Expansion and its realization in the short story “Runaway” by Alice Munro from systemic functional grammar perspective = Bành trướng và sự thể hiện của nó trong truyện ngắn Trốn chạy của Alice Munr

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST- GRADUATE STUDIES




VŨ THỊ THẢO



EXPANSION AND ITS REALIZATION IN THE SHORT STORY
“RUNAWAY” BY ALICE MUNRO: FROM SYSTEMIC
FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR PERSPECTIVE

(Bành trướng và sự thể hiện của nó trong truyện ngắn ―Trốn chạy‖ của Alice
Munro: Nghiên cứu theo quan điểm ngữ pháp chức năng hệ thống)


M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS


Field: English Linguistics
Code: 60220201

HANOI – 2014



VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST- GRADUATE STUDIES




VŨ THỊ THẢO



EXPANSION AND ITS REALIZATION IN THE SHORT STORY
“RUNAWAY” BY ALICE MUNRO: FROM SYSTEMIC
FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR PERSPECTIVE

(Bành trướng và sự thể hiện của nó trong truyện ngắn ―Trốn chạy‖ của Alice
Munro: Nghiên cứu theo quan điểm ngữ pháp chức năng hệ thống)



M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS


Field: English Linguistics
Code: 60220201

Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Hoàng Văn Vân







HANOI – 2014

i

DECLARATION

I, Vũ Thị Thảo, hereby declare that the work contained in this thesis is the
result of my own research. It is recognized that, should this declaration be found to
be false, disciplinary action could be taken and penalties imposed in accordance
with the University policy and rules.

Signature



Vũ Thị Thảo

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Prof.
Dr. Hoàng Văn Vân, Dean of the School of Graduates, Vietnam National University
Hanoi, for his continuous support, guidance, patience and inspiration to me in
researching and writing this thesis. I could not have imagined having a better
supervisor for my M.A. thesis.
I also wish to extend particular thanks to lecturers at the Faculty of
Postgraduate Studies, University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam
National University, Hanoi, for their positive and encouraging impacts on my work
in one way or another.
Finally, my special thanks and blessings go to my parents and my friends for
their love and support in any respect during the completion of the thesis. Their well-
being is of great inspiration to me all the time.

iii

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study is to examine how expansion relations between clauses
are realized in the short story ―Runaway‖ by Alice Munro, using systemic
functional grammar as the theoretical framework. The research findings show that
of 252 clause complexes collected from the story, the highest frequency use of
expansion is enhancement, aiming to provide necessary circumstantial information
to the clauses. Extension is the second dominant type and elaboration is the least
popular type. Besides using explicit conjunctive signals to link the clauses, implicit
ones are also used, which sometimes cause challenges to identify the type of

relations. The results help to confirm the application of SFG in text analysis to
understand lexico-semantic relations between clauses.




















iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART A: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale for the study 1
2. Aim of the study and research questions 2
3. Scope of the study 2

4. Significance of the study 2
5. Methodology 3
6. Organization of the study 3
PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND FOR THE STUDY
1.1. An overview of systemic functional approach to grammar 4
1.2. Meta-function of the language 5
1.1.1. Ideational meta-function 5
1.1.2. Interpersonal meta-function 6
1.1.3. Textual meta-function 6
1.3. Ranks 7
1.4. The clause 8
1.4.1. Clause simplex and clause complex 8
1.4.2. Types of relationship between clauses in clause complexes 8
1.4.2.1. Taxis 8
1.4.2.2. Logico-sematic relations 9
1.4.3. Summary 10

v

CHAPTER 2: EXPANSION AND EXPANSION RELATION BETWEEN
CLAUSES IN CLAUSE COMPLEXES
2.1. Expansion 11
2.2. Types of expansion .11
2.2.1. Elaboration .11
2.2.1.1. Paratactic elaboration .12
2.2.1.2. Hypotactic elaboration .12
2.2.2. Extension .14
2.2.2.1. Paratactic extension .14
2.2.2.2. Hypotactic extension .15

