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BUILDING
ACADEMIC
VOCABULARY

Lawrence J. Zwier







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ADVANCED PRACTICE FOR EAP CLASSES AND SELF-STUDY


BUILDING
ACADEMIC
VOCABULARY

Lawrence J. Zwier










The University of Michigan Press - 2005


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Developing Academic Vocabulary

Beverlee Jobrack
Educational Consultant

Introduction

For many years, much of vocabulary instruction consisted of teachers
identifying words and students looking up and then writing the definitions of
those words. The 2001 National Reading Panel Report put a spotlight on
vocabulary instruction (National Institute for Literacy 2001). The Report
summarized the research that identifies the five fundamental elements of
learning to read, and vocabulary, along with phonemic awareness, phonics,
fluency, and comprehension was one of the five. The Report presented three
key findings about vocabulary:
1. Vocabulary is critically important to readers who use the words they
speak and hear to make sense of the words they see in print. Decoding
without understanding what words mean is not reading meaningfully.
2. Vocabulary is critical to reading comprehension throughout the grades. A
reader cannot comprehend what is read if he or she doesn’t know the
meanings of most of the words. As children advance in reading, they
encounter words that are not part of their oral vocabularies, which they need
to learn in order to understand what they are reading.
3. Most vocabulary is learned indirectly through everyday experience with
oral and written language, but some words that represent complex concepts
that are not part of everyday experrience must be taught directly.
The National Reading Panel Report is not the only work that has shed
light on the importance of vocabulary instruction in recent years. Some
studies demonstrated the critical importance of a solid vocabulary in
academic achievment. Some showed the connections between vocabulary
and conceptual understanding in science, math and social studies. Others
identified the most effective methods for learning and teaching new words.
This white paper summarizes the conclusions reached from research
about teaching and learning academic vocabulary.
What is Academic Vocabulary?
Given the importance of academic background knowledge and the
fact that vocabulary is such an essential aspect of it, one of the most crucial

services that teachers can provide, particularly for students who do not come

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from academically advantaged backgrounds, is systematic instruction in
important academic terms. (Marzano and Pickering 2005).
Academic vocabulary includes the words that are critical to
understanding concepts taught in school. Academic vocabulary focuses on
specialized words, as opposed to the highfrequency words that students learn
through reading and speaking. Learning academic vocabulary is not just for
preparation for college. Academic vocabulary can include school related
words that form the language of learning that children encounter when they
start school in kindergarten all the way through advanced placement courses
they may take in high school.
Academic vocabulary development is important for student
achievement throughout the grades. A profound study (Hart and Risley
1995) observed interactions between infants and their parents over a period
of time. The study found that based on these interactions, some children
enter preschool at age 4 with oral vocabularies that are up to two years
behind their peers. These children simply haven’t been exposed to many
words. This vocabulary deficit can make it seem as if teachers are speaking
in a foreign language. Unless academic vocabulary is taught, a child can get
behind at the earliest levels and never catch up. A person with more
expertise has a larger knowledge base, and the large knowledge base
allows that person to acquire even greater expertise at a faster rate
(Stanovich 1986). Thus is it critically important that academic vocabulary be
taught at every level and particularly reinforced for those students who have
a vocabulary deficit.
“.…those who enter fourth grade with significant vocabulary deficits

show increasing problems with reading comprehension, even if they have
good reading (word identification) skills. The available evidence does not
suggest a substantial “catching up” process, but rather a continuing slippage
relative to those with average and above-average achievment.” (Biemiller
1999).
As students progress in school, academic vocabulary becomes more
and more specific to content studies. To support vocabulary instruction,
academic vocabulary is often highlighted in instructional materials. These
highlighted words are considered key to understanding the content of a
particular passage or chapter. To support vocabulary instruction efforts
further, several academic vocabulary word lists have been generated by
publishers, academics, and state boards of education (Tennessee Department
of Education 2009). These lists include academic vocablulary that is
determined to be critical to content-area studies.
What Effect Does Vocabulary Have on Understanding?

