The effects of games on helping high school English learners retain word meaning = Hiệu quả của trò chơi trong việc giúp học sinh THPT ghi nhớ nghĩa từ vựng

Vietnam National University, Hanoi
University of Languages and International Studies
Faculty of Post-graduate Studies




LÝ THỊ THANH MAI



The effects of games on helping high school
English learners retain word meaning
(HIỆU QUẢ CỦA TRÒ CHƠI TRONG VIỆC GIÚP HỌC SINH
THPT GHI NHỚ NGHĨA TỪ VỰNG)


M.A. Minor Programme Thesis



Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 601410
Supervisor: Hà Cẩm Tâm (Ph.D)



Hanoi, 2010

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Table of Content

Page
Certificate of originality
i
Aknowledgement
ii
Abstract
iii
Table of Contents
iv
Part A: Introduction
1
1. Rationale
1
2. Aims of the study
2
3. Research question
3
4. Scope of the study
3
5. Research methodology
3
6. Organization of the study
3
Part B: Development
5
Chapter 1: Literature review
5
2.1. Vocabulary teaching and learning
5

2.1.1. What do learners need to know about word learning?
5
2.1.2.1. Word meaning
5
2.1.2.2. Word form
7
2.1.2.3. Stages in word learning
8
2.1.3. Factors affecting vocabulary retention
8
2.1.3.1. Depth of processing
9
2.1.3.2. Memory
10
2.1.3.3. Learning styles
11
2.1.3.4. Motivation
13
2.1.3.5. Attitude
14
2.2. Teaching and learning vocabulary through games
15
2.2.1. Games for language teaching and learning
15

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2.2.1.1. Definition of games
15
2.2.1.2. Advantages of games
16

2.2.1.3. Which games to use?
19
2.2.1.4. When to use games?
19
2.2.2. Word games
20
Chapter 2: The study
22
2.1. Research question
22
2.2. Design of the study
22
2.2.1. Participants
22
2.2.2. Data collection instrument
23
2.2.3. Data collection procedures
25
2.2.4. Experiment procedures
25
2.2.4.1. The teaching to the experiment group
25
2.2.4.2. The teaching to the control group
26
2.3. Data Analysis and discussion
27
2.3.1. Analysis of test results
27
2.3.1.1. The pre-test
27

2.3.1.2. The progress tests
28
2.3.1.3. The final test
30
2.3.2. Discussion and findings
31
Part C: Conclusion
35
1. Major findings
35
2. Implications
36
3. Limitations and recommendations for further studies
37
References
38
Appendices
I
Appendix 1: Tests
I
Appendix 2: Games applied in the experimental process
IX
Appendix 3: Scores
XIV


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Part A: Introduction
Part A – Introduction- provides the background to the study and statement of the
problem, the aims, the research question, the scope of the study as well as the research

methodology. It also outlines the organization of the thesis.
1. Rationale
Vocabulary is the knowledge of words and word meanings. As Steven Stahl (2005)
puts it, "The knowledge of a word not only implies a definition, but also implies how that
word fits into the world." Vocabulary knowledge is not something that can ever be fully
mastered; it is something that expands and deepens over the course of a lifetime. It cannot
be denied that vocabulary is one of the vital parts in a language learning. Wilkins
(1972:111) emphasized that, “Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without
vocabulary nothing can be conveyed”. Cook‟s (1991) conclusion is also consistent with
Wilkins in that “Grammar provides the overall patterns, vocabulary the material to put into
those patterns”. Or some authors, led by Lewis (1993) argue that vocabulary should be at
the centre of language teaching, because „language consists of grammaticalised lexis, not
lexicalised grammar‟. It is clear to all of us that one cannot read, speak, listen, write, or
understand a foreign language without knowing a certain number of words. How can one
appreciate the depth of meaning implied in discourse or become fluent conversationalists if
lexis is not involved?
Vocabulary learning is obviously an essential part of language learning. Learning
words can considered to be the most important aspect of second language acquisition
(Knight, 1994). Candlin (1988) stated that "… the study of vocabulary is at the heart of
language teaching in terms of organization of syllabuses, the evaluation of learner
performance, and the provision of learning resources …." Maiguashca (1993) said that
vocabulary is "perhaps the fastest growing area of second language education in terms of
research output and publication."
Thus, the importance of vocabulary in language learning cannot be denied. Yet,
although the issue of vocabulary teaching and learning is currently receiving attention of
teachers and students in most of high schools in Vietnam and in my school as well, it is
still far from clear how vocabulary items can be best taught and learned. From my own
experience and observation, vocabulary is often taught by the grammar-translation

