issues of teaching English in Vietnam,
Hoang (2010) stated that until recently, English textbooks in Vietnam were mainly
grammar-based, taking the view that grammar could be taught systematically as a
set of rules to be mastered and transferred by the learner into proficient language
use (p. 10). In other words, the grammar-translation method used to be widely
accepted in which teachers tended to focus on teaching language points such as
grammar and vocabulary. However, in 2007, the Vietnamese government
introduced into high schools a new standard curriculum which has required teachers
to develop the students‟ ability to use language appropriately by integrating
language teaching with non-linguistic teaching. Examples of non-linguistic teaching
consist of affective teaching, strategy teaching and inter-cultural awareness.
Approaches within the classroom began to shift from the predominately grammar-
translation method to more communicative approaches which encourage students‟
interaction.
The innovative change in language approaches inclusively affects the teaching and
learning of reading comprehension. In reading lessons, rather than traditionally
focus on the decoding of words and sentences, teachers are strongly recommended
to foster both students‟ interpretive and productive skills, as well as to provide them
with instruction on reading strategies. It is proved by over 500 studies in the last
2

twenty five years that reading strategy instruction greatly improves students‟
reading comprehension (Wellingham, 2007, p. 39). In a lesson of reading strategy
instruction, teachers guide the use of reading strategies, showing students how to
utilize them in order to cope with texts in an unfamiliar language (Eskey, 1988).
Helping students develop good reading strategies in particular and language
learning strategies in general is considered to be the appreciated characteristics of a
good language teacher (Lessard, 1997, p. 3).

Research in second language reading instruction in the last decades of the 1990‟s
tended to focus on general explanations and descriptions of reading strategies
employed by competent and incompetent readers. Less attention was given to the
actual implementation of reading strategies instruction from a teaching perspective
as well as teachers‟ beliefs of the importance of these strategies (Hua & Kim, 2008).
Furthermore, Borg (2003, 2006) explores that significant contributions to
understanding the relationship between teachers‟ beliefs and their classroom
practices of reading instruction have been primarily made in first language
education contexts whereas there has been a little amount of research in the area of
second and foreign language (cited in Kuzborska, 2011, p. 103). Chou (2008) also
contends this gap results into an unclear picture of teachers‟ beliefs construct in
teaching reading in EFL contexts (p. 192). Therefore, undeniably, it is essential to
conduct more research on exploring teachers‟ beliefs and their actual instructional
practices regarding reading strategies. With the aim to contribute some “meaningful
pieces” to the unclear picture, this survey research was carried out on the topic
given, namely teacher‟s attitudes towards and practices in cognitive reading
strategies instruction.
2. Aims and Objectives of the study
The main aim of this study was to explore teacher‟s attitudes towards and practices
in instructing cognitive reading strategies for mainstream students at Luong Van
Tuy Gifted High School.
3

To be more specific, the primary objectives of the study were set as follows:
 To find out beliefs teachers hold about cognitive reading strategies
 To investigate to what extent teachers‟ beliefs correspond to their self-
reported instructional practices
 To examine which cognitive reading strategies teachers actually instruct at
classrooms
 To reveal factors affecting the teachers‟ instruction of cognitive reading

strategies
3. Research questions
Based on the theoretical framework proposed, the researcher put forward the
following research questions:
1. What beliefs do teachers hold about cognitive reading strategies?
2. To what extent do teachers' beliefs correspond to their self-reported
instructional practices?
3. Which cognitive reading strategies do teachers actually instruct at
classrooms?
4. What factors affect teachers‟ instructional practice of cognitive reading
strategies?
4. Method of the study
Because the purpose of the study was to reveal teachers‟ beliefs and the
correspondence with their classroom practice, the survey research was adopted in
the study with data collection instruments of questionnaires, observations, and
interviews. All ten English teachers of the targeted school were asked to express
their opinions on the importance and practice of teaching cognitive reading
strategies through questionnaires. Later, in order to obtain direct information on
actual teaching practices, each teacher was observed in three 45-minute lessons
followed by semi-structured interviews.
4