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Knowledge of this vocabulary will not guarantee success, but lack of
knowledge of vocabulary can ensure failure. (Biemiller 1999).
Words, reason, and understanding are intertwined. The Greek word
logos means “word” but also “reason,” “thought,” and “speech.” The Greek
-log is used as a root in logic, analogy, geology, and anthropology. To know
what a word means, helps define the thought or concept behind the word and
develops understanding. Vocabulary is critical to reading comprehension.
Vocabulary knowledge is involved in a reciprocal relationship with
reading ability…the relationship is one that continues throughout reading
development and remains in force for even the most fluent adult reader
(Stanovich 1986).

Language, along with sense perception, reason, and emotion are the
fundamental ways of knowing. Of course language is only one way of
knowing and yet it is an important contributor to understanding, particularly
abstract concepts that cannot be experienced.
Research shows that vocabulary knowledge is a strong predictor of
reading comprehension than most variables, even cognitive ability. Two-
thirds of all academic English words come from Latin, French (through
Latin), or Greek. Understandably, knowledge of the most high incidence
academic words in English can significantly boost a student’s
comprehension level of school-based reading material. (Coxhead 2000)
People's knowledge of any topic is encapsulated in the terms they
know that are relevant to the topic. For example, people who know a great
deal about snow skiing understand terms such as fall line, snow plow, corn
snow, unweight, powder, packed powder, green slope, blue slope, black
slope, mogul, carving, and face-plant. Likewise, students who understand
the content in their state mathematics standards document regarding data
analysis and statistics have an understanding of terms such as mean, median,
mode, range, standard deviation, and central tendency. The more students
understand these terms, the easier it is for them to understand information
they may read or hear about the topic. On the other hand, without a basic
knowledge of these terms, students will have difficulty understanding
information they read or hear (Marzano and Pickering 2005).
What does it mean to know a word? One can know a word deeply,
superfically, or not at all. A knowledge continuum might include these kinds
of stages (Beck, McKeown and Kucan 2002).
1. Never heard or saw the word before.
2. Heard or saw the word and know that it is related to a particular topic or
concept.
3. Heard or saw the word and have a general sense of what it means.

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4. Have a narrow contextual understanding of a word.
5. Can define a word in context but not use it in appropriate situations.
6. Can recall or use a word in specific contexts.
7. Know of multiple meanings of a word.
8. Can apply a word correctly and recognize inappropriate use.
9. use the word naturally in thinking, writing, and talking.
10. Has a rich knowledge of a word’s meaning and how it relates to other
words with similar meanings, roots, or affixes.
11. Has deep knowledge of a word. Can conjugate forms and use it
appropriately in figures of speech, such as puns, metaphors, and understand
its use in idiomatic exppressions.
Vocabulary instruction can have a significant effect on concept
knowledge, reading comprehension, and school achievement. Given that
vocabulary is so connected to understanding and having a deep
understanding of words enriches content knowledge, the most effective and
efficient ways of teaching vocabulary should be part of every teacher’s
repertoire.
Teaching Academic Vocabulary
Teaching specific terms in a specific way is probably the strongest
action a teacher can take to ensure that students have the academic
background knowledge they need to understand the content they will
encounter in school. When all the teachers in a school focus on the same
academic vocabulary and teach it in the same way, the school has a powerful
comprehensive approach. When all the teachers in a district embrace and use
the approach, it becomes even more powerful (Marzano and Pickering
2005).
All teachers can provide effective vocabulary instruction. As students

advance in school, continuous vocabulary reinforcement from all subject
areas can have a significant effective on student achievement.
There are an estimated 88,500 words in printed school English (Nagy
and Herman 1984). It is impossible teach each one through direct
instruction, nor would that be effective or efficient. Some strategies,
however, are more effective than others. Strategies that are not effective
include the following (Stahl and Fairbanks 1986):
1. Looking up definitions (in the absence of other strategies).
2. Providing only one or two exposures to a word.
3. Drill-and-practice methods of instruction that involve multiple repetitions
of the same type of information.
Effective Vocabulary Learning Strategies