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approach, that is at the time for vocabulary, a vast amount of teaching time is consumed by
explanation and definition, classroom blackboards are often littered with masses of new
lexical items, and students compile page upon page of word-lists that they have few
opportunities to practice. This results in students‟ short-term memory of new vocabulary
items. They will very quickly forget the new words‟ meaning and use. This also makes
students get bored with learning vocabulary.
So what should a teacher do if their students get bored? Nation (2001) suggests
some interesting ways to help learners remember previously met words such as getting
learners to do graded reading or listening stories; speaking and writing activities based on
written input that contains the words; taking part in activities that involved testing
vocabulary such as Word and Picture Matching, Same or Difference, etc. Gairn & Redman
(1986) recommends classroom activities such as using visual aids, speaking activities (role
play, narrative, etc.), games, questionnaires and problem solving and so on. Whereas,
Watcin-Jones (1993) proposes that teachers use games and activities in revising words
because with games learning seems to become more active, the students get more involved
and retention also improves enormously.
Therefore, it can be realized that the common tendency of these methodology
writers is that teachers should be more active in using classroom activities to help students
recycle lexical items. One of the most recommended activities is games. According to
them, games are highly motivating, competitive and fun. They also bring a relaxed
atmosphere and create more opportunities for students to practice and revise vocabulary.
With games, students will enjoy themselves, be stimulated and get involved in vocabulary
learning. As a result, they can learn new lexical items faster and remember better. With so
many advantages, games seem to be an effective way in teaching and learning a foreign
language in general and vocabulary in specific.
For those reasons, I have decided to choose the topic:
“The effects of games on helping high school English learners retain word meaning”
for my minor thesis with the hope that it might be of some help for teachers and students in
teaching and learning vocabulary.
2. Aims of the study

This study was carried out in order to:

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o explore the effects of word games on helping 11
th
grade students at Tan Lap high
school remember the meaning of previously met words.
o make recommendations on how word games might be exploited to make them more
enjoyable and productive to the students.
3. Research question:
The research was to seek answers to the following question:
Are word games more effective than practice exercises in helping high school English
learners retain word meaning?
4. Scope of the study
Learning a word means dealing with its various aspects such as meaning, spelling,
pronunciation, part of speech, collocations, grammar, or restrictions on its use. For each
above aspect, various criteria need to be taken into account when being studied. According
to Nation (1994), teachers should spend time on a word by dealing with two or three
aspects of a word. However, in this study the researcher focused only on one aspect of
word meaning because of the limited time, the shortage of reference books, and the
students‟ language ability.
5. Research methodology
The study used a combination of quantitative and qualitative research approaches,
in which tests were carried out as the major and unique data collection instrument.
Five tests were designed in order to gain believable and honest scores that supported the
study purposes. One served as the pre-test, which aimed at testing the students‟
homogeneity of the two group joining the experiment. Three of them were delivered to the
students as progress tests right after the periods in which the students recycled previously
met words with games or with exercises, and the final one was administered to the students
two weeks after all the periods in which games were applied to help students retain word

meaning. Collected scores were then processed and analyzed.
6. organization of the study
This minor thesis is composed of three parts as follow:
Part A - Introduction: presenting rationale, aims, research question as well as
scope of the study, methodology and design of the study.

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Part B - Development: consisting of two chapters. Chapter 1 is for literature
review, which provides the theoretical background of the study. Chapter 2 is for the study
which represents the research question, describes the design of the study then presents the
data analysis and discussion.
Part C - Conclusion: summarizing the major findings of the experiment, voicing
some implications for language teachers in teaching vocabulary and suggesting some
recommendations for further studies.

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Part B: Development
Chapter 1
Literature review
In this chapter, relevant literature is reviewed, underlying the necessity and the
relevance of the study. In other words, background knowledge on vocabulary teaching in
general and vocabulary teaching through word games in particular is looked at critically to
set up the theoretical framework for further investigation.
The first section of this chapter is devoted to theoretical aspects of vocabulary teaching and
learning and the second section of this chapter deals with the main issue, i.e. teaching and
learning vocabulary through games.
2.1. Vocabulary teaching and learning
2.1.1. What do learners need to know about word learning?
According to Gairns & Redman (1986) when studying a word, learners should pay
attention to two large aspects: 1) Words and their meanings (conceptual and affective
meaning, style, sense relation, collocation, etc.); 2) Words and their forms (grammar, word
building, pronunciation). Nation (2001) shares the idea with Gairn & Redman but adds one
more aspect, that is word use. However, within the aims of the study, word meaning and
word form will be further discussed.
2.1.2.1. Word meaning
In teaching and learning vocabulary, teachers should bear in mind the following
important facts about lexical meaning that sometimes can be problematic: First, the same
word can have very different meanings depending on linguistics and social context;
Second, there is no one-to-one correspondence of words in any language with another; And
no word is the exact synonym or antonym of another word.
Nguyen Hoa (2004) distinguishes four major components of word meaning which include
denotation, connotation, structural meaning, and categorial meaning.
Denotation: includes conceptual and referential meaning. It exists by virtue of
what it refers to.

o Conceptual meaning is widely assumed to be the central factor in linguistic
communication and it has a complex and sophisticated organization.