5. Scope of the study
The study was conducted to explore teacher‟s attitudes towards and practices in
instructing cognitive reading strategies for mainstream students at a high school
named Luong Van Tuy Gifted High School in Ninh Binh Province. Therefore, no
intention was made to generalize the findings.
6. Significance of the study
The study is strongly hoped to provide teachers in the targeted school with useful
insights into the situation of teaching cognitive reading strategies based on which

some implications are made for more efficient reading comprehension lessons.
Although no generalization is intended, the findings of the study could inform other
teachers of the effectiveness of reading strategies instruction on students‟ reading
comprehension.
7. Organization of the thesis
The thesis is organized in three parts.
Part I is The Introduction which presents the rationale for the research topic, its
aims, scope, significance, as well as research methods.
Part II is The Development which consists of three chapters. Chapter one provides a
theoretical framework for the study, including definitions and types of reading,
issues in teaching reading skills and reading strategies, teachers‟ beliefs and their
classroom practices. Chapter 2 reports the methodology used in the research
including research questions, participants, instruments and the procedures for data
collection and analysis. Chapter 3 presents detailed discussion of the data given by
questionnaires, classroom observations and interviews.
Part III is The Conclusion which discusses the major findings and limitations of the
research, draws pedagogical implications and provides some suggestions for further
study.

5

PART II: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER ONE: LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1. Reading and reading models
Reading as a research area is an extremely large and complex field about which
much has been written. Substantial efforts to define and explain the process of
reading have brought about various models and views of reading. Through a very
comprehensive review of many reading models, Barnett (1988) categorizes reading
models into three basic types, namely “top-down”, “bottom-up”, and “interactive”
models.

Bottom-up model
The bottom-up model suggests that the meaning of the text is contained only in the
text itself. The reader merely receives information from the printed text, building up
meaning by decoding the symbols (letters), words, phrases and sentences serially. In
this model, reading was viewed as the process of meaning interpretation in which
the language is translated from one form of symbolic representation to another.
Therefore, the goals of the bottom-up model are automatic word recognition and
rapid reading rate. The term of „text-based‟ is frequently used for this type of
model.
The introduction of bottom-up model has provided justifications for the reading
processes of poor or beginning readers who depend substantially on lower-level
processing (Hassan, 1999). However, the notable limitation of the model is the
inflexibility of the representation which, on the whole, is serial and linear. As a
result, the reader‟s creativity and ability to move from lower level processing to
higher level processing and vice versa are not depicted (Rayner and Pollastek, 1989,
p. 477).

6

Top-down model
The top-down model is influenced by schema theory, which emphasizes the
importance of the reader‟s background knowledge in the reading process.
According to this theory, in order to comprehend a text, readers make use of both
the text and their background knowledge. In “top-down” processing, the reader
begins with higher-order concepts (i.e. general knowledge of the world or a specific
situation) and full texts (i.e. paragraphs and sentences), then works down to the
actual features of the texts (e.g. letters, words, phrases, and grammatical structures).
As to top-down teaching model, the learner‟s prior knowledge is activated;
therefore, it enhances learner‟s language learning, and makes possible reading
comprehension. In this model, reading is seen as the process in which readers move

from the top, the higher level of mental stages down to the text itself. The term
„reader-based‟ is frequently used for “top-down” model.
However, the top-down model suffers from the problem of overemphasizing the
higher-level processes (Eskey, 1988). The meaning of a text seems to be derived
from contextual clues and the background knowledge of a reader whereas little
emphasis is given to the lower-level processes of decoding. As a result, the model
seems more suitable for proficient readers (Hassan, 1999).
The limitations of both the bottom-up and top-down models of reading have led to
developments in modeling reading as an interactive process.
Interactive model
It is easy to draw out that the most salient difference between bottom-up and top-
down model is the role of readers: the former as passive decoders while the latter as
active encoders. The third category of reading is referred to as interactive since it
combines the characteristics of both “bottom-up” and “top-down” models. Besides,
the notion of “interaction” includes the interaction between text and reader, that is,
the information in the text and readers‟ prior knowledge (Eskey, 1988).
7