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If simply having students look up vocabulary words in a dictionary
and write the definitions is not an effective teaching strategy, what is? Below
are basic strategies that have been identified as effective for acquiring
vocabulary (M. F. Graves 2006).
1. Use context to unlock the meanings of unknown words.
a. Read carefully and ask yourself, “Does this make sense?”
b. Notice when you don’t know the meaning of a word and slow down.
c. If necessary, reread the preceding sentence looking for clues to the word’s
meaning.
d. Substitute your meaning for the unknown word to see if it makes sense. If
not, go back again.
2. Use word parts (prefixes, suffixes and roots to unlock the meanings of
words.
a. More than 60% of new words can be broking down into parts. Then

students can use their word parts to figure out their meanings.
3. Use dictionaries and related reference tools. Learn to use an appropriate
dictionary.
a. Find the word and read the whole definition.
b. Think about multiple meanings.
c. Decide which definition makes sense in the passage you read.
4. Develop strategies for dealing with unknown words.
a. Recognize unknown words.
b. Decide if you need to understand it to understand the passage.
c. Attempt to infer the meaning from context.
d. Attempt to infer the meaning from word parts.
e. Attempt to sound out the words to see if it is familiar.
f. Use the dictionary or other resource.
5. Adopt a personal approach to building vocabulary and to developing
word consciousness.
Multiple exposures to a word, particularly in different contexts, are
also important to securing vocabulary (Laflamme 1997).
Selecting Words to Teach
The first step in teaching academic vocabulary is to identify the words
to teach. These may include the words that are highlighted in the reading
materials, along with words that appear on state lists, coupled with words
that are suggested or identified in the classroom. Some words are critical to
understanding a concept; for example, understanding the difference between
mean, median, and mode will help to critically evaluate data.
Other words may be useful, but not critical to understanding. Some
words may be interesting but not useful to understanding a concept. It is

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wise to take time to identify the small selection of words that will have the
most effect on student understanding.
Deciding The Most effective Way to Teach Vocabulary
Once words have been selected, the next step is to determin the most
effective methods to teach the words. Different words lend themselves to
different strategies:
Context Some words are best learned in context; for example, if students are
studying parts of a flower, the stigma and sepal would probably be best
taught in context with the more familiar terms, petal and stalk.
Categorization Some words are best understood when they are related to
words that are similar or opposite in meaning; for example, the word pelf
can be related to wealth or riches, although it conveys the idea of ill-gotten
gains. Antonyms would include poverty, need, or want.
Word Parts Word parts and word derivations are valuable tools to making
meaning of words. Knowing that the word pelf is related to pilfer, for
example, may help in deepening understanding.
Six-Step Strategy For teaching specific vocabulary, the following six steps
form a strategy shown to be highly effective (Marzano 2009). This strategy
works at every grade level, from kindergarten to high school. It provides
multiple exposures to a word in a varieity of contexts and is most effective
when all the steps are used. Employing the whole process promotes student
achievement much more effectively than using any step individually.
Provide a description, explanation, or example of the new term.
Ask students to restate the description or explanation in their own
words. (The results are not as strong when students copy the teacher’s
explanation instead of generating their own.)
Ask students to construct a picture, pictograph, or symbolic
representation of the term. (This step is crucial. When students do this step
well, achievement soars.)
Engage students periodically in activities that help them add to their

knowledge of the terms in their vocabulary notebooks.
Periodically ask students to discus the terms with one another.
Involve students periodically in games that enable them to play with
the terms. (Games engage students at a high level and have a powerful effect
on recall.)

Summary
The attention drawn to the important role of vocabulary in reading
also unveils the importance of academic vocabulary and the most effective
ways to teach vocabulary. Academic vocabulary is a critical element in

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concept understanding. Teaching academic vocabulary can begin when
children enter school in the primary grades and develop over time to include
specific terms that represent key concepts in content area studies.
The most effective strategies for teaching academic vocabulary
involve multiple exposures to new words in a variety of contexts. This type
of instruction leads to deep understanding of words and concepts. Given the
importance of vocabulary in reading comprehension, as well as academic
achievement, empowering all teachers with effective strategies for
vocabulary instruction has the potential to have dramatic positive effects on
student achievement.