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E.g. Woman = + HUMAN, - MALE, + ADULT as distinct from Boy which can be
defined as + HUMAN, + MALE, - ADULT
o Referential meaning is the ability to refer to objects or things (often called
referent).
E.g. Can you give me a book? Vs. I’ve bought a book this afternoon.
Connotation: includes stylistic, affective, evaluative, and intensifying. It is the
pragmatic communicative value of the words acquired by virtue of where, when, how, by
whom, for what purpose and in what context it is or may be used. This kind of meaning is
rather unstable: that is they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and
the experience of the individual.
Structural/associative meaning: includes reflected meaning, collocative meaning,
associative meaning, and thematic meaning. It is the meaning of a word acquire by virtue
of its membership in a system or a set.
o Reflected meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual
meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.
E.g. The 40
th
President of the US and the Great Communicator both refer to Ronald
Reagan
o Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the
meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment. E.g. pretty
girl/boy/woman/flower but handsome boy/man/car/airliner.
o Associative meaning is also the meaning which arises because of its association
with other meanings. E.g. good vs. bad; buy vs. sell, hard vs. soft.
o Thematic meaning is the kind of meaning which is communicated by the way in
which a speaker or writer organizes the message in terms of ordering, focus, and

emphasis. E.g. A man is waiting in the hall vs. There‟s a man waiting in the hall or
The dog chased the cat vs. The cat was chased by the dog.
Categorial meaning: is actually one part of grammatical meaning which words
derive from being a member of one category rather than another. Words fall into such
categories as Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Prepositions, Conjunctions, etc. It serves as a
classificatory basis.
Meanwhile, Jackson & Amvela (2000) divide word meaning into denotation and
connotation only. According to them, denotation refers to the literal meaning of a word,

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the "dictionary definition."¨ For example, if you look up the word snake in a dictionary,
you will discover that one of its denotative meanings is "any of numerous scaly, legless,
sometimes venomous reptiles, having a long, tapering, cylindrical body and found in most
tropical and temperate regions". Connotation, on the other hand, refers to the associations
that are connected to a certain word or the emotional suggestions related to that word. The
connotative meanings of a word exist together with the denotative meanings. The
connotations for the word snake could include evil or danger.
Nevertheless, other linguists, Gairns & Redman (1986), classify the meaning of
word into two types: conceptual meaning and affective meaning.
Conceptual meaning: According to Gairns & Redman (1986), if a word has
reference to an object, action or even in physical world, this can be described as conceptual
meaning, which deals with the fact that the knowledge of a word and what it refers to is not
enough, but also how to conceptually separate it from words that have related meaning, for
example “cup/mug”. To understand a word fully, therefore, a student must know not only
what it refers to, but also where the boundaries are that separate it from words of related
meaning.
Affective meaning: From Gairns & Redman‟s (1986) viewpoint, this term is used
to cover the attitudinal and emotional factors which can be expressed in an item of
vocabulary. These are often referred to as connotation. They gave an example in which “a
single woman” is different from “a sprinter” because “sprinter” has a series of evaluative

and emotional associations which, for an English native speaker, would not be true of
“single woman”. These associations may include old, isolated, on the shelf, a sad figure,
etc.
Wallace (1983) defined that affective meaning is determined by cultural structure,
the pattern of perception, thinking or feeling. Affective meaning reflects “people
perceiving, thinking, or feeling things together in space and/or time”.
2.1.2.2. Word form
Gairns & Redman (1986) emphasize that knowing word form is as essential as
knowing word meaning. Knowing word form includes word grammar, pronunciation
(stress, sound, spelling) as well as word building (affixation, compounding and
conversion).

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Whereas, Nation (1990) divides the form of word into two types: the spoken form
and the written form.
2.1.2.3. Stages in word learning
There is no doubt that learning vocabulary is a complex process, consisting of a
number of different stages. However, different researchers have different ideas about the
stages in this process. One suggested by Hatch & Brown (1995:383) includes five stages:
1. having sources for encountering new words
2. getting a clear image of words, both visual and auditory
3. learning the meaning of words
4. making strong memory connections between form and meaning of words
5. using words
Meanwhile, Waring (2002) states that there are two major stages in word learning.
The first stage is matching the word's spelling and pronunciation (its form) with its
meaning. When this relationship is acquired, the second stage involves the deeper aspects
of word knowledge. These may include the words it goes with and does not go with, the
restrictions on its use, whether it is formal or informal, whether it is spoken or written, its
similarity to other words, its shades of meaning, whether it is frequent or not, and so on.

In short, when encountering a new word, learners have to pay attention to a variety of areas
such as word meaning, word form, word use, or word grammar, etc. However, which
area(s) teachers choose to highlight depend on the item they are teaching or the students‟
level. But whatever word is taught and whatever level students are at, word meaning and
word form are the first two areas they must acquire well.
2.1.3. Factors affecting vocabulary retention
When referring to numerous factors that affect the acquisition of vocabulary,
theorists and researchers present slightly different opinions. However, various opinions
meet at some points, and it is said that the retention of vocabulary may be affected by some
factors as follows:
- Depth of processing
- Memory
- Learning styles
- Motivation
- Attitude.

