UET it sophomores' English learning strategies for reading skills an exploratory research = Nghiên cứu chiến lược học tiếng Anh dành cho kỹ năng đọc của sinh vi

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES






ĐỖ HÀ LAN






UET IT SOPHOMORES’ENGLISH LEARNING
STRATEGIES FOR READING SKILLS: AN
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

NGHIÊN CỨU CHIẾN LƯỢC HỌC TIẾNG ANH DÀNH CHO KỸ NĂNG
ĐỌC CỦA SINH VIÊN NĂM THỨ HAI TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC CÔNG NGHỆ,
ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HÀ NỘI



M.A. THESIS

MINOR THESIS
FIELD: METHODOLOGY
CODE: 601410









HANOI - 2010


VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES






ĐỖ HÀ LAN

UET IT SOPHOMORES’ENGLISH LEARNING
STRATEGIES FOR READING SKILLS: AN
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

NGHIÊN CỨU CHIẾN LƯỢC HỌC TIẾNG ANH DÀNH CHO KỸ NĂNG
ĐỌC CỦA SINH VIÊN NĂM THỨ HAI TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC CÔNG NGHỆ,
ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HÀ NỘI



M.A. THESIS




MINOR THESIS
FIELD: METHODOLOGY
CODE: 601410
SUPERVISOR: DƯƠNG THỊ NỤ, Ph. D









HANOI - 2010

iii
TABLE OF CONTENT

Acknowledgements
i
Abstract
ii
PART ONE – INTRODUCTION
1
1. Rationale
1
2. Purpose of the study
2
3. Research questions
2
4. Methods of the study
2
5. Scope of the study
3
6. Significance of the study
3
7. Design of the study
3
PART TWO – DEVELOPMENT
5
CHAPTER 1 – LITERATURE REVIEW
5
I.1. Language learning strategies
5

I.1.1. Definitions of language learning strategies
5
I.1.2. Features of language learning strategies
7
I.1.3. Importance of language learning strategies
7
I.1.4. Types of language learning strategies
8
I.2. Language learning strategies for reading skills
13
I.2.1. Direct learning strategies
13
I.2.1.1. Memory strategies
13
I.2.1.2. Cognitive strategies
15
I.2.1.3. Compensation strategies
19
I.2.2. Indirect learning strategies
19
I.2.2.1. Metacognitive strategies
19
I.2.2.2. Affective strategies
21
I.2.2.3. Social strategies
23
CHAPTER 2 – THE STUDY
25
II.1. The setting of the study
25

iv
II.2. The study
25
II.2.1. Methodology
25
II.2.1.1. Participants
25
II.2.1.2. Research approach
26
II.2.1.3. Data collection
27
II.2.2. Data analysis
28
II.2.2.1. Awareness and attitudes towards English learning strategies
for reading skills
28
II.2.2.2. Learning strategies for reading skills used by sophomores of IT
Faculty
32
II.2.3. Findings
36
CHAPTER 3 – RECOMMENDATIONS
37
III.1. Raising students’ awareness
37
III.2. Selecting strategies
37
III.3. Integrating strategies into reading syllabus
38

III.4. Focusing on indirect strategies
38
III.5. Self-educating
39
PART III – CONCLUSION
40
References
41
Appendices

Appendix A
I
Appendix B
V
Appendix C
IX
Appendix D
XIII
Appendix E
XIV
Appendix F
XVI
Appendix G
XVII


1
PART I - INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
English is a compulsory subject to students of Information Technology Faculty (IT

Faculty), University of Engineering and Technology (UET), Vietnam National University
(VNU). Any student who wants to earn an IT degree needs to take four English courses
with 14 credits. Though the required level of English courses is only pre-intermediate, a lot
of students find it hard to pass the courses, not to mention to have high grades. It is even
more surprising to find that the majority of students attending Information Technology
Faculty, University of Engineering and Technology have learnt English for at least three
years at high school before going to college. One of their problems with learning this
language is that all they have tried to do is memorization instead of having appropriate
English learning strategies. These strategies are not only essential to students while
learning English at college but also useful for their own self-study once they graduate. It is
no doubt that Information Technology students need English for their future jobs.
Among all the English skills Information Technology students learn at college, reading
skills is the one that is paid much attention within the course syllabus. IT students spend
more than a quarter of their time in class learning reading skills among all the language
skills and elements. Reading skills also accounts for 50% of the grades students may get in
English exams. Reading skills is also the skills that IT students use the most after
graduation. Besides, it is widely believed among teachers that knowledge is immense (IT is
an ever-changing field) and thus, there is no point in trying to teach students everything.
More importantly, teachers should motivate them to learn and teach them how to learn so
that they can study by themselves and for themselves. Accordingly, during the teaching
and learning process, special emphasis is placed on creating a positive learning
environment, developing students‟ autonomy and creativity, teaching study skills, and
building students‟ confidence. That is why teachers of English for Information Technology
Division, English Faculty, University of Languages and International Studies wish to
introduce students with English learning strategies for reading skills. But before
introducing those skills, it is necessary to investigate what IT students already know and
what they do not. This exploratory research is done for that intention.