References

Beck, Isabel L., Margaret G. McKeown, and Linda Kucan. Bringing Words
to Life: Robust Vocabulary Instruction. New York, NY: The Guilford Press
2002.

Biemiller, Andrew. From Reading Research to Practice: Language and
Reading Success. Brookline Books, 1999.

Coxhead, Averil. The New Academic Word List. TESOL Quarterly, 2000.
34, 213-238

Graves, Michael F. The Vocabulary Book: Learning & Instruction. Teachers
College Press 2006.

Graves, Michael F., editor. Essential Readings on Vocabulary Instrucrtion.
International Reading Association 2009.

Hart, B., and T. R. Risley. Meaningful differences in the everyday
experiences of young American children: The everyday experience of one-
and two-year-old American children. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes 1995.

Laflamme, John G. "The effect of the Multiple Exposure Vocabulary
Method and the Target Reading/Writing Strategy on test scores." Journal of
Adolescent & Adult Literacy (International Reading Association) 40, no. 5
(February 1997): 372-381.


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Marzano, Robert J. Building Background Knowledge for Academic
Achievement: Research on What Works in Schools. Alexandria, VA: ASCD
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2004.

"Six Steps to Better Vocabulary Instruction." Educational Leadership,
September 2009.
Teaching Basic and Advanced Vocabulary: A Framework for Direct
Instruction. Alexandria, VA: ASCD Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development 2009.

Marzano, Robert J., and Debra J. Pickering. Building Academic Vocabulary:
Teacher's Manual. Alexandria, VA: ASCD Association for Supervision and
Curriclum Development 2005.

Nagy, W.E., and P.A. Herman. "Limitations of Vocabulary Instruction."
Center for the Study of Reading, University of Illinois: Champaign 1984.

National Institute for Literacy. "Put Reading First." Government Report,
2001.

Stahl, Steven A., and Marilyn M. Fairbanks. "The Effects of Vocabulary
Instruction: A Model- Based Meta-Analysis." Review of Educational
Research (American Educational Research Association) 56, no. 72 (1986).

Stanovich, K.E. "Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of
individual differences in the acquisition of literacy." Reading Research
Quarterly 21 (1986).

Tennessee Department of Education. Tennessee Academic Vocabulaary: A
Guide for Tennessee Educators. 2009.

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CHỦ ĐỀ 01

CÁC CÁCH DIỄN ĐẠT MỐI QUAN HỆ GIỮA MỘT TỔNG THỂ
VỚI CÁC BỘ PHẬN CẤU THÀNH HOẶC MỘT TẬP HỢP VỚI CÁC
THÀNH VIÊN CỦA NÓ.

Nhóm 01: consist of, comprise, be composed of

1. consist of: bao gồm

Ngữ cảnh 01:
The nuclear family traditionally consists of a married couple and their
children.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
In a nuclear family, traditionally, there are a woman and a man
(married to each other) and their children.
Ngữ cảnh 02:

The research described a procedure consisting of several time-
consuming steps.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
The people doing research told about a process in which there were
many steps, each taking a long time.
Ghi nhớ:
* Cụm động từ này KHÔNG dùng ở dạng BỊ ĐỘNG.
* Có thể dùng một số trạng từ chỉ mức độ như primarily, mostly, entirely,
solely và largely xen giữa “consist” và “of”.
* Chủ ngữ của cụm từ này thường là HỆ THỐNG, SỰ SẮP ĐẶT, HỖN
HỢP.

2. comprise: gồm có

Ngữ cảnh 01:
A Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMA) comprises a large
city and surrounding counties within reasonable comuting distance.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
A SMSA is made up of a large city and the counties close enough so
that people who live there can travel to the city to work.
(A county is a governmental unit larger than a city but smaller than a state)



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Ngữ cảnh 02:
A new therapy, comprising muscle massage and a cocktail of anti-
inflammatory drugs, significantly reduces the pain of arthritis.