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So, it is clear that understanding factors affecting vocabulary retention might help
teachers create more effective ways to teach vocabulary.
2.1.3.1. Depth of processing
For some researchers, like Ellis (1994) and Coady (1997), learners are more likely
to remember a word if they have worked on its meaning actively; in other words, input
becomes intake if there is a depth of processing.
Craik and Lockhart (1972:675) defined depth of processing as “…a series or
hierarchy of processing stages where greater „depth‟ implies a greater degree of semantic
or cognitive analysis”. This whole processing takes place in stages. The preliminary stages
analyze the “…physical or sensory features as lines, angles, brightness, pitch and loudness
while later stages are more concerned with matching the input against stored abstractions
from past learning”. They suggest that deeper analysis leads to “…more elaborate, longer
lasting, and stronger traces”. These traces would be the equivalent of etchings that are left

on the memory. In other words stronger traces conduct information to the long-term
memory and consequently lead to better levels of retention and recall.
Schmitt & Mc Cathy (1997) express that the deeper the mental processing learners
engage in when learning a new lexical item, the more likely they are to remember it. By
depth processing, we mean that the learners work out the meaning of the item by referring
to their existing knowledge or they work on personalizing the meaning.
According to Craik & Lockhart (1972), the “level of processing” theory of learning
suggested that a very important factor in learning is the quality of mental activity in the
brain of the learner at the moment the learning occurs. If this activity is at a deep and
thoughtful level the learning will remain for long time. If this activity is shallow and
mechanical, little learning will occur. (cited in Nation, 1994)
Schmitt (1997: 201) agrees with the depth of processing hypothesis in the sense
that deeper levels of processing will occasion more effective learning. Yet he adds as well
“relatively shallow processing strategies can be effective too”. Schmitt states that,
according to Nation‟s (1982) research, learners managed to learn a great deal of vocabulary
through word lists. Moreover, he says that rote repetition can also be effective if learners
are used to this approach. Finally, he concludes, citing Cohen and Aphek (1981) that
shallower tasks may be more adequate for beginners whereas deeper tasks would be more
beneficial to intermediate and advanced learners. Thus, it can be argued that a deeper

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processing can be relevant in the case of intermediate and advanced learners studying more
complex words, i.e., words that will demand more from learners because they are a part of
the lexicon that is totally unfamiliar to the learners.
2.1.3.2. Memory
Many researchers points that students‟ memory is vital in process of learning. A
range of vocabulary and new structures remembered by learners is very important and the
degree in which they really remember them can cause differences between learners.
As stated by Gairns & Redman (1986), understanding how we store information in
the memory and why certain chunks of it seem to “stick” while others slip away is a matter

of concern to anyone, especially for language teachers, who work involves helping others
to learn because this knowledge should help to establish classroom procedures that will
promote more effective learning and retention of new language items.
There are two major types of memory, according to Gairns & Redman (1986):
short-term memory and long term memory.
Short-term memory
Gairns & Redman (1986) define short-term memory as the ability to hold
information over brief periods (usually up to thirty seconds in duration). It demands fairly
constant repetition, and any distraction or interruption is likely to severely impede that
ability. Moreover, it has been established that our capacity for short-term retention is
remarkably consistent, and that more people experience some breakdown in retention as
soon as the number of items or chunks of information exceeds seven. Here an experiment
of looking up a telephone number is given as an example. A person can look up a
telephone number and then repeat it for themselves for the time it takes to sit down and
dial the number. Nevertheless, if that person is interrupted, the number will be forgotten
and he has to look up it again.
Long-term memory
Long-term memory defined by Gairns & Redman (1986) is the capacity for recall
of information minutes, weeks, and years after the original input. Unlike short-term
memory, which is limited in capacity, long-term memory is seemingly inexhaustible and
can accommodate any amount of new information. It is generally acknowledged that
people need to work much harder to commit information to long-term memory, and the

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type of repetition that is essential to short-term memory may not be adequate for long-term
retention.
Craik and Lockhart (1972: 674) believe that to take information into long-term
memory, we must create more effective traces. They also point out that “Given that we
recognize pictures, faces, tunes and voices after long periods of time, it is clear that we
have long-term memory for relatively literal nonverbal information”.

What is more, Gairns & Redman (1986) add that the distinction between short-term
retention and long-term retention is not always clear-cut. Information entering short-term
memory may pass quite effortlessly into long-term memory, and some learners may find
repetition a very effective way of transferring information into long-term memory.
Hence, teachers should bear in mind that long-term memory needs creating when
learners study language in general and vocabulary in specific. To do so, teachers have to
consider ways to help students improve their memory. They need to look at the link
between students‟ interest and memory and also the approaches to memory improvement.
According to Devine (1989), students put into long-term memory what tend to interest
them and/or relates to their own lives. Therefore, teachers should select materials carefully,
make materials interesting, offer effective ways such as role-playing, dramatics, games,
etc. to help students learn and retain vocabulary.
2.1.3.3. Learning styles
Many people recognize that each person prefers different learning styles and
techniques. Learning styles group common ways that people learn. Everyone has a mix of
learning styles. Some people may find that they have a dominant style of learning, with far
less use of the other styles. Others may find that they use different styles in different
circumstances. There is no right mix. Nor are your styles fixed. You can develop ability in
less dominant styles, as well as further develop styles that you already use well.
Ellis (1985) describes a learning style as the more or less consistent way in which a
person perceives, conceptualizes, organizes and recalls information.
This approach to learning styles emphasizes the fact that students preferentially
take in and process information in different ways: by seeing and hearing, reflecting and
acting, reasoning logically and intuitively, analyzing and visualizing, etc. Teachers
therefore need to vary their methods because when mismatches exist between learning