2

2. Purposes of the study
The ultimate purpose of this study is to explore the English learning strategies for reading
skills that sophomores of Information Technology Faculty, University of Engineering and
Technology have already used. It wishes to achieve the three primary aims:
(i) to know IT sophomores‟ awareness and attitude towards English learning strategies for
reading skills
(ii) to explore the learning strategies that sophomores of IT Faculty have already used in
their reading process.
(iii) to propose some suggestions to the teachers on integrating the introduction and
practice of English learning strategies for reading skills into the syllabus.
3. Research questions
The exploratory research is intended to answer the following questions:
(i) Research question 1: What are the attitudes of Information Technology sophomores,
University of Engineering and Technology, towards English learning strategies for reading
skills?
(ii) Research question 2: What are English learning strategies for reading skills that
Information Technology sophomores, University of Engineering and Technology, have
already used?
4. Methods of the study
In view of the exploratory nature of the study, the source which is used to collect the data
is from a survey conducted on sophomores of Information Technology Faculty, University
of Engineering and Technology, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, who are currently in
their third term of learning English at college, to investigate students‟ awareness, attitudes
towards English learning strategies for reading skills, as well as the strategies they have
been using so far. Therefore, this exploratory takes a quantitative approach. Besides, online
general guide interviews are also done on some randomly selected subjects to know the
underlying reasons for their attitudinal and behavioral answers in the survey.
Basing on the results obtained, the researcher will propose some suggestions on integrating
the introduction and practice of those strategies into the reading syllabus.

3
5. Scope of the study
The present study operates within the following scope:
(i) English learning strategies for reading skills include both direct strategies (which
involve the English language in the reading process) and indirect ones (which support the
business of acquiring reading skills). Therefore, this study will investigate sophomores‟
awareness, attitude and usage of both types.
(ii) Even though the students in the Faculty of Information Technology, University of
Engineering and Technology have to attend four semesters of English, the subjects chosen
for this research are in the their third semester. As the students have experienced two
semesters learning English at college and have developed self-study competence, their
responses will better reflect the reality. The study will, therefore, have more practical
implications as well as applicable suggestions.
6. Significance of the study
Despite the fact that the research only explores the learning strategies for reading skills that
students have been using, its significance is remarkable.
Theoretically, it touches upon the issue of learning strategies which is normally overlooked
in the process of learning and teaching in Vietnam while self-study is presently having
great impacts on the society, especially in education, and is currently drawing lots of
attention from educators and ELT professional. Particularly, it is carried out in the context
of a university – an academic institution where learners are supposed to make full use of
self-study competence and teachers are increasingly encouraged to play the role of a
facilitator. Practically, its results are hoped to provide teachers with a picture of students‟
learning strategies, therefore, teachers of English for Information Technology Division,
English Faculty, University of Languages and International Studies can base on that to
integrate the introduction and practice of English learning strategies into the teaching
syllabus.
7. Design of the study

This study consists of three parts: introduction, development, and conclusion.
The introduction presents the rationale, purpose, research questions, scope, significance,
and design of the study.
The development comprises three chapters:

4
- Chapter I reviews the theoretical background to English learning strategies for reading
skills.
- Chapter II details the setting, the methods, data analysis, and findings of the study.
- Chapter III is centered around the author‟ suggestions on integrating the introduction and
practice of English learning strategies into the learning and teaching syllabus for students
of Information Technology Faculty, University of Engineering and Technology.
The conclusion, apart from summarizing the main issues so far touched upon in the study,
proposes directions for future research.