Diễn đạt tương đương:
A new treatment for arthritis (swelling of joints like knees and
elbows) work well. The parts of the treatment include muscle rubbing and a
mixture of several drugs that reduce swelling.
Ghi nhớ:
* Động từ này KHÔNG dùng ở dạng BỊ ĐỘNG.
* Động từ này thường dùng dạng v-ing (ngữ cảnh 2)
* Chủ ngữ của động từ này thường là NHÓM, HỆ THỐNG, SẮP ĐẶT,
SƯU TẬP, KHU VỰC.

3. be composed of : bao gồm

Ngữ cảnh 01:
The peptide molecule is composed of at least two amino acids.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
At least two amino acids make up each peptide molecule.
Ngữ cảnh 02:
The third category is composed of males between the ages of 25 and
40.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
In the third group are men between the ages of 25 and 40.
Ghi nhớ:
* Cụm động từ này LUÔN ở dạng BỊ ĐỘNG.
* Ở dạng chủ động “compose” nghĩa hoàn toàn khác là “biên soạn, sáng tác
(tác phẩm âm nhạc, nghệ thuật hoặc văn học).
***************************************************

Nhóm 02: involve, encompass, include, contain

1. involve: đòi hỏi, gồm cả

Ngữ cảnh 01:
Successful budgeting involves not just accurate numbers but also a
realistic knowledge of your needs and tastes.




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Diễn đạt tương đương:
Successfully planning how to use your money requires you not only to
know the correct amount of your income and expenses but also to be aware
of what you need and what you like.
Ngữ cảnh 02:
The researchers described a complex protocol involving the
meticulous cleaning of equipment and strict controls on access to the
laboratory.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
The researchers described a complicated procedure that included very
careful cleaning and tough limits on who could enter the laboratory.
Ghi nhớ:
* Động từ này có thể dùng ở dạng bị động nhưng dùng dạng chủ động thì tốt
hơn.
Ví dụ:
- Many decisions are involved in setting up a website.
- Setting up a website involves many decisions.
* Chủ ngữ của động từ này thường là từ chỉ QUÁ TRÌNH, HỆ THỐNG
hoặc SỰ KIỆN.

* Tân ngữ của động từ này KHÔNG là CÁC BỘ PHẬN CẤU THÀNH, mà
là CÁC BƯỚC THỰC HIỆN, CÁC CÔNG CỤ, PHƯƠNG, ĐIỀU KIỆN
thực hiện.

2. encompass : chứa đựng, bao gồm

Ngữ cảnh 01:
The Animal Rights Coalition (ARC) encompasses several smaller
organisations that advocates better treatment of animals.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
Within the ARC are many smaller groups that want people to treat
animals better.
Ngữ cảnh 02:
Today’s children live in a digital environment, encompassing
everything from electronic “pets” to cellular phone systems.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
Children are now surrounded by digital things (using electronic “1” or
“0” signals) that range from electronic pets to cellular phone systems.
Ghi nhớ:
* Chủ ngữ của động từ này thường là NHÓM, HỆ THỐNG, SỰ SẮP XẾP.

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* Tân ngữ có thể liệt kê “mọi thứ từ … đến”, hoặc tập hợp nhiều tổ chức,
hay vật khác nhau.

3. include: bao gồm

Ngữ cảnh 01:

The government’s plan includes measures to limit currency trading.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
As part of the government’s plan, there are steps to control the buying
and selling of money from various countries.
Ngữ cảnh 02:
The order Lagomorpha includes rabits, hares, and pikas.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
In the category of animals known as Lagomorpha, there are rabits,
hares, and pikas.
Ghi nhớ:
* Chủ ngữ của động từ này thường KHÔNG PHẢI LÀ SINH VẬT mà là
NHÓM, HỆ THỐNG, Ý KIẾN, KẾ HOẠCH, THỜI GIAN BIỂU.

4. contain: chứa đựng

Ngữ cảnh 01:
Each cell contains two sets of DNA – one in the nucleus and another
in the mitochondria.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
Inside each cell are two groups of DNA – one in the centre of the cell
and another in the mitochondria.
Ngữ cảnh 02:
The film contains sexually explicit scenes that some viewers may find
offensive.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
Some parts of the film show sexual activity very clearly. Some people
who watch this film may not like seeing these things.
Ghi nhớ:
* Chủ ngữ của động từ này thường là tác phẩm nghệ thuật, văn học; học
thuyết, các ý kiến.