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styles of most students in a class and the teaching styles of the teachers, students may
become bored and inattentive, do poorly on tests as well as get discouraged about learning.
A version copyrighted by Miller (2000) shows that there are 4 learning styles as

follows:
The Visual/ Verbal Learning Style
The learners learn best when information is presented visually and in a written
language format. In a classroom setting, they benefit from instructors who use the
blackboard (or overhead projector) to list the essential points of a lecture, or who provide
them with an outline to follow along with during lecture. They benefit from information
obtained from textbooks and class notes. They tend to like to study by themselves in a
quiet room. They often see information "in their mind's eye" when they are trying to
remember something.
The Visual/ Nonverbal Learning Style
The learners learn best when information is presented visually and in a picture or
design format. In a classroom setting, they benefit from instructors who use visual aids
such as film, video, maps and charts. They benefit from information obtained from the
pictures and diagrams in textbooks. They tend to like to work in a quiet room and may not
like to work in study groups. When trying to remember something, they can often visualize
a picture of it in their mind. They may have an artistic side that enjoys activities having to
do with visual art and design.
The Tactile/ Kinesthetic Learning Style
The learners learn best when physically engaged in a "hands on" activity. In the
classroom, they benefit from a lab setting where they can manipulate materials to learn
new information. They learn best when they can be physically active in the learning
environment. They benefit from instructors who encourage in-class demonstrations, "hands
on" student learning experiences, and field work outside t he classroom.
The Auditory/ Verbal Learning Style
The learners learn best when information is presented auditory in an oral language
format. In a classroom setting, they benefit from listening to lecture and participating in
group discussions. They also benefit from obtaining information from audio tape. When
trying to remember something, they can often "hear" the way someone told them the

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information, or the way they previously repeated it out loud. They learn best when
interacting with others in a listening/speaking exchange.
From the above viewpoints, it can be seen that different students prefer different
styles of learning. To help them focus on the lessons, teacher should strive for a balance of
instructional methods (as opposed to trying to teach each student exclusively according to
his/her preference). If the balance is achieved, all students will be taught partly in a manner
they prefer, which leads to an increased comfort level and willingness to learn.
2.1.3.4. Motivation
In the classroom, as in most areas of life, motivation is essential for a person to
succeed. It is important for a teacher to have some understanding of what motivation is and
how it will affect each and every student and their learning progress. As Rogers writes,
„motivation… is as much a matter of concern for the teacher as it is for the learner; it
depends as much on the attitudes of the teacher as on the attitudes of the students‟ (Rogers
1996: 66). In an attempt to define motivation, Brown (1996) points out that a cognitive
view of motivation includes factors such as the need for exploration, activity, stimulation,
new knowledge, and ego enhancement. Williams & Burden suggest that motivation is a
„state of cognitive arousal‟ which provokes a „decision to act‟ as a result of which there is
„sustained intellectual and/or physical effort‟ so that the person can achieve some
previously set goal‟ (Williams and Burden 1997: 120). They go on to point out that the
strength of that motivation will depend on how much value the individual places on the
outcome he or she wishes to achieve. Motivation is divided into two areas „extrinsic‟ and
„intrinsic‟ and has been described by Harmer in the following way.
Extrinsic motivation is caused by any number of outside factors, for example, the
need to pass an exam, the hope of financial reward, or the possibility of future travel.
Intrinsic motivation, by contrast, comes from within the individual. Thus a person might
be motivated by the enjoyment of the learning process itself or by a desire to make
themselves feel better. Most researchers and methodologists have come to the view that
intrinsic motivation is especially important for encouraging success. Even where the
original reason for taking up a language course, for example, is extrinsic, the chances of
success will be greatly enhanced if the student comes to love the learning process. (Harmer

2001: 51).