The interactive model appears to be the most promising in explaining the reading
process (Grabe, 1991). The model encompasses different types of first-language and
second-language reading, incorporates both bottom-up and top-down processes, and
recognizes the contribution of both the reader and the text. The interactive model
also recognizes reader variables such as background knowledge, prediction, and
other reading strategies, which are unaccounted for in bottom-up models but
accounted for in all aspects of in top-down reading models.
1.2. Reading strategies
1.2.1. Definition of reading strategy
Several definitions of “reading strategy” are available in the literature on reading;
nevertheless, there has never been consensus among researchers for a clear cut
definition of reading strategies (Ellis, 1994). This diversity is largely due to the way

the term has been used in different contexts such as first, second, or foreign
language learning (Cohen, 1998). Paris, Wasik, and Turner (1991) describe
strategies as “actions selected deliberately to achieve particular goals” (p. 692). In
the same way of emphasizing the “purposeful” characteristic of reading strategies,
Barnett (1988) defines it as the mental operations involved when readers
intentionally approach a text to make sense of what they read (p. 66). Furthermore,
Koda (2005) characterizes reading strategies with three core elements, namely
“deliberate, goal/problem-oriented, and reader-initiated/controlled” (p. 205).
Afferbach, Pearson, and Paris (2008) further clarify Koda‟s viewpoint that reading
strategies are employed towards the goal of controlling and modifying the reader‟s
efforts to decode text, understand word, and construct meanings out of text” (p. 15).
For the sake of briefness and clarity, reading strategies are regarded, in the present
study, as specific actions consciously employed by the learner for the purpose of
reading.
A reading strategy differs from a reading skill in its intentionality and automaticity
status. A reading skill is only acquired when using reading strategy becomes
8

effortless and automatic with learners‟ less deliberate attention (Afferbach, Pearson,
and Paris, 2008, p. 368).
1.2.2. Reading strategies and reading comprehension
An impressive number of empirical investigations have established a positive
relationship between strategies and reading comprehension. For instance, Bezci
(1998) has found that the use of various reading strategies improved the students'
reading comprehension. Certain studies in second language contexts also affirmed
the attribution of reading strategies to the success of learners‟ reading
comprehension such as Dermody (1988), and Anderson (1991). According to
Anderson (1991), reading strategies are “must-have” elements in the reading
process besides the reader and the text (p. 68).
1.2.3. Cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies

Reading strategies are divided into two major categories: metacognitive and
cognitive reading strategies.
 Metacognitive strategies
Metacognitive strategies involves thinking about the learning process, planning for
learning, monitoring of comprehension or production while it is taking place, and
self-evaluation of learning after the language activity is completed (Skehan, 1989,
p. 87). Baker & Brown (1984) propose in details six metacognitive strategies
namely checking the outcome of any attempt to solve a problem, planning one's
next move, monitoring the effectiveness of any attempted action, testing, revising,
and evaluating one's strategies for learning (p. 354).
 Cognitive strategies
Williams and Moran (1989) state that cognitive strategies are seen as mental
processes directly concerned with the processing of information in order to obtain,
store, retrieve or use information (p. 148). They are more limited to specific
learning tasks and involve more direct manipulation of the learning material itself.
9

In other words, cognitive strategies concern interacting with learning tasks,
manipulating materials mentally or physically, or applying a specific technique to
the learning task: such as note-taking, summarization, imaginary, making
inferences.
Cognitive strategies aid the reader in constructing meaning from the text (Salataci &
Akyel, 2002). In general, studies in both first language and second language provide
a binary division of cognitive strategies into bottom-up and top-down strategies
such as Carrell‟s (1989), and Davis & Bistodeau‟s (1993) (cited in Salataci &
Akyel, 2002) . Davis & Bistodeau‟s (1993) define bottom-up strategies as those
readers employ when processing information at the sentence level. In other words,
they focus on the identification of meaning and grammatical category of a word,
sentence syntax, text details, and so forth. Differently, as they process information
that each sentence gives them, they check to see how this information fits, using

top-down strategies such as background knowledge, prediction, getting the gist of a
text, and skimming (cited in Salataci & Akyel, 2002).
Zhang and Wu (2009) categorize cognitive strategies into global strategies (e.g.,
checking how content fits purpose and using typographical aides, such as italics),
problem-solving strategies (e.g., reading slowly and carefully and visualizing
information), and support strategies (e.g., underlining and reading aloud when text
becomes difficult) (p. 58). Anderson (1991) classifies five categories, namely
supervising, support, paraphrasing, establishing coherence, and testing.
On the way of searching for an appropriate classification, the researcher has found
out a more teacher-friendly one that is the grouping of cognitive reading strategies
in accordance with pre-, while-, and post-reading phases. In other words, the
behaviors, which are designed to help students before, during, and after they read,
categorize the cognitive reading strategies. This classification has been preferred by
many researchers such as Bezci (1998), Ozek & Vivelek (2006), Yurdaisik (2007).
However, they propose different strategies under the three stages, which results
from the involvement of some strategies in more than one stage such as predicting,
10