***************************************************



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Nhóm 03: constitute, make up, form

1. constitute: tạo nên, cấu thành

Ngữ cảnh 01:
Rabits, hares, and pikas constitute the order Lagomorpha.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
The members of the group of animals called Lagomorpha are rabits,
hares, and pikas.
Ngữ cảnh 02:
A large city and the surrounding conties within reasonable commuting
distance constitute a Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA).
Diễn đạt tương đương:
The parts of an SMSA are a large city and the counties close enough
to it so people can drive from there into the city to work.
Ghi nhớ:
* Động từ này có thể dùng ở dạng chủ ngữ là các bộ phần tạo thành tổng thể
là tân ngữ.

2. make up: tạo thành

Ngữ cảnh 01:

Two violins, a cello, and a bass viol make up the classic string
quartet.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
The parts of a traditional grouping of four string instruments are two
violins, a cello, and a bass viol.
Ngữ cảnh 02:
Strictly speaking, all counties with Pacific shores make up the so-
called Pacific Rim.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
In a totally correct use of the phrase “Pacific Rim”, this group should
include all countries with land beside the Pacific Ocean.
Ghi nhớ:
* Động từ này có tân ngữ là danh từ chỉ NHÓM, HỆ THỐNG, SỰ SẮP
XẾP, TỔ CHỨC.
* Thường sử dụng ở dạng bị động.
Ví dụ: The classic string quartet is made up OF two violins, a cello, and a
bass viol.
* “Make up” còn có nghĩa khác là “bịa đặt, dựng chuyện”.

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Ví dụ: Jim and his friends made up that meeting to get out of a test.

3. form : thành lập

Ngữ cảnh 01:
Seven opposition parties came together to form the National
Revolutionary Front.
Diễn đạt tương đương:

Seven political groups that do not agree with the government came
together to set up a new group called the National Revolutionary Front.
Ngữ cảnh 02:
The pistil, stamen, and anthers form the reproductive system of a
flowering plant.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
The parts of a flowering plant’s system for creating new plants are the
pistil, stamen, and anthers.
Ghi nhớ:
* Thường sử dụng ở dạng bị động.
Ví dụ: The reproductive system of a plant is formed by the pistil, stamen,
and anthers.
***************************************************
Nhóm 04: comprehensive, all told

1. comprehensive (adjective): bao hàm, toàn diện, phổ quát

Ngữ cảnh 01:
Doctors performed a comprehensive autopsy, but the cause of death
remained a mystery.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
The doctors’ examination of the dead body covered all the necessary
points, but they still couldn’t discover why the person died.
Ngữ cảnh 02:
Albertson’s book offers a comprehensive but rather superficial review
of genetic research.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
Albertson’s book look at all the important branches of research into
genes, but the book’s description are not very deep or detailed.
Ghi nhớ:

* Thường dùng để mô tả báo cáo, điều tra hoặc nghiên cứu.


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2. all told (adverbial ): cả thảy

Ngữ cảnh 01:
All told, 14 new elements were added to the periodic table as a result
of the new research.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
If you count up all the elements added to the periodic table as a result
of the new research, you get the number 14.
Ngữ cảnh 02:
Police confiscated a large number of handguns in the raid – 253, all
told.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
Police took away a large number of handguns – a total of 253 - after
they raided the place.
Ghi nhớ:
* Vị trí của cụm từ này thường ở đầu câu hoặc sau một cụm từ chỉ số lượng.

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CHỦ ĐỀ 02

CÁC CÁCH DIỄN ĐẠT “KHÔNG BAO GỒM,
LOẠI TRỪ RA, TÁCH RỜI ”

Nhóm 01: anomalous, exception, egregious, marginal

1. anomalous: ngoại lệ, bất thường

Ngữ cảnh 01:
Although most materials contract as they cool, water is anomolous in

that it expands when it freezes.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
Most things take up less space as they get cooler, but water does not.
It takes up more space after it becomes ice.
Ngữ cảnh 02:
Grimaldia is an anomalous socialist country in a free-market region.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
Grimaldia does not fit the pattern of countries near it. The government
controls the economy a lot in Grimaldia, but nearby countries tend to let
private companies be the strongest influence.
Ghi nhớ:
* Tính từ này thường được đi sau bởi các cụm từ in that, because, hoặc by
virtue of nêu rõ đặc tính ngoại lệ, khác thường đó.
* Cụm từ chỉ nhóm người, vật, sự vật mà nó không thuộc về thường đứng
sau giới từ in hoặc among (xem ngữ cảnh 02).