5
PART II – DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER I – THEORETICAL BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
I.1. Language learning strategies
I.1.1. Definitions of language learning strategies
Over the past thirty years, there has been a growing amount of research into learning
strategies. What is considered by many to be the pioneering work in the field of language
learning strategies was carried out in the mid seventies of the twentieth century by such
researchers as Rubin (1975) or Stern (1975). However, despite the current interest in
learning styles and strategies, investigations into the effect of learner strategy training are
relatively uncommon, and results are rather mixed. That is why, the language learning
strategy field continues to be characterized by “no consensus” (O‟Malley et al., 1985:22)
and the concept of language learning strategies itself remains “fuzzy” (Ellis, 1994:529). In
other words, up to now, there is no consensus on the definition of the term "language
learning strategies."

Early on, Tarone (1983) defined language learning strategies as "an attempt to develop
linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language." (p. 13). In a helpful
survey article, Weinstein and Mayer (1986) defined learning strategies broadly as
"behaviors and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning" which are "intended to
influence the learner's encoding process" (p. 315). Mayer (1988) more specifically defined
learning strategies as "behaviors of a learner that are intended to influence how the learner
processes information" (p. 11). Before that, Rubin (1987) wrote that language learning
strategies are "strategies which contribute to the development of the language system
which the learner constructs and affect learning directly." (p. 23). They could be any sets
of operations, steps, plans or routines used by learners which affect the language learning
process. In other words, language learning strategies are what learners do to learn and
regulate their language learning.
Wenden and Rubin (1987) pointed out that language learning strategies have to consider
different aspects of the language learning process. She identified three areas in particular
that language learning strategies refer to: the actual behavior of learners (what learners do
to learn a language), strategic knowledge (what learners know about the strategies they
use), and knowledge about aspects (other than strategies) (p. 6). Later, in their study on

6
second language acquisition, O'Malley and Chamot (1990) regarded language learning
strategies as "the special thoughts of behaviors that individuals use to help them
comprehend, learn or retain new information." (p. 23). Building on work for teachers,
Oxford (1990) referred to language learning strategies as "specific actions, behaviors, steps
or techniques students use - often intentionally - to improve their progress in developing
language skills. These strategies can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval or use
of new language. Strategies are tools for the self-directed involvement necessary for
developing communicative ability." (p. 7). Finally, Nunan (1999) defined that "language
learning strategies are the mental and communicative processes that learners deploy to
learn a second language." He stated that underlying every language learning task is at least
one strategy, but in most classrooms, learners are unaware of the strategies underlying the

learning tasks they are engaged (p. 55).
Among all the definitions listed above, the one proposed by Oxford (1990) seems to be the
most comprehensive. Tarone's definition (1983) focused too much on the product of
language learning strategies, which is linguistic and sociolinguistic competence. Rubin
(1987), on the other hand, with the assumption that language learning is like other kinds of
learning, restricted the use of language learning strategies to vocabulary practice (p. 23). In
other words, when following Rubin's definition, interactional communication strategies
will not be considered as she noted that "although use of communication strategies may
lead to learning, the purpose for their use is better communication" (p. 26). O'Malley and
Chamot (1990) defined language learning strategies basing on psychological approach.
Nunan (1999) seemed to forget the emotional processes that learners may deploy to learn a
second language. Only Oxford's definition (1990) emphasized on the processes of language
learning as well as the characteristics of language learning strategies. To put it another way,
what Oxford's definition contains is a collective description of what individual learners do
to achieve communicative competence in a language in a self-directed fashion, either
consciously or unconsciously.
Language learning strategies contribute to all parts of the learning acquisition continuum.
They are applicable to a wide variety of language learning tasks, ranging from rather
discrete and isolated tasks such as vocabulary and pronunciation or grammar, to integrative
tasks like oral communication and reading comprehension.