asking comprehension questions, etc. As a result, in the scope of the study, the
researcher aims to put forward the major reading strategies commonly
recommended by various scholars. These are mainly based on Bezci (1998)‟s,
Yurdaisik (2007)‟s and Yigiter et al (2005)‟s classifications.
 Pre-reading strategies assist students to overcome the common urge to begin
reading a text closely right away. They also prepare students for actual reading with
four specific strategies.
 Activating already-known knowledge about the topic
Prior knowledge should be discussed before reading the text to help set the stage for
what is coming. During reading, students should be encouraged to make
connections to the text from their experience and the teacher should model this
process using his or her own connections. After reading, the discussion should

center on how the connections helped students to better understand the text and how
the text helped them to build their foundation of prior knowledge.
 Previewing the text
Previewing enables readers to get a sense of what the text is about and how it is
organized without actually reading the main body of the text. To preview, students
can read the title, author details, main headings and sub headings, chapter
summaries, any highlighted text, any illustrations.
 Make predictions about the probable meaning of the text
When a student makes a prediction, he or she is making a guess about what is going
to happen next in a story or what a character is going to do or think. Predicting also
helps students become actively involved in reading and highly interested when they
can compare their predictions with the content of the text.
 Finding the text structure
Text structure refers to how the information within a written text is organized. This
strategy helps students understand that a text might present a main idea and details;
a cause and then its effects; and/or different views of a topic. Teaching students to
11

recognize common text structures can help students monitor their comprehension.
The text structure can be modeled using a graphic organizer to chart.
 While-reading strategies will help students cope with problematic and
greyer areas of the text. Due to the fact that students need different strategies to
acquire the proficiency level, while-reading strategies are sometimes difficult to
teach and learn so they are considered as challenging strategies (Alvarez & Risko,
1989). The seven while-reading strategies are proposed.
 Skimming to get the overall meaning of the text
Skimming involves running your eye very quickly over large chunks of text. It is
different from previewing because skimming involves the paragraph text.
Skimming allows students to pick up some of the main ideas without paying
attention to details.

 Scanning to find specific information
Scanning involves moving eyes quickly down the page seeking specific information
 Using context to guess meaning of unknown words
This strategy helps to figure out what the word means by thinking about the words
around it.
 Taking notes or marking text
Teaching students text-marking strategies accomplishes two objectives. First,
students are more focused on what they are reading because they are making
decisions about what to mark. Second, they are emphasizing words and phrases that
will allow them to quickly find information in the passage to answer test questions.
 Questioning while reading the text
Some questions may be asked to clarify confusion about the content of the text.
Strategically asking and answering questions while reading helps students with
difficulties engage with text in ways that good readers do naturally, thus “improving
their active processing of text and their comprehension” (National Reading Panel,
2003, p. 51).
 Meaning inferences
12

This strategy involves students‟ ability to draw meaning from text through explicit
details and implicit clues. Furthermore, they can connect prior knowledge and
experiences to the text in order to make good guesses about what is happening, may
have happened, or will happen in the future.
 Mapping the text
Ideas are recorded during reading. Students can see the relationships among ideas,
and distinguish between main ideas and supporting details.
 Post- reading strategies help students deepen their understanding of the
content, build further connections, and expand their prior knowledge of the subject
matter. There are four major post-reading strategies.
 Summarizing