2. exception: sự ngoại lệ

Ngữ cảnh 01:
Crops failed throughout the Midwest, Delton County being the sole
exception.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
Throughout the Midwest, plants on farms failed to produce. The only
place this was not true was Delton County.
Ngữ cảnh 02:
With exception of the samples from Lab 4, all the virus cultures
showed significant growth after 3 days.

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Diễn đạt tương đương:
Almost all the populations of viruses that the scientists were trying to
grow did increase a lot after 3 days. The only ones that did not were in Lab
4.
Ghi nhớ:
* Danh từ này thường dùng với các tính từ như lone, only, sole, notable (ngữ
cảnh 01).
* Danh từ này thường dùng trong cụm từ “With the exception of … ” (ngữ
cảnh 2)
* Danh từ này thường có giới từ “to” đi sau (ví dụ: The exception to the
quick growth observed in the experiment occurred in the samples from Lab
4).

3. egregious : tồi tệ, dễ nhận thấy, phô trương

(các nghĩa trên chưa có trong các từ điển Anh – Việt hiện nay)
Ngữ cảnh 01:
The bank’s practices were so egregious that regulators had to take
strong punitive action.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
The bank’s (bad) practices were very obvious, so the people who
control banking had to punish the bank very strongly.
Ngữ cảnh 02:
The neighbourhood’s egregious wealth makes it a frequent target of
buglars.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
It is easy to see that the neighbourhood is very wealthy, so thieves

often choose that area as a place to break into houses and steal things.
Ghi nhớ:
* Các nghĩa trên được suy ra theo từ điển Anh-Anh và trong ngữ cảnh của
câu ví dụ.
* Tính từ này thường được miêu tả các danh từ như behaviour/action,
possessions, styles.
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Nhóm 02: keep out, exclude, ban

1. keep out: ngăn cản, không cho vào, tránh

Ngữ cảnh 01:
Australia’s strict quarantine rules aim mostly to keep out diseases of
cattle and sheep.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
Australia has very strong rules against bringing plants or animals into
the country. The main purpose of these rules is to make sure that illnesses of
cattle and sheep do not get into the country.
Ngữ cảnh 02:
Most members of the marketing department keep out of the battle

between the two top managers.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
Most of the people in the marketing department did not support one
side or another in the struggle between the two top managers.
Ghi nhớ:
*Cấu trúc câu “to keep out something/sombody of smth/sbd”.

2. exclude : ngăn, không cho vào, loại ra, trừ ra

Ngữ cảnh 01:
In the 1950s, the club excludes people on the basis of colour and
national origin.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
The club would not let people of some races or nationalities in.
Ngữ cảnh 02:
The people who took this poll excludes any responses that were
illegible or incomplete.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
The people who took this poll (a measure of public opinion) did not
include any answers that were hard to read or were not complete.
Ghi nhớ:
* Chủ ngữ của động từ này thường là NHÓM, TỔ CHỨC, THÀNH VIÊN
NHÓM hoặc NỘI QUY DO NHÓM ĐỀ RA.