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Harmer (2001: 51) emphasizes that motivation is essential to success in most fields
of learning because a learner have to want to do something to succeed at it. “Motivation is
some kind of internal drive which pushes someone to do things in order to achieve
something.” (Harmer, 2001: 51)
This is where the teacher can greatly affect the success of the student in so far as
how lessons are presented, and also how the teacher in fact presents themselves to their
students. The students will be influenced by the attitude of the teacher both in the way they
dress and behave, just as much if not more so than in the way they project the information
that is to be learned. It is vital to the success of the student that the teacher has prepared
themselves and the lesson, has an obvious enthusiasm for teaching and a positive „can do‟
attitude.
In the classroom, although the teacher may not have the ability to determine the
size or shape of the room, they can affect the physical appearance. Determine the seat
arrangement in such a way to create a good emotional atmosphere. An attractive classroom
can have a positive influence on the students and impact their motivation to learn. Most
importantly though is the emotional environment, if the students feel safe to express
themselves, and safe to make mistakes without the fear of negative correction there is
motivation to learn. All students need to feel that they are part of a supportive and
cooperative environment. Most important of all as stated by Harmer, the teacher‟s rapport
with the students is critical to creating the right conditions for motivated learning (Harmer
2001: 53). Harmer continues, if students are to continue to be intrinsically motivated they
clearly need to be interested both in the subject they are studying and in the activities and
topics they are presented with. We need to provide them with a variety of subjects and
exercises to keep them engaged.
2.1.3.5. Attitude
An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of like
or dislike for an item. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person, place,

thing, or event - this is often referred to as the attitude object. People can also be conflicted
or ambivalent toward an object, meaning that they simultaneously possess both positive
and negative attitudes toward the item in question. (From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia)

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As a result, attitude takes a very important role in language acquisition because as
Krashen (1985) states, it is one of the factors that encourage intake. Students‟ attitude can
be found in their feeling and belief about language, about the classroom, about the
teachers, course books, or the methods, etc. Selinger (1977) says that the student who feels
at ease in the classroom and likes the teacher may seek out intake by volunteering (he may
be a “high input generator”) (cited in Krashen, 1985). Another opinion which comes from
Brown (1994) expresses that language learners benefit from positive attitudes while
negative attitudes may lead to decrease motivation and thus to unsuccessful attainment of
proficiency.
So, it cannot be denied that understanding factors affecting vocabulary retention
might help teachers create more effective ways to teach vocabulary.
2.2. Teaching and learning vocabulary through games
2.2.1. Games for language teaching and learning
Some teachers think that language games are a waste of time and prefer not to use
them in classroom since games sometimes have been considered only for its one element,
that is fun. In fact, games can provide EFL and ESL students more than that. They have
been used to promote students‟ language proficiency in variety of aspects: grammar,
vocabulary, writing, speaking, etc. When using games in the classroom, it is beneficial for
teachers to have a complete understanding of the definitions of games, the advantages of
games, and the ability to capture students' attention. Teacher should also lower students'
stress; give students the chance for real communication and assess how to use games
appropriately in the classroom.
2.2.1.1. Definition of games
Language games are not activities mainly aimed to break the ice between students

or to kill time. Byrne (1995) give the definition to games as a form of play governed by
rules. They should be enjoyed and fun. They are not just a diversion, a break from routine
activities, but a way of getting the learner to use the language in the course of the game.
Similarly, Hadfield (1990) defines games as "an activity with rules, a goal and an element
of fun." Another definition comes from Saricoban & Metin (2000) saying that games are
organized according to rules and they are enjoyable.

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Therefore, games involve many factors: rules, competition, relaxation, and
learning, in particular. The main focus of using game in class is to help students learn and
have fun. However, to use games in classrooms, it is equally important that before playing
the rules of the games are clearly explained and well understood by the students. There
should be only a few, well-explained rules. Demonstrations also can be very helpful
because it can help students understand the game and help them follow the rules.
Otherwise, they will misunderstand the purpose of the game and they may not get the
benefits they should from the game.
In playing games, competition is very important because it can stimulate and
encourage students to participate in the activity since naturally they want to beat the other
teams. As it happens, in the dictation game students run as fast as possible, remember as
much as they can and speak as loudly and clearly as they can. They run quickly back and
forth, trying to memorize the content as much as possible. While playing, students have
fun, relax, exercise, and tease their friends. Apart from having fun, students learn at the
same time. They acquire new vocabulary along with its spelling and pronunciation.
Students begin to realize that they have to speak or pronounce the words clearly if they
want others to understand what they are saying.
2.2.1.2. Advantages of games
According to Richard-Amato (1996), even though games are often associated with
fun, we should not lose sight of their pedagogical values, particularly in second language
teaching. Games are effective because they provide motivation, lower students' stress, and
give them the opportunity for real communication.