7
I.1.2. Features of language learning strategies
As mentioned before, it can be said that language learning strategies are specific actions
taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self -directed,
more effective and more transferable to new situations. According to Oxford (1990), there
are twelve main features of language learning strategies (p. 8).
i. Language learning strategies contribute to the main goal - that is the
communicative competence.
ii. Language learning strategies allow learners to become more self-directed.

iii. Language learning strategies expand the roles of teachers.
iv. Language learning strategies are problem-oriented.
v. Language learning strategies are specific actions taken by learners.
vi. Language learning strategies involve many aspects of the learner, not just the
cognitive.
vii. Language learning strategies support learning both directly and indirectly.
viii. Language learning strategies are not always observable.
ix. Language learning strategies are often conscious.
x. Language learning strategies can be taught.
xi. Language learning strategies are flexible.
xii. Language learning strategies are influenced by a variety of factors.
I.1.3. Importance of language learning strategies
Though researchers have formally discovered and named language learning strategies only
recently, such strategies have actually been used for thousands of years. Knowledge of
language learning strategies is important. Henry Adams used to say "They know enough
who know how to learn." (as cited in Oxford, 1990, p. 135) It means that the greater
awareness learners have of what underlies their language learning process, leaning will be
more effective. Oxford (1990) stated two main reasons for the importance of strategies.
Firstly, strategies "are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for
developing communicative competence." Secondly, “learners who have developed
appropriate language learning strategies have greater self-confidence and learn more
effectively” (p. 1). All the main features of language learning strategies which were
presented above have clearly proved those ideas. Furthermore, researches conducted by

8
Nunan (1999) show that learners who are taught strategies underlying their language
learning are more highly motivated than those who are not. He also concluded that explicit
strategy training, coupled with thinking about how one goes about learning, and
experimenting with different strategies, can lead to more effective learning (p. 60).
A caution must also be noted though, because, as Skehan (1989) states, "there is always

the possibility that the 'good' language learning strategies are also used by bad language
learners, but other reasons cause them to be unsuccessful" (p. 76). In fact Vann and
Abraham (1990) found evidence that suggests that both 'good' and 'unsuccessful' language
learners can be active users of similar language learning strategies, though it is important
that they also discovered that their unsuccessful learners "apparently lacked what are
often called metacognitive strategies which would enable them to assess the task and
bring to bear the necessary strategies for its completion" (p. 192). It appears, then, that a
number and range of language learning strategies are important if foreign language
teachers are to assist students both in learning the language and in becoming good
language learners.
I.1.4. Types of language learning strategies
Over the years, a number of researchers have attempted to develop a classification scheme
of language learning strategies. Rubin (1987) classified language learning strategies into
three major kinds: learning strategies, (interactional) communication strategies, and social
strategies. Learning strategies are further categorized into cognitive and metacognitive
strategies. Cognitive strategies include: clarification or verification, guessing or inductive
inferencing, deductive reasoning, practice, memorization, and monitoring. Metacognitive
strategies involve a conscious overview of the learning process and making decisions
about planning, monitoring, or evaluating the best way to study. Social strategies consist
of questions to fellow students/teachers/native speakers, initiating conversations, and
listening to language media. (p. 23)
In contrast to Rubin's classification (1987), according to O'Malley and Chamot (1990),
language learning strategies are differentiated into three primary categories: cognitive,
metacognitive and social mediating. Cognitive strategies include inferencing, deducing,
rehearsal, transfer, imagery, summarizing, organization, and elaboration. Metacognitive

9
strategies include monitoring, selective attention, planning, and evaluation. Social
mediating strategies include questioning for clarification. (p. 33)
However, the scheme of language learning strategies provided by Oxford (1990) is the

most comprehensive detailed system of six primary strategies classified as direct or
indirect (p.37 & p. 135). The reason is that Rubin's classifications (1987) were entirely
empirically based. The system she proposed was based on interviews, classroom
observations, diaries which the researcher analyzed and categorized subjectively. O'Malley
and Chamot's classification (1990) emerged from interviews with experts and novices and
theoretical analyses of reading comprehension and problem solving. However, there still
exist some overlaps between identified strategies. Only Oxford (1990) provided a truly
comprehensive overview with a (hierarchical) ordering of language learning strategies.
Furthermore, the experience of many teachers indicates that the strategy system which is
going to be discussed below is a very useful way to examine such language learning
strategies (Oxford, 1990, p. 22). This is also proved by a recent research conducted by
Hsiao and Oxford (2002). They conducted a comparative study of three classification
systems used in the field (O‟Malley & Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1990; Rubin, 1981) and
found that the Oxford (1990) system was superior in accounting for the variety of
strategies reported by language learners.
Direct strategies
Language learning strategies that directly involve the target language are called direct
strategies. All direct strategies require mental processing of the target language. They help
learners store and retrieve new information in the target language, enable them to
understand and produce the new language by many different means.
Direct strategies are divided into three main groups: memory strategies, cognitive
strategies and compensation strategies.
 Memory strategies
Memory strategies are language learning strategies helping learners store and retrieve new
information of the target language. Memory strategies are subdivided into four main types.