2.2.3. Enhancement .16
2.2.3.1. Paractactic enhancement .16
2.2.3.2. Hypotactic enhancement .18
2.3. Summary .20
CHAPTER 3: EXPANSION RELATIONS BETWEEN CLAUSES IN
CLAUSE COMPLEXES IN THE SHORT STORY “RUNAWAY”
BY ALICE MUNRO
3.1. The chosen story ―Runaway‖ by Alice Munro 21
3.2. A register analysis of the story 21
3.2.1. Genre 22
3.2.2. Field 23
3.2.3. Tenor 23
3.2.4. Mode 24
3.3. The expansion relation between clauses in the story 24
3.3.1. Data collection 24

vi

3.3.2. Data analysis and discussion 25
3.3.3. Summary 33
PART C: CONCLUSION
1. Summary of the study 36
2. Limitations and suggestions for further studies 38
REFERENCES 39
APPENDICES I

1

PART 1. INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale of the study
It is apparent that people have been fascinated with language and communication
for thousands of years. Linguistics, therefore, becomes a growing and exciting area
of study with an increasing number of theories and research conducted aiming to
explain the complex nature of language and communication. Along with many
branches of linguistics, grammar has been received great attention by linguists in
attempts to understand how language works.
Systemic functional grammar (SFG), a theory developed by M. A. K. Halliday and
his associates, provides a comprehensive account of how language is used in
specific contexts for communication purposes. It looks at how language works, how
it is organized and what social functions are represented. SFG differs from other
previous models of grammar in that it views language ―as a social semiotic a
resource people use to accomplish their purposes by expressing meanings in
context‖ (Chapelle, 1998) and seeks to provide a clear relationship between
functions and grammatical systems (Halliday, 1994). SFG can also be an effective
grammatical tool for text analysis as it is designed to ―make it possible to say
sensible and useful things about any text, spoken or written‖ (Halliday, 1994: xv).
In Vietnam, there have been an increasing number of significant studies on different
aspects of SFG, which not only makes important contributions to the study of this
field in Vietnam, but also becomes great source of reference as well as motivation
for me to choose SFG as the theoretical framework for my MA thesis.
Amongst many interesting aspects of SFG, I decided to carry out a study on a
specific phenomenon – expansion relation between clauses in clauses complexes.
There are two key justifications for my study titled “Expansion and its realization
in the short story “Runaway” by Alice Munro: from systemic functional
perspective”. Foremost, the reason for choosing expansion is that I would like to

explore how the writer constructs the text, particularly the way clauses in clause

2

complexes are expanded and developed in the text. Expansion, therefore, could help
to understand the interdependency and logico-semantic relation between clauses. In
addition, I am fascinated by the short story ―Runaway‖ written by the 2013 Nobel
Laureate, Alice Munro, whose multi-layered writing styles and the characters
portrayed in her story gave me a deep impression and inspired me to choose the
story for text analysis. In light of the above mentioned, I decided to select this story
for analysis to explore how expansion is realized in the text and how the findings
can help to understand the way the author constructs the story.
2. Aim of the study and research questions
The main aim of the study is to investigate the realization of expansion relations
between clauses in clause complexes in the story ―Runaway‖ by Alice Munro.
In order to fulfill the above mentioned aim, two research questions are raised for
exploration:
 What is expansion in systemic functional grammar?
 How are expansion relations between clauses in clause complexes realized in
the short story ―Runaway‖ by Alice Munro?
3. Scope of the study
Within the framework of a minor MA thesis, the study cannot cover all types of
relationship between clauses. Only expansion relation between clauses in clause
complexes is taken into consideration. Projection and other aspects of SFG such as
transitivity, mood and modality, theme and rhyme are, therefore, not examined. The
focus of the study does not lie in the theoretical findings but on the basis of these it
is to enlighten the analysis of the chosen story to understand the way the author
constructs the text in terms of expansion relation between clauses.
4. Significance of the study
The study is hoped to serve as a useful source of reference for those interested in

this story by Alice Munro to further understand the content as well as the way
clauses are built in the story and the interrelations between them. This thesis may