The main reason why games are considered effective learning aids is that "they
spur motivation and students get very absorbed in the competitive aspects of the games;
moreover, they try harder at games than in other courses" (Avedon, 1971). Naturally when
playing games, students are trying to win or to beat other teams for themselves or on the
behalf of their team. They are so competitive while playing because they want to have a
turn to play, to score points and to win. In the class, students will definitely participate in
the activities. Therefore, it is possible for a teacher to introduce students to new ideas,
grammar, knowledge and so on. As in the dictation game, students are so competitive that
they want to finish first and win. It can be clearly seen that games can capture students'

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attention and participation. They can motivate students to want to learn more. Moreover,
they can transform a boring class into a challenging one.
Another reason why games are often used in language classes is that they lower
students' stress in the classroom. In conventional classrooms, there is a lot of stress put on
students trying to master the target language. Schultz (1988) said that
" Stress is a major hindrance in language learning process. This process [Learning
language in traditional way ] is by its nature time consuming and stress provoking
raise the stress level to a point at which it interferes with student attention and efficiency
and undermines motivation. one method has been developed to make students forget
that they are in class relax students by engaging them in stress-reducing task (games)."
There is a high level of stress in the classroom because students have to face
unfamiliar or unknown grammatical structures, words, texts and so forth. Therefore,
students often feel uncomfortable and insecure in class, which inevitably affects their
ability to learn. As a result, games can help lower their anxiety, make them feel
comfortable, and want to learn more. It is believed that when students play games, they
relax and have fun. Since students know that they are playing games and want to
communicate efficiently t hey do not worry about making mistakes and do not try to
correct themselves in every single sentence. When students are free from worry and stress,
they can improve their fluency and natural speaking styles.

Next, students learn without realizing that they are learning (Schultz, 1988.) For
instance, when playing a game called "What Would You Do If?" students will have to pick
one hypothetical question from those that they have written in a box. They might get a
question like "What would you do if a lion came into this classroom?" Next they have to
pick one answer that they have written before. The answer they get may be "I would be a
fly." Usually the question and the answer they get do not match each other, so students
have to use their own imaginations to explain their bizarre answer, and everyone has fun
listening to it. The explanation might be "If a lion came into this classroom, I would be a
fly because I am a good person, so an angel would come and rescue me by turning me into
a fly." While trying to explain, students do not worry too much about grammar mistakes
because they want to communicate and to explain why it can happen. Apart from having
fun, students do not worry about errors and punishment; moreover, they will learn a
grammatical rule and have a chance to use it. Thus, they learn unconsciously-learn without

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realizing they are learning. Students stop thinking about language and begin using it in a
spontaneous and natural manner within the classroom (Schutz, 1988.)
Another advantage is increasing students' proficiency. Playing games in the
classroom can enormously increase students' ability in using language because students
have a chance to use language with a purpose in the situations provided. Hadfield (1990)
confirms that " games provide as much concentrated practice as a traditional drill and more
importantly, they provide an opportunity for real communication, albeit within artificially
defined limits, and thus constitute a bridge between classroom and the real word. " Like in
a traditional classroom, students have an opportunity to drill and practice using
grammatical rules and other functions.
Carrier (1980) has also listed some advantages of games as follows:
1. Games add variety to the range of learning situations.
2. Games can be used to change the pace of a lesson and so maintain motivation.
3. Games can be used to motivated long formal teaching units and renew students‟
energy before returning to more formal learning.

4. Games can give “hidden” practice of specific language points without students
being aware of this.
5. Games encourage students‟ participation and can remove the inhibitions of
those who feel intimidated by formal classroom situations.
6. Games can change the role of the teacher from that of a formal instructor to that
of manager or organizer of activities that students enjoy participating in. this
can be useful in reducing teacher-student distance or conflict.
7. Games can increase student-student communication, and so reduce the
domination of the classroom by the teacher.
8. Games can act as a testing mechanism, in the sense that they will expose areas
of weakness and the need for remedial work.
Lee (1995) states several advantages when games are used in the classroom,
including “a welcome break from the usual routine of the language class”, “motivating and
challenging”, “effort of learning”, and “language practice in various skills”.
With so many advantages games are of course an effective tool in language classrooms.
The questions here are that which games to use and when to use games. The answers to
these questions will be presented in the next sections.

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2.2.1.3. Which games to use?
The benefit of using games in language teaching is absolutely clear. Yet not all
kinds of games can be applied. So what kinds of games will be used ? This requires careful
considerations from language researchers and teachers. Also teachers need to look deep
into their class situations as well as their students‟ background knowledge and what items
will be taught, too. Shelley Vernon says that, “When you are looking for games to use in
your classroom, don‟t just pick something to be a “time-filler” which does not have a
definite linguistic outcome” because “These games may entertain the students, but when
you don‟t have much time with them each day as it is, you want your games to do double
duty to get the most out of the time you spend playing games”. She also suggests that
teachers of English “should have a clear linguistics outcome for each game”.