10
 Creating mental linkages strategies include "grouping," "associating or
elaborating," and "placing new words into the context."
 Applying images and sounds strategies include "using imaginary," "semantic

mapping," "using keywords," and "representing sounds in memory."
 Reviewing well strategy includes only the strategy of "structured reviewing."
 Employing action strategies include "using physical response or sensation," and
"using mechanical techniques."
 Cognitive strategies
Cognitive strategies are unified by a common feature: manipulation and transformation of
the target language by the learners. They are also typically found to be the most popular
strategies with language learners. Cognitive strategies can be classified into four main
types.
 Practicing strategies include "repeating," "formally practicing with sounds and
writing systems," "recognizing and using formulas and patterns," "recombining and
practicing naturalistically."
 Receiving and sending messages strategies include "getting the idea quickly," and
"using resources for receiving and sending messages."
 Analyzing and reasoning strategies include "reasoning deductively," "analyzing
expressions," "analyzing contrastively," "translating," and "transferring."
 Creating structure for input and output strategies include "taking notes,"
"summarizing," and "highlighting."
 Compensation strategies
Compensation strategies enable learners to use the new language for either compensation
or production despite limitations in knowledge. Compensation strategies are subdivided
into two main types.
 Guessing intelligently in listening and reading strategies include "using linguistic
clues," and "using other clues."
 Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing strategies include "switching to
the mother tongue," "getting help," "using mime or gesture," "avoiding communication

11
partially or totally," "selecting the topic," "adjusting and approximating the message,"
"coining words," and "using circumlocution or synonym."

Indirect strategies
Language learning strategies that indirectly involve the target language are called indirect
strategies. They are strategies that underpin the business of language learning, that allow
learners to control their own cognition, help learners learn through interactions with others
as well as regulate their emotions, motivations and attitudes.
Indirect strategies are divided into three main groups: metacognitive strategies, affective
strategies and social strategies.
 Metacognitive strategies
Metacognitive strategies are used to plan, monitor, and evaluate language learning.
Metacognitive strategies are subdivided into three main types.
 Centering your learning strategies include "overviewing and linking with already
known material," "paying attention," and "delaying speech production to focus on
listening."
 Arranging and planning your learning strategies include "finding out about
language learning," "organizing," "setting goals and objectives," "identifying the purpose
of a language task (purposeful listening/ reading/ speaking/ writing,)" "planning for a
language task," and "seeking practice opportunities."
 Evaluating your learning strategies include "self-monitoring," and "self-
evaluating."
 Affective strategies
Affective strategies are strategies through which language learners can gain control over
their emotions, attitudes, motivations, and values. Affective strategies are classified into
three main types.
 Lowering your anxiety strategies include "using progressive relaxation, deep
breathing, or meditation," "using music," and "using laughter."
 Encouraging yourself strategies include "making positive statements," "taking
risks wisely," and "rewarding yourself."

12
 Taking your emotional temperature strategies include "listening to your body,"

"using a checklist," "writing a language learning diary," and "discussing your feelings with
someone else."
 Social strategies
Social strategies are those activities in which learners deliberately seek opportunities to be
exposed to and practice their knowledge. Social strategies are subdivided into three main
types.
 Asking questions strategies include "asking for clarification or verification," and
"asking for correction."
 Cooperating with others strategies include "cooperating with peers," and
"cooperating with proficient users of new language."
 Empathizing with others strategies include "developing cultural understanding,"
and "becoming aware of others' thoughts and feelings."
Relationship between direct and indirect strategies
Direct and indirect language learning strategies are said to support and interact with each
other. Oxford (1990) compared the relationship between direct and indirect strategies to
that between the performer and the director in the theater. (p. 14) Direct strategies are like
the performers in a stage play, working with the language themselves in a variety of
specific tasks and situations. Indirect strategies for general management of learning can be
likened to the director of the play. The performer works closely with the director for the
best possible outcome. Likewise, the director is an internal guide and support to the
performer. The functions of both the performer and the director gradually become part of
the learners since they accept increased responsibility for learning. Moreover, it is essential
to note that the direct strategies work best when supported by indirect strategies and vice
versa, indirect strategies work best when used in combination with direct strategies.
To sum up, it is important to remember that any current understanding of language
learning strategies is in its infancy, and any existing system of strategies is only a proposal
to be tested through practical classroom use and through research. At this stage in the short
history of language learning strategy research, there is no complete agreement on exactly
what language learning strategies are; how many strategies exist; how they should be