3

be of significance for those who are fascinated in text analysis using SFG as the
theoretical framework, especially the expansion relation between clauses in clause
complexes and how it is realized in a specific text. Through the theoretical
background and text analysis in the study, the study is expected to play a
complementary role in research on the field of SFG in Vietnam.
5. Methods of the study
This study uses the theory of expansion in SFG as the theoretical framework to
examine expansion relations between clauses and investigate how different types of
expansion are realized in the short story ―Runaway‖ by Alice Munro. In this study,
descriptive and analytical methods will be employed as the principal methods. The
descriptive method is concerned with the description of concepts relating to the
expansion relation, and the analytical method is used to analyze the text. Some
statistics are calculated to show the frequency of use of different types of expansion
realized in the text.
6. Organization of the study
The study is organized into three major parts.
Part A, Introduction, provides the reasons for choosing the topic, the aim, the
research questions and the scope of the study, the methods of study, the significance
of the study, and the organization of the study.
Part B, Development, consists of three chapters. Chapter 1 is concerned with the
theoretical background of the study in which some basic concepts of SFG are re-
examined. Chapter 2 gives a presentation of expansion relation between clauses in
clause complexes. In this chapter, types of expansion are discussed in some details
to provide the framework for the analysis of the story. Chapter 3 analyzes the story
so as to see how different types of expansion are realized in the text.

Finally, Part C, Conclusion, summarizes the results of the study, points out
limitations and makes some suggestions for further research.
References and Appendices are presented in the last pages of the study.

4

PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND FOR THE STUDY
This chapter presents some of fundamental concepts of SFG, namely the
metafunctions, rank scales, clauses and clause complexes.
1.1. An overview of systemic functional approach to grammar
Systemic functional grammar (SFG) is an approach to language description which
aims to provide a comprehensive account of how language is used in context for
communication. It was originated with M. A. K. Halliday, building especially on the
ideas of his teacher J. R. Firth, in publications from the 1960s on, with major
contributions by other scholars such as Ruqaiya Hasan and, in more recent years,
Jim Martin and Christian Matthiessen among many others (Chapman, 2009: 225).
From early in its development, SFG has had two main distinguishing features,
which are reflected in the name. It is ―systemic‖ in that grammar consists of a series
of choices that can be made in order to express ideas. The grammatical structures
are then seen as the outcome of choices from those available. Sets of choices
between options can most economically be shown in the form of systems
(Chapman, 2009: 226). Secondly, SFG is ―functional‖ in that the systems achieve
certain functions realized in the lexico-grammar of the language. In other words, the
model is oriented primarily towards meaning rather than form: that is, its aim is to
describe how wordings are used in expressing meanings. What a linguistic form
consists of is seen as less important than the function that it performs in the clause.
Therefore, language is not just a part of ―cognitive mechanism‖ but how people use
it in social functions in certain culture (Reuter, 2000).
SFG is a useful tool for text analysis as it provides insightful approach into the

language choices that underlie text production and comprehension. It can be also
said that systemic linguistics provides a useful theoretical and analytical framework
for exploring and explaining how texts mean (Eggins, 1994: 307).