According to Carrier (1980) teachers should first consider the level of the game to
fit their students' language level. They should choose the game that fits the purposes of that
class or the content. Moreover, teachers should consider students' characteristics: whether
they are old or young, serious-minded or light-hearted, and highly motivated to learn or
not. They should also consider when the game should be used because there is a big
difference between using the game in the morning or in the afternoon, on Monday or
Friday.
In addition to the factors mentioned, teachers should also be able to play and
overact sometimes to help students feel comfortable and want to join the activity. This
means teachers should thoroughly understand the game and its nature and be able to lead
the game.
It is quite difficult to find a game that meets all of the teachers' requirements. Some
games must be adapted in order to fit students' language level, natures, and characteristics.
The most important factor is that games should be used when they can give students both
fun and educational meaning otherwise they will be a waste of time.
2.2.1.4. When to use games?
It is necessary for those who want to use games as a learning aid to be concerned
about how to use them. Hadfield (1990) suggests that "games should be regarded an
integral part of the language syllabus, not an amusing activity for Friday afternoon of for
the end of the term." Games can contribute to students' skills if they are incorporated into

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the classroom, particularly if they are used to reinforce or introduce a grammatical rule or
structure.
Carrier (1980) says that games can be used to open or close a lesson in a
stimulating way, to punctuate a lesson, to relieve tension after a test or at any time that
teachers feel appropriate. Byrne (1980) advises not to play a game at the beginning of the
conversation period and save the game for the use in the middle or toward the end of the
session, when the students would welcome a change of pace. He also reminds that teachers
should stop playing a game before students are ready to quit. In other words, teachers

never have a game played for so long that it begins to bore the participants. Similarly,
games shouldn‟t be played to often since this will cause it to lose its novelty.
Undoubtedly, games are very effective in language teaching and learning with a lot of
advantages such as giving fun, reinforcing motivation, improving proficiency and
corporation, etc. The difficult task for teachers is how to choose the suitable type of game,
the appropriate time to play it as well as the opportunity of its use.
2.2.2. Word games
From the viewpoint of Wright, Betteridge & Buckley (1983), word games are
language games whose focus of attention is initially on words. According to them, word
games are classified into some groups in accordance with the language in focus.
 Spelling as in a game called Dash it and hang it. In this kind of game students are
required to combine letter to spell a mystery word.
 Meaning as in Definition or The odd man out. Here students are required to ask for
and give definition of words as well as make, compare or discuss word definition.
They also have to group words according to their categories and drop out the words
that do not belong to a certain categories.
 Words for sentence making as in A-A, B-B or Make a sentence. The students have
to make sentences including selected vocabulary items.
 Words as inferred from context as in Missing words. The students are asked to
find the missing words for his/her text by reading out loud, comparing, checking
and discussing with the partner.
Meanwhile, another author, Hadfield (1998), when referring to word games pays
more attention to reinforcing vocabulary. In his opinion, to retain a word in one‟s memory
after its presentation, learners should go through three distinction process: fixing the

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meaning of the word in their mind, making the word their own by personalizing it so that it
takes on a color and a character for them and becomes part of their individual word store,
and then using it creatively in a context for themselves. Therefore, he divides games in
accordance with these three process: memorization games, personalizing games, and

communication games.
Memorization games focus on accuracy rather than frequency. That‟s why all of
them are linguistic games. In a game of this type, learners are required recognize or
produce just a single word, or produce a simple sentence that contain the revised word. The
games making use of these technique include guessing, matching, ordering, arranging, and
collecting.
Personalizing games are not really games, but humanistic activities. When playing
the games, learners are requested to relate the words they have learnt to their own life or
experience.
Communication games focus on the completion of tasks rather than the production
of right words or sentences. These games employ a variety of techniques such as guessing,
searching, matching, exchanging, combining, arranging, puzzle-solving, etc.
In short, many linguists and researchers have come to a common conclusion that games are
very useful and can be used as an effective tool to develop students' language learning and
also provide the students an opportunity to practice various skills as well as grammar and
vocabulary. Also the use of games is of great help to make vocabulary lessons more
interesting, enjoyable, and effective.










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Chapter 2
The study

This chapter deals with the design of the study as well as the data analysis and
discussion. First, the research question is raised again. Then participants, data collection
instrument and procedures, teaching procedures and the analytical framework are described
in details. Finally, the data are analyzed and discussed to draw out some findings of the
study.
2.1. Research question
The research question has clearly been presented in part A already. However, for
the sake of highlighting the selected research method, the research question is presented
here again.
Are word games more effective than practice exercises in helping high school English
learners retain word meaning?
2.2. Design of the study
2.2.1. Participants
In the study, 88 students all of whom were non-major English students from 2
classes: 11A2 and 11A3 were employed as the participants of the experiment process. Each
class consisted of 44 students. All of the students were majored in natural sciences. They
had been learning English since they were at grade 3. As a matter of fact, because the
students all lived in the countryside with just few chances to study English outside the
class; moreover, most of them were not really motivated in learning English and they
didn‟t intend to take English as one of the subject in their entrance exam, their English
knowledge was just at the average level, some were even bad at English. Based on their
grades of their final exam in the preceding semester, the researcher found out that they
were generally homogeneous in learning English. The two classes studied the same
textbook of English 11 with four periods a week in which three periods were for studying
the lessons in the textbook and a supplementary one for revising what they had learnt in the
week. As can be seen the textbook is theme-based, including 16 units and 6 tests yourself
for students to check their own knowledge. Each unit corresponds with a topic and consists
of 5 parts (Reading, Speaking, Listening, Writing, and Language Focus). There is no
separate part for Vocabulary. Vocabulary is indirectly taught and learnt (i.e., learning