The main ideas are identified and restated in student‟s own words
 Evaluating
Students express personal responses (opinions, comments) to beliefs and values
stated in the text
 Drawing conclusions
The conclusion is made based on both the text information and student‟s evaluation.
 Extend understanding in critical and creative ways in follow-up activities.
To extend the reading, students may participate in activities such as speaking,
drama, writing, art, or more reading
1.3. Teachers’ beliefs and classroom practice
From the viewpoint of Mansour (2008) and Richard (2003), teachers‟ beliefs are
described as being the most valuable in the psychological composition of the
teacher. However, beliefs have been acknowledged as being notoriously difficult to
define. Pajares (1992) labels them as “a messy construct [that] travels in disguise
and often under alias” (p. 2). Ghaith (2004) proposes teachers‟ beliefs comprise
their beliefs on education and teaching, curricula and the teaching profession in
general, which form the “education culture” affecting pedagogical objectives and
13

values. Teachers‟ beliefs are also defined as “judgments” by Yero (2002) “untested
assumptions” by Calderhead (1996), and “theories for practices” by Burns (1996).
Teachers‟ beliefs can promote teaching practice; nevertheless, they may also work
as barriers to changes (Pajares, 1992).
Through the review of previous definitions, teachers‟ beliefs are understood, in the
present study, to be a set of teacher‟s pedagogical principles that play a central role
in guiding his/her teaching behaviors.
1.4. Reading strategy instruction
For most second language learners who are already literate in a previous language,
reading comprehension is “primarily a matter of developing appropriate and
efficient comprehension strategies" (Wilhelm & Li, 2008, p. 291). Both first and

second language studies have revealed that strategies are teachable, and when they
are taught, students utilize training to a large extent (Janzen & Stoller, 1998). The
strategies that successful readers employ can be taught to less successful readers via
explicit strategy instruction which aims to raise learners‟ consciousness of strategic
nature of reading (McDonough, 1995). In fact, even efficient readers can benefit
from strategy instruction because they may also face many problems due to the lack
of awareness of their own strategic behaviors, or the difficulties occurring in the
adjustment of strategies according to their needs (Rubin, 1987). It is the teacher who
must introduce and provide practice in using reading strategies for coping with texts
in an unfamiliar language (Eskey, 1988).
The case is very strong that teaching elementary, middle school, and high school
students to use a repertoire of comprehension strategies increases their
comprehension of text. The awareness of reading strategies is of crucial importance
especially for these beginning readers (Abdullah et al., 2009, p. 312). Teachers
should model and explain comprehension strategies, have their students practice
using such strategies with teacher support, and let students know they are expected
to continue using the strategies when reading on their own (Pressley, 2000). Such
14

teaching should occur across every school day so as to get all readers using the
strategies independently, which means including it in reading instruction for years.
Strategy instruction should be a part of each lesson in an ongoing process through
the whole curriculum rather than taught separately, since strategic reading improves
only if readers are exposed to a lot of practice in a long-term training program
(Grabe, 1991). While the original aim of instruction is to promote comprehension in
reading, the ultimate goal is to create independent and effective readers who can
build their own purposes and adopt the relevant strategies (Cohen, 1998). Thus,
strategy instruction develops autonomous learners with high motivation and self-
esteem responsible for their own performance in reading (Allen, 2003).
1.5. Review of related studies on teacher’s reading strategy instruction

Allan and Bruton (1997) explored teachers‟ perceptions on teaching reading and
reading strategies to support reading development. The study was carried out in a
context in which many teachers made explicit their concerns about those students
who had difficulty in understanding texts. The study aimed to find out teachers‟
understanding of reading process and their teaching of reading strategies in
secondary schools in Scotland. The results showed that most of the teachers they
studied considered reading strategies important that should be taught and developed
in secondary school. The majority, however, did not see themselves knowledgeable
about the reading strategy instruction.
Abdullah et al. (2009) investigated the effectiveness of teaching reading strategies
towards developing students‟ reading competency among primary school teachers.
A questionnaire survey was administered to determine whether the teachers have
knowledge of reading strategies and to teach their students. The findings of the
study showed that while teachers were aware of the use of reading strategies in
developing reading competencies, they did not fully utilized them in teaching
reading to primary school students. Effective reading strategies such as setting
context, relating the text to students‟ schemata and predicting or interpreting text
15

were less frequently used. Apart from that, teachers also failed to encourage
readers‟ interaction with the text.
Chou (2008) conducted a study based on the assumption that teachers were highly
influenced by their beliefs. He investigated teachers‟ beliefs about reading
approaches among 42 university instructors and explored the degree of
discrepancies or consistencies between teachers‟ beliefs and their practical teaching
activities in the EFL setting of Taiwan based on teacher reading strategies
questionnaires. The findings showed that there were no significant differences
between the participants‟ beliefs and their use of each reading approach.
Differently, rather than reading theories, Khonamri & Salimi (2010) aimed to
investigate reading strategies about which Iranian EFL high school teachers hold