5

1.2. Metafunctions of the language
In SFG, functional bases of grammatical phenomena are divided into three broad
areas, called metafunctions: the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual. Each of
the three metafunctions is about a different aspect of the world, and concerned with
a different mode of meaning of clauses. The ideational metafunction is about the
natural world in the broadest sense, including our own consciousness, and
concerned with clauses as representation. The interpersonal metafunction is about
the social world, especially the relationship between speaker and hearer, and
concerned with clauses as exchange. The textual metafunction is about the verbal
world, especially the flow of information in a text, concerned with clauses as
messages.
1.2.1. Ideational metafunction
The ideational metafunction is the ―content function of language‖ (Halliday, 2007:
183). It is realized by the transitivity system which construes the world of
experience into a manageable set of process types. Processes can be divided into six
main types, which reflect the cognitive categories that we use to make sense of the
events around us. Material process, the process of external world involving physical
actions, reflects our ―outer‖ experiences. The process of sending and consciousness,
mental process, reflects our ―inner‖ experience, the things that go on our internal
world of the mind. The third type of process is relational process, which is the
process of being and having. On the borderline between material and mental
processes is behavioral process, reflecting human physiological and psychological
behavior. On the borderline between mental and relational is the category of verbal
processes, the processes of conveying messages by saying. On the borderline

between material and relational are the processes concerned with existence, the
existential process. For example:
The man
drove
the car
fast.
Actor
Process: Material
Goal
Circumstance

6

1.2.2. Interpersonal metafunction
The interpersonal metafunction comprises the function to enact social relations
between addressers and addressees and to express the speaker‘s viewpoint on
actions and events in the world. According to Halliday (1994: 69), the clause is
organized as an interactive event involving the speaker, or writer, and the audience
(listener or reader). The most fundamental speech roles in any exchange are the
roles of giving and demanding. Cutting across the basic distinction between giving
and demanding is another distinction, equally fundamental, that relates to the nature
of the commodity being exchanged. This may be either goods-and-services or
information. The usual labels for these functions are statement, question, offer and
command.
There are two components of a clause as exchange, namely the Mood and the
Residue. The Mood is the component carrying the syntactic burden of the
exchange. It consists of two parts: the Subject, which is a nominal group, and the
Finite operator, which is part of a verbal group. The Residue consists of functional
elements of three kinds: Predicator, Complement and Adjunct. For example:
Mary

is
doing
her homework
at the moment.
Subject
Finite
Predicator
Complement
Adjunct
MOOD
RESIDUE

According to Halliday (1994: 88), a clause can be positive or negative which is
called Polarity and expressed in the Finite element. The intermediate degrees
between the positive and negative poles are known collectively as Modality. The
interpersonal meaning of a clause is realized through the system of Mood and
Modality.
1.2.3. Textual metafunction
Looking at the clause in its context and the rest of the language around it, we can
understand the textual meaning of the clause. As a message structure, a clause

7

consists of a theme accompanied by a rheme. The theme of a clause is the initial
experiential constituent, which has a special role in signaling how the current clause
relates to clauses around it. The Rheme is the part in which the theme is developed.
Broadly, there is a choice between unmarked themes (where theme and subject are
the same), which typically signal continuity of some kind in the topic, and marked
themes (where something other than subject, such as an adverbial adjunct, is
theme), often associated with a change of textual frame.

She
went to the library yesterday.
Theme (unmarked)
Rheme

To sum up, each of these three kinds of meaning, according to Halliday (1994: 34)
―forms part of a different functional configuration, making up a separate strand in
the overall meaning of the clause‖. Therefore, the three functions do not exist
separately or operate independently and discretely but they ―operate simultaneously
in the expression of meaning‖ (Bloor, 1995: 9).
1.3. Ranks
According to Martin et al (1997), while metafunction refers to the different models
of meaning construed by the grammar, rank refers to the different ―size‖ of the
grammatical units (layers of constituency). Rank orders units into a hierarchy
according to their constituency relation: the highest-ranking units consist of units of
the rank immediately below; these units consist of units at the next rank, and so on,
until we arrive at the units of the lowest rank, which have no internal constituent
structure. Rank is thus a theory of the global distribution of the units of the
grammar.
The English grammatical rank scale is clause, group/ phrase, word and morpheme.
To be more specific, a clause consists of groups, a group of words, and a word of
morphemes. Every word has a function as part of a group and every group has a
function as part of a clause (Thompson, 1996). It is noted that there is no ―sentence‖