13
defined, demarcated and categorized; and whether it is - or ever will be - possible to create
a real, scientifically validated hierarchy of language learning strategies. Therefore,
classification conflicts are inevitable.
I.2. Language learning strategies for reading skills
As mentioned above, in all classification of language learning strategies, the one that
Oxford (1990) proposed is the most comprehensive. That is why the English learning
strategies for reading skills used in this study follow Oxford‟s points of view.
I.2.1. Direct learning strategies
I.2.1.1. Memory strategies
Creating mental linkages
Oxford claimed that creating mental linkages is the basic step to help English learners in
particular, and language learners in general, store in memory “the important things they
hear or read in the new language, thus enlarging their knowledge base” (Oxford, 1990: 58).
The three strategies which aim at creating mental linkages in language learners‟ minds are
the most basic ones; therefore, they directly assist learners in expanding their vocabulary,
and indirectly help them make progress in their reading.
Grouping
Grouping involves classifying or reclassifying what language learners read into meaningful
groups to reduce the number of unrelated elements. For instance, students can group the
words by conceptual similarities (like hot, warm or fire…), or by their functions (like
negative prefixes such as un-, in-, dis-, mis-, non-…). This grouping may help language
learners better understand their reading. However, this strategy is often employed in
combination with other strategies such as “labeling the groups”, “paying attention”, or
“taking notes.”
Associating or elaborating
Associating new language information with familiar concepts that are already in memory is
the second basic strategy to create mental linkages. Language learners can use these
associations to strengthen their reading comprehension as well as their memorization. One
thing which should be noticed here is that the associations language learners make are

14
personally significant to themselves. Even though the associations may not make sense to
other people, as long as they are meaningful to language learners, they are considered
useful.
Placing new words into the context
Although this strategy may be seen as the most beneficial to vocabulary building, it
indirectly assists the reading process because the more vocabulary language learners have,
the better they comprehend the readings. As suggested in the name of the strategy, it
involves putting new words or expressions into a meaningful context. One common way of
doing so is creating a little story.
Applying images and sounds
The four learning strategies in this category are extremely helpful in remembering new
expressions, thus, they are normally considered good strategies for vocabulary learning. As
mentioned before, vocabulary expansion is useful for improving reading; therefore, these
strategies are supportive for developing reading comprehension.
Using imagery
This strategy involves creating a mental image of what should be remembered. Language
learners can remember a written item in reading by picturing a place where it is located.
This can be useful when the learners employ scanning skills in reading. If it is desired,
drawings can be used to make mental images more concrete.
Semantic mapping
When semantic mapping is employed, concepts and relationships are arranged on paper to
create a semantic map, “a diagram in which the key concepts (stated in words) are
highlighted and linked with related concepts via arrows or lines” (Oxford, 1990: 61-62).
This strategy is not only good for vocabulary learning but also for reading comprehension
because it is valuable for improving both memory and comprehension of new expressions
or ideas conveyed in a reading. Such a diagram personally created by language learners is
beneficial in showing visually how ideas fit together. This strategy is of great use in
combination with other memory strategies such as grouping, using imagery and

associating/elaborating.

15
Using keywords
Combining similar sounds of their mother tongue and images is another way to help
learners remember a language item in the target language. The only notice once employing
this strategy is that the sounds from their mother tongue do not have to be exact as the
sounds from the target language, and the interacting images used only have to be
personally meaningful.
Representing sounds in memory
Similar to the previous strategy, representing sounds in memory involves linking the
sounds of the new language items with familiar words or sounds from any language known
to learners. Rhymes are the most common example of using this strategy.
Reviewing well
Reviewing is essential in language learning, which any language learner is aware of. This
strategy is also known as structured reviewing, which means reviewing at different
intervals, at first close together and then increasingly far apart.
Employing action
Using physical response or sensation
In reading skills, the strategy of using physical response or sensation can be applied for
remembering written material. English learners can act out physically what they read or
associate physical sensations with specific words or expressions found in reading passages.
Using mechanical techniques
Mechanical techniques with the popular use of flashcards and separate sections of
notebooks are helpful to learners in remembering what has been read. In reading skills, this
strategy is used particularly for remembering useful words and new expressions.
I.2.1.2. Cognitive strategies
Practicing strategies
Repeating
Meaningful repetition in reading skills involves reading a passage several times, each time

for different purposes in order to understand that passage more thoroughly. English