certain beliefs and employ certain practical teaching activities. Based on
questionnaire data from 57 teachers, teachers‟ beliefs and their self-reported
classroom employment of reading strategies were explored. Findings indicated that
teachers believed reading strategies played an important role in reading
comprehension and that it was necessary to teach reading strategies in reading
classes. The results also revealed that there is inconsistency between teachers'
beliefs and their self-reported classroom practice.
In the context of Vietnam, Nguyen (2007) explored teachers‟ beliefs about teaching
reading strategies and reading strategies instruction by high school teachers.
Employing interviews and class observations to collect data, she found out that
teachers‟ beliefs about teaching reading strategies were not always consistent. The
lack of knowledge about reading strategies caused them problems, which they both
consciously and unconsciously were aware of. Furthermore, teacher‟s classroom
practices did not always correspond to their beliefs. To some extent, their classroom
practices were based on their cognition and theories. To other extent, their beliefs
were not reflected. The beliefs of the teachers in this study were affected by a
variety of external factors (teaching context, materials and curriculum, student‟s
16

motivation) and internal ones (teacher‟s ability, teacher‟s training, and teacher‟s
view). These factors interplayed to influence them in their process of teaching.
In brief, the studies above have revealed different findings on the congruence
between teachers‟ beliefs and their instructional practice. Choosing the school
where the researcher is teaching English, she asked for participation of the same
group of subjects as Khonamri & Salimi‟s and Nga‟s ones , i.e. high school
teachers; however, various data collection instruments were employed to contribute
meaningful findings to the controversial issue of teacher‟s and their instructional
practice.
1.6. Summary
This chapter reviews the literature on the different models as well as approaches of

teaching reading comprehension. The vital role of reading strategies is also further
discussed together with the concept of teachers‟ beliefs with relation to their
classroom practice. These are followed by a brief review of related studies on
teacher‟s reading strategy instruction already published in the foreign and
Vietnamese contexts. Next chapter- Chapter II- will describe the study including the
context and the design of the study.











17

CHAPTER TWO: THE STUDY
2.1. Context of the study
The study was conducted at Luong Van Tuy high school, which is situated at the
center of Ninh Binh city, Ninh Binh province. As the only specialized high school
in the province, it attracts almost all advanced students from the city as well as
different districts of Ninh Binh.
For the 2010-2011 academic year, the school had over one thousand and two
hundred students being grouped in 30 gifted classes, with an average of 30 students
per class. There were 10 teachers of English and 100 others in teaching staff. The
school has a quite big library with plentiful sources of reference books, magazines
and newspapers convenient for all students to make references. Moreover, it has

five well-equipped classrooms with projectors, screens, computers, etc. available. In
fact, it is considered to be the best school in Ninh Binh in terms of teaching and
learning facilities.
As for the students of the school, most of them live in the city or near the city so
they have favorable conditions for their learning both at school and at home. All the
classes except 3 English gifted ones receive 3 English periods a week with the
textbooks and workbooks prescribed for mainstream level by MOEET.
2.2. Participants
The study involved English teachers who are teaching mainstream students at
Luong Van Tuy gifted high school in Ninh Binh province. Due to the small number
of English teachers in the targeted school, all the 10 teachers were called for
participation in the study. The teachers ranged in age from their twenties to forties.
All of the participants are female whose years of experience varied, ranging from
less than 5 years (40%), 5 to 9 years (40%), 10 to 20 years (10%), and more than 20
years (10%). Only one among 10 teachers holds MA degree on English teaching
education.
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2.3. Research design
Since the study disclosed the pedagogical beliefs among teachers in teaching
reading strategies and the correlation between pedagogical beliefs among teachers
and their practice at classrooms, the methodology adopted by the researcher is the
survey research methodology. The teachers‟ beliefs in this study were measured by
a designed questionnaire in which they expressed their opinions about the
importance of cognitive reading strategies instruction. Additionally, in
questionnaires, teachers also self-reported their practice of each reading strategy
based on Likert scales 1 to 5 ranging from hardly ever to almost always.
Furthermore, classroom observations and semi-structured interviews were also
adopted to reveal teachers‟ actual practice of instructing reading strategies and
factors affecting their instructions.