8

rank above clause for the reason that we can adequately account for sentences by
introducing the concept of clause and clause complex.
1.4. The clause
1.4.1. Clause simplex and clause complex

In functional grammar, the clause is divided into two smaller categories: clause
simplex and clause complex. As defined by Halliday, a clause simplex contains
only one clause, whereas a clause complex contains more than one clause. It may
consist of a Head clause together with other clauses that modify it. The notion of
clause complex as Halliday (1994: 216) stated, ―enables us to account in full for the
functional organization of sentences‖. Halliday used the concept ―clause‖ instead of
―sentence‖ because a sentence, in fact, can be defined as a clause simplex or
complex. A simple sentence is like a clause simplex, and a compound or complex
sentence is basically a clause complex. Hence, in SFG there will be no need to bring
in the term ―sentence‖ as a distinct grammatical category.
1.4.2. Types of relationship between clauses in clause complexes
As stated by Halliday (1994: 218), there are two types of relationships between
clauses: taxis (or interdependency) and logico-semantic relations. In this part, these
two dimensions are discussed in details.
1.4.2.1. Taxis
Taxis, or interdependency, indicate the logical interdependency between clauses in
a clause complex. It shows whether one clause is dependent on or dominates
another, or whether they are of equal status. There are two types of taxis: hypotaxis
and parataxis.
Parataxis is the logical interdependency between clauses where the clauses in the
nexus are of equal status. As defined by Halliday (1994: 218), it is ―the relation
between two like elements of equal status, one initiating and the other continuing‖.
Because of being equal in status, paratactic relation is logically symmetrical and

9

transitive. For instance, “Peter is watching TV, and Nancy is reading a book”. The
position of the two clauses in this clause complex can be interchanged without any
change in the meaning. The paratactic structure is represented by numeral notation.
The second kind of logical interdependency is called hypotaxis. According to

Halliday (1994: 218), hypotaxis is the relation between a dependent element and its
dominant – the element on which it is dependent. The hypotactic relation is
logically non-symmetrical and non-transitivity. It is signaled by the Greek letter
notation, using alpha (α) for the dominant, beta (β) for a clause dependent on it, and
a gamma (χ) for one dependent on that, and so on. It is noted that a typical clause
complex is a mixture of paratactic and hypotactic sequences, either of which may be
nested inside the other, an example of which can be seen below:
|||He could not stand it || when she cried || and she could not help crying ||
1α 1β 2 α
because he was so mad|||
2β
(Source: ―Runaway‖ by Alice Munro)
1.4.2.2. Logico-semantic relation
The second type of relation between clauses in clause complexes is logico-semantic.
It is further divided into two fundamental relationships: expansion and projection. It
is also noted that in all clause complexes, the paratactic and hypotactic distinction
applies together with logico-semantic relation.
When a clause nexus is related by expansion, it means that the secondary clause
expands the primary clause, by one of three ways: elaborating, extending or
enhancing it. An elaborating clause does not add any essentially new element to the
message, but may restate it in other words, or specify it in greater details, or
exemplify, or include speaker‘s comments. Extension means adding some new
information to the clause, giving an exception, or offering an alternative. One clause
can also expand another by enhancing it: qualifying it with some circumstantial
feature of time, place, cause or condition.

10

The relationship of projection is very different from that of expansion. In a nexus
related by projection, the secondary clause is instated by the primary clause as what

somebody said (locution) or thought (idea). Locution means that the clause is
projected by being reused the wording of the language event. Idea, on the other
hand, is projected the meaning of the original language event. While locution is
considered a construction of wording, idea is a construction of meaning. The
following table summarizes the basic types of relations between clauses in clause
complexes:


Paratactic
Hypotactic
Expansion
Elaboration


Extension


Enhancement

John didn‘t wait; he ran away.
1 = 2

John ran away, and Fred stayed.
1 + 2

John was scared, so he ran away.
1 x 2
John ran away, which surprised everyone.
α = β