16
learners can read to predict something, read for main ideas, read for specific details or for
further questions. Note-taking can also be integrated into this reading process.
Recognizing and using formulas and patterns
“Formulas” are defined as “unanalyzed expressions” while “patterns have at least one slot
that can be filled with an alternative word” (Oxford, 1990: 72). The recognition and
understanding of those English formulas and patterns which appear in reading passages
and tasks help improve learners‟ reading comprehension. As a result, the earlier English
learners can recognize and understand those routine expressions, the more self-confident in
English learning they can feel. Their understanding and fluency are also enhanced.
Practicing naturalistically
The ultimate goal of language learning is the ability to actually use the language in actual
communication. The strategy of practicing naturalistically in reading skills involves
reading various authentic materials including newspapers, magazines, books in English
either in print or online. Students can also read menus, advertisements, brochures,
catalogues, and pamphlets. Sharing those materials with other students is also a beneficial
way to get a larger variety for practice.
Receiving and sending messages
Getting the idea quickly
The purpose of this strategy is to enable students read exactly what they need and take no
notice of the rest or regard it as background information. The two techniques which are
used to get the ideas of a reading include skimming (“searching for the main ideas”
(Oxford, 1990: 80)) and scanning (“searching for specific details of interest” (Oxford,
1990: 80)). The effectiveness of this strategy is further increased if it is used in
combination with note-taking strategy. However, the overuse of either skimming or
scanning may hinder the reading comprehension in the sense that learners might focus too
much on finding ideas or details without fully understanding the reading. For example,
such components as irony, or humor in poems or stories might be overlooked if readers use

only this strategy in their reading process.


17
Using resources for receiving and sending messages
English learners can use numerous resources including language learning ones like
dictionaries, word lists, grammar and phrase books and other resources like encyclopedias,
historical and cultural books to explore the meaning of what they read or to get background
information to further understand their readings. Those resources may be printed or non-
print.
Analyzing and reasoning strategies
Reasoning deductively
Applying already learnt general rules to obtain the meaning of what is read is one common
logical thinking strategy. One example of using this strategy is the case when English
learners apply their knowledge on affixes to understand word meanings. However,
reasoning deductively can also lead to overgeneralization.
Analyzing expressions
This strategy involves breaking down a new word, a sentence or a paragraph into its
component parts to understand them fully. Analyzing expression is useful for reading skills
as learners have time for this analysis process, especially when it is used in combination
with reasoning deductively strategy.
Analyzing contrastively
Language learners at their early learning stage tend to analyze language elements to notice
the similarities and differences between the target and the native language. This is done so
naturally that they hardly realize that they are using analyzing contrastively strategy. This
strategy helps learners understand more thoroughly their readings. However, they need to
beware of “false friend” or “target language words that sound or look like words in the
learners‟ own language, but whose meaning is very different” (Oxford, 1990:84).
Translating
Translating is helpful to language learners at the beginning stage. The use of translating

strategy in reading skills should be done with great care. Though language learners can use
their native language as a base in understanding readings in target language, translating

18
strategy slows down learners‟ reading speed. Moreover, if students are accustomed to
word-by-word translation, they may get wrong interpretation of their readings.
Transferring
This strategy involves “directly applying previous knowledge to facilitate new knowledge
in the target language" (Oxford, 1990: 85). The previous knowledge can be that of
learners‟ native language, that of target language which students have already learnt, or the
knowledge from one aspect of target language to another aspect. However, if the
knowledge is not parallel, learners may transfer irrelevant knowledge, which may lead to
inaccuracy.
Creating structure for input and output strategies
Taking notes
Note-taking strategy is important in reading skills as it helps learners understand
thoroughly the content as well as remember what is read. Note taking can be done in
learners‟ native language at the beginning stage of learning, in both native and target
language or in only the target language for advanced levels. Students can take notes in the
form of raw notes, shopping list, T-formation or semantic maps.
Summarizing
The strategy of summarizing involves the process of creating a “condensed, shorter
version” (Oxford, 1990:88) of what is read. This not only helps students understand better
but also be able to structure their readings. It can be done as simple as summarizing in
learners‟ native language or as complicated as writing complete sentences or paragraphs in
the target language.
Highlighting
Learners can use various elements as color, underlining, capital letters, initial capitals, big
writing, bold writing, stars, boxes or circles to highlight important information in their
readings.