2.4. Data collection instruments
The methods utilized in the study were:
 questionnaires
 lesson observations
 semi-structured interviews
Questionnaires
The questionnaire consists of four sections. In the first section, the demographic
information of the participants was aimed to be collected so as to find some certain
factors affecting teacher‟s choice of instructing reading strategies. Similar to
Section I in the way of being adopted from Yurdaisik‟s questionnaire, Section II
revealed teachers‟ attitudes towards cognitive reading strategies in terms of their
familiarity with cognitive reading strategies and reasons for teaching these
strategies in class. Section III explored teachers‟ beliefs of instructing reading
strategies in which they were asked to express their agreement on the importance of
each strategy. Section IV investigated the teacher‟s self-reported instruction of
reading strategies at reading classes. These two sections included 15 identical
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elements that were considered important cognitive strategies in reading
comprehension. Items 1-4 referred to pre-reading strategies, items 5-11 were related
to while-reading strategies and the others concerned post-reading ones. The Likert
Scale 1 to 5 was adopted in both Section III and IV. In the former, 1 indicates the
least important or the least agreement on a certain statement, while 5 refers to the
most important or strongest agreement of the item. Whereas, in the latter, the
frequency of teaching increases in accordance with the higher number from “hardly
ever” (1) to almost “always” (5). In order to minimize the possibility of omitting
any other important cognitive reading strategies employed by teachers, two open-
ended questions were added in Section III and IV for respondents to freely express
their ideas without the constraints of fixed options. In this way, the questionnaire
might be able to “provide a far greater „richness‟ than fully quantitative data”

(Dörnyei 2003, p.47).
Reliability of questionnaire
Research conducted by Bradburn and Sudman (1988) suggests that response rates
are higher for individuals with a higher education, which includes teachers, who are
familiar with the format of forms and questionnaires. These authors also find that
teachers often prefer questionnaires to interviews because they can be completed at
a convenient time. Furthermore, questionnaires can also be completed
anonymously.
A major concern with the use of any questionnaire is that the instrument be
understandable to the participant. A questionnaire must be easy to read and the
directions should be self-explanatory. To insure clarity of the instrument, the initial
form of the questionnaire was given to 5 experienced and capable arbitrators in the
Ninh Binh Department of Education and Training who directly manage the English
teaching of high school teachers in the whole province. They were asked to define
the appropriateness of the questionnaire style, the clarity of words and the language
soundness. After returning the tool, the proposed amendments cited by arbitrators in
their recommendations were made. Furthermore, they were piloted with the 5
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teachers in another high school in Ninh Binh province. The reliability index based
on Cronbach‟s alpha for the questionnaire was 0.93. Besides, after the pilot study,
teachers were given an orientation on how to code the questionnaire.
Validity of questionnaire
The external validity is hoped to be ensured when all the 10 teachers responsible for
teaching mainstream students participated in the study. However, a major threat to
the internal validity is the issue of truthfulness on the part of the participants,
especially in a study in which the participants may be familiar with the researcher
(Weiss, 1975). Teachers may hesitate to admit they do not use several of the reading
strategies included on the survey in their classrooms. This may be even more
common if the researcher is a colleague. The challenge of soliciting honest

responses from the participants was addressed by reminding teachers at a faculty
meeting, and in an email, that the purpose of this study was to improve knowledge
in the field of reading strategies instruction. Teachers were also repeatedly assured
anonymity of their responses.
Lesson Observation
Gebhard (1999) defines classroom observation as “non-judgmental description of
classroom events that can be analyzed and given interpretation” (p. 35). The
purpose of observation in the context of the present study was not to evaluate the
teaching. Rather, observing the teachers in action allowed a means of assessing the
extent to which the teachers‟ self-reported practices corresponded to what actually
happened in the classroom. It was also a form of data triangulation, particularly
because key observations made were discussed with the teachers in follow up
discussions as a further attempt at validating the observations. Three 45-minute
lessons per teacher were observed. The lessons were audio and video recorded and
later analyzed for teacher‟s actual practice of reading strategies instruction. The
items in the observation checklist were similar to the items in the questionnaire,
which was used to figure out the correspondence between teacher‟s self-reported
practice and actual one. A schedule recording the questions generated by the