John ran away, whereas Fred stayed.
α + β

John ran away because he was scared.
α x β
Projection
Locution


Idea

John said: ―I‘m running away‖
1 ― 2

John thought to himself:
1
―I‘ll run away‖
‗2
John said he was running away.
α ― β

John thought he would run away.
α ‗ β


(Source: Halliday, 1994: 220)
1.4.3. Summary
In short, clauses in a clause complex are interrelated in terms of two dimensions:
taxis (or interdependency) and logico-semantic relations. Taxis, which show the
interdependency relationship between the clauses in the nexus, can be either

parataxis (the linking of elements of equal status) or hypotactic (the binding of
elements of unequal status). Logico-semantic relations are divided into two sub-
types: expansion and projection. Both these two sub-types can be construed
between equal or unequal clauses. The expansion relation will be discussed in
details in the next chapter.

11

CHAPTER 2: EXPANSION AND EXPANSION RELATIONS
BETWEEN CLAUSES IN CLAUSE COMPLEXES
This chapter re-examines the theory of expansion between clauses in clause
complexes in SFG. The three sub-types of expansion, i.e. elaboration, extension and
enhancement are presented. The findings serve as the theoretical framework for the
analysis of the chosen text in the following chapter.
2.1. Expansion
As already discussed in previous section, expansion is one of two sub-types of
logico-semantic relations. According to Chapman (2009: 200), in expansion, one
clause expands on the meaning of another in various ways: by elaborating it, or
extending it, or enhancing it. In the following example, the second clause provides
some comparison to enhance the meaning of the first, dominant, clause.
―He acted as if he hated her”.
(Source: ―Runaway‖ by Alice Munro)
2.2. Types of expansion
Within the relationship by which one clause expands another, Halliday identified
three broad semantic groupings: elaboration, extension and enhancement. To be
more specific, the secondary clause expands the primary by elaborating its existing
structure, extending it by addition or replacement, or enhancing its environment.
2.2.1. Elaboration
In elaboration, one clause elaborates on the meaning of another by further
specifying or describing or clarifying it in some way. The secondary clause, as

stated by Halliday (1994: 225), ―does not introduce a new element into the picture
but rather provides a further characterization of one that is already there, restating it,
clarifying it, or adding a descriptive attribute or comment‖. The equal sign (=) is
used to denote this relation, which involves both parataxis and hypotaxis.

12

2.2.1.1. Paratactic elaboration (1 = 2)
In a paratactic elaborating clause complex, an initial clause is restated, exemplified,
or further specified by another. The combination of elaboration with parataxis
consists of three subtypes: exposition, exemplification and exemplification.
In exposition, the secondary clause restates the thesis of the primary one in different
words, to present it from another point of view or perhaps just to reinforce the
message (Halliday, 1994: 226). The relationship may be made explicitly by
conjunctive expressions such as or (rather), in other words, that is to say, or in
writing, i.e. In the following example, “That clock doesn‟t go; it‟s not working‖, the
second clause restates the meaning of the first one in other way.
In exemplification, the secondary clause develops the thesis of the primary clause
by specifying it, or citing an actual example. Typical conjunctive expressions used
in this relation are for example, for instance, in particular and in writing e.g. In the
following illustration, “Peter‟s an excellent student – his GPA is 3,70”, the second
clause exemplifies the first one.
The last sub-type of elaboration is clarification. The secondary clause clarifies the
thesis of the primary clause, backing it up with some form of explanation or
explanatory comment. Expressions such as in fact, indeed, actually, at least are
common in this type. The nearest written abbreviation is i.e., or sometimes, viz. This
relation can also be implicitly expressed by juxtaposing, and in writing, by a colon
(:) or a semicolon (;) or dash between the linked clauses (Lock, 1996: 256). In the
following example, the second clause elaborates the meaning of the primary by
clarifying it:

―It wasn‟t so sharp anymore; in fact, it no longer surprised her.”
(Source: ―Runaway‖ by Alice Munro)