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3. ban: chính thức cấm

Ngữ cảnh 01:
Police banned journalists from the area while they searched for
survivors of the crash.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
The police announced that journalists would not be let into the area
during the search for people still alive after the crash.
Ngữ cảnh 02:
In an attempt to stop the spread of apple blight, the importation of all
foreign fruit was banned.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
To keep the apple blight from travelling further, the government said
that foreign fruit could not be brought into the country.
Ghi nhớ:
* Chủ ngữ của động từ này thường là các cơ quan chính quyền (cảnh sát,
chính phủ) hoặc nội quy, quy định.
* Thường dùng với giới từ from (ngữ cảnh 01). Có thể cấm ai đó khỏi một
nơi, một tổ chức, hành động, sự kiện hay quá trình.
* Thường dùng trong câu bị động.
* Khi dùng là danh từ “ban” đi với giới từ “on”. Ví dụ: “A ban on (smth)”
* Danh từ “ban” có thể đứng sau động từ “impose” (áp đặt), “declare”
(tuyên bố)
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Nhóm 03: filter, screen

1. filter: lọc ra, loại bỏ

Ngữ cảnh 01:
The lens coating filtered out most frequencies of light.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
The material on the surface kept most frequencies of light from
passing through the lens (a piece of glass that changes the direction of light).
(Frequency of light = light with a certain wavelength)
Ngữ cảnh 02:
Official student groups on campus filter most forms of expression, so
that only very bland statements are never made publicly.



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Diễn đạt tương đương:
Student groups keep most things from being said at the college. Only
very uninteresting things can be said openly.
Ghi nhớ:
* Động từ này có thể dùng trong cấu trúc “to filter out” sẽ có tân ngữ là
những thứ không mong muốn. (Ngữ cảnh 01)
* Nếu không có “out” đi cùng thì tân ngữ thường là chất lỏng hoặc một số từ
chỉ ánh sang, âm thanh, ý kiến, lời nói/viết hoặc thậm chí là người hay vật ra
khỏi nhóm. (Ngữ cảnh 02)

2. screen: sàng lọc

Ngữ cảnh 01:
The hospital screened its blood supply for HIV.
Diễn đạt tương đương:

The hospital did tests on the blood it kept. The tests were to find
evidence of HIV (the virus that can lead to AIDS)
Ngữ cảnh 02:
After carefully screening thirty – five applicants, the committee short-
listed three.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
After carefully examining thirty – five people who applied for the job
(and looking for posible problems that might make the unsuitable), the
committee selected three top possible choices.
Ghi nhớ:
* Động từ này có thể dùng để miêu tả các biện pháp an toàn hoặc điều tra
cẩn thận.
* Chủ ngữ thường là một người một hoặc một nhóm người có trách nhiệm
và quyền hạn làm việc này.
* Trong cấu trúc câu “to screen out” thì tân ngữ thường là vật không mong
muốn bị loại bỏ ra khỏi.
* Trong cấu trúc câu “to screen smth for smth” thì tân ngữ sau “for” thường
là vật muốn tìm để loại bỏ ra khỏi.
* Trong cấu trúc câu không có “out” đứng sau thường chỉ nhóm người hay
vật được sàng lọc.

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Nhóm 04: rogue, outcast, alien

1. rogue (adjective): khác thường, xấu

Ngữ cảnh 01:
The tumors originate with rogue cells that suddenly begin producing.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
The unnatural growths in the body start out as cells that behave
unusually – by reproducing in a fast, uncontrolled way.
Ngữ cảnh 02:
Many of the bank’s losses stemmed from the activities of a rogue
officer in the corporate loan section.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
Much of the money lost by the bank was because of things done by a
person in the office that lends money to businesses. He or she acted alone
and in a way outside normal procedures.
Ghi nhớ:
* Từ này trong từ điển khi dùng với người thường chỉ người có hành vi
không trung thực với từ “elephant” có nghĩa là “con voi độc” (thường đi một
mình và rất hung hãn).

2. outcast (Noun-countable ): kẻ bị ruồng bỏ

Ngữ cảnh 01:
Among her baseball-loving colleagues, Dr. Prakash, a cricket fan, felt
like an outcast.
Diễn đạt tương đương:
Most other people with whom Dr. Prakash worked were interested in
baseball. Because she liked cricket, she felt like she was outside the group.
Ngữ cảnh 02:
The cult attracted social outcasts and misfits.

Diễn đạt tương đương:
The small, unusual religious group drew in misfits (people who đi not
fit well into society) and people who had not been accepted into mainstream
society.
Ghi nhớ:
*Một số tính từ có thể đi với từ này: social, complete, miserable.