The three strategies of creating structure for input and output should be used in
combination to make the best use of them.

19
I.2.1.3. Compensation strategies
Guessing intelligently
Systematic guessing helps language learners improve their reading comprehension without
having to understand every single word.
Using linguistic clues
Learners can use their linguistic knowledge of either their native or target language to
guess the meaning of what they read. The best linguistic clues that learners can rely on are
affixes and word order.
Using other clues
Apart from linguistic clues, language learners can use other clues from other sources,
either related or unrelated to languages. Those sources can be text structures, general
background knowledge, graphs, pictures, tables or appendices. They all help learners get
some ideas of the meaning of what is read.
I.2.2. Indirect learning strategies
I.2.2.1. Metacognitive strategies
Centering your learning strategies
Overviewing and linking with already known material
In this strategy, learners are supposed to overview what they are going to read (topics), and
associate it with what they already know (background knowledge and vocabulary). Once
the purpose of their reading is worked out and the associations are made, learners‟ reading
is better oriented for performance enhancement.
Paying attention
Learners are advised to choose where to focus their attention at the beginning of their
reading process. They can either concentrate on the general ideas of the readings (which is
called “directed attention” (Oxford, 1990: 138)) or the details (“selective attention”
(Oxford, 1990:138)). This will provide a focus for their reading, which is helpful in

improving their reading competence.


20
Arranging and planning your learning
Finding out about language learning
Learners can improve their reading skills by knowing how it works in general through
books and other language learners and apply this knowledge to their own situations.
Organizing
Learners should make full use of their conditions to organize their reading schedule,
physical environment (like reading space or lighting system) and other materials for
learning reading.
Setting goals and objectives
Setting long-term goals and short-term objectives are also suggested once students want to
improve their reading performance in English.
Identifying the purpose of a language task
When learners want to use the strategy of paying attention, they need to identify the
purpose of their reading before hand, as this normally makes their reading process more
meaningful and more oriented.
Planning for a language task
Planning for a reading task which includes such four steps as describing the task, finding
out its requirements, checking the language learners already know and anticipating what
more is needed is necessary for a successful reading process.
Seeking practice opportunities
Practice makes perfect, therefore, learners should either seek or create as many
opportunities for reading practice as possible, especially reading authentic materials.
Evaluating your learning strategies
Self-monitoring
This strategy is helpful to language learners in checking their reading performance. It aims
at self-identifying errors learners make in their reading process, determining the errors

which cause serious confusion. The core of this strategy is for learners to find out themselves

21
how those errors are made and how they should be eliminated.
Self-evaluating
If the previous strategy focuses on self-monitoring the reading performance by self-
correcting errors, this strategy is good for learners to evaluate their overall progress
themselves. Learners can evaluate their reading competence in terms of their reading speed,
their reading comprehension or their fulfillment of their reading tasks.
I.2.2.2. Affective strategies
Lowering your anxiety
Anxiety is not always bad for language learners. A certain amount of anxiety can help
learners reach their potentials, however, too much anxiety in the form of worry, frustration,
fear and so on blocks language learners from making progress. Therefore, knowing how to
control their anxiety in learning reading skills is necessary.
Using progressive relaxation, deep breathing and meditation
Learners can overcome their anxiety during the reading process by “alternately tensing and
relaxing all of the major muscle groups in the body” (Oxford, 1990:143), especially those
in the neck and face. Furthermore, deep breathing and meditating by concentrating on a
certain mental image or sound are also helpful in preventing their anxiety.
Using music
Music has been used as a popular way to relax in mankind‟s history. Learners are advised
to use music, especially soothing one like classical music in order to ease their mind and
increase their concentrating competence before their reading process.
Using laughter
Another popular way for mind relaxation is using laughter. Learners can use funny movies,
stories, books and so on to relax themselves, thus, reduce anxiety they may encounter
during their reading process.
Encouraging yourself
Making positive statements

Learners normally expect to get encouragement from other people; therefore, they may