13

2.2.1.2. Hypotactic elaboration (α = β)
In a hypotactic elaborating complex, the dependent clause provides some
description or comment on the thing(s) mentioned in the primary clause or on the
whole primary clause. As categorized by Halliday (1994: 227), these dependent
clauses may be either finite or non-finite clauses.
 Finite
If the secondary clause is finite, it has the same form as a relative clause of the WH-
type. It is necessary to pay attention to the difference between defining (restrictive)
and non-defining (non-restrictive) relative clauses.
Non-defining relative clauses do not restrict the scope of their antecedents, but
provide additional information about the antecedents or give a comment on them.
Therefore, unlike defining relative clauses, which are rank-shifted (or embedded)
clauses functioning as post-modifiers in a nominal group, non-defining relative
clauses are considered as dependent clauses. In writing, there is usually a comma
put around the non-defining relative clause. For instances:
(1) He sometimes got notions like this, which were not practicable.
(2) It was Mary who stood the first in the class.
In the first clause complex, the elaborating clause which were not practicable
provides some additional information to the first clause, and thus, the relation is
hypotactic elaboration. However, in the second example, who stood the first in the
class is an embedded clause which serves to identify the noun Mary. This
embedded clause functions as a post-modifier to the noun, and therefore, is a

constituent of the nominal group instead of being a clause of hypotactic relation.
The dependent clause in this type might refer to the whole primary clause or to one
particular participant in the primary clause (usually a noun), in which case it
often stands next to that participant.
(3) The President, who was visiting Rome, met the Pope.

14

Obviously, in (3) the non-defining relative clause who was visiting Rome elaborates
the head noun the President and this clause is ―enclosed‖ in the primary one.
Halliday (1994: 227) uses the angle brackets to denote this enclosure: α « = β»
 Non-finite
In English it is possible to substitute finite secondary clauses with non-finite ones.
In non-finite elaborating clause complexes, the same semantic relationship obtains
as with the finites, and again the domain may be one nominal group or some larger
segment of the primary clause, up to the whole clause. According to Halliday (1994:
229), as is usual with non-finite clauses, the meaning is less specific; both the
domain of the dependent clause and its semantic relationships to its domain are left
relatively inexplicit. There is no WH- form, as there is with the finites. For example:
It must have been the heat of the shower, loosening her tears.
(Source: ―Runaway‖ by Alice Munro)
2.2.2. Extension
In extension, one clause extends the meaning of another by adding something new
to it. Basically, what is added may be an addition, or a replacement, or an
alternative. Extension might be paratactic or hypotactic; however, compared with
paratactic extension, hypotactic extension is less common.
2.2.2.1. Paratactic extension (1 + 2)
The combination of extension with parataxis can be recognized as co-ordination
between clauses. Therefore, Thompson (1996: 203) remarks ―paratactic extension
covers most of what is traditionally called coordination‖. Paratactic extension

includes three sub-types of addition, variation and alternation.
 Addition
In addition relation, one process is simply adjoined to another. It is typically
expressed by such conjunction as and (positive addition), nor (negative addition), or
but (adversative addition). Paratactic additions are also accompanied by cohesive

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devices such as too, in addition, also, moreover, on the other hand. Sometimes this
relation can be recognized without any conjunctive signal. For instances,
“He dug and planted and fenced a vegetable garden”. (positive addition)
“She tried to deflect him, but he insisted”. (adversative addition)
“Sylvia looked up, surprised by the watery sunlight that had come out”.
(positive addition, but no signal is used)
(Source: ―Runaway‖ by Alice Munro)
 Variation
In paratactic variation, ―one clause is presented as being in total or partial
replacement of another‖ (Halliday, 1994: 230). The typical conjunctive signals used
with this meaning are instead, on the contrary, but, only. The pair either … or is
also used with this meaning.
I didn‟t go by car, but instead I took a bus. (total variation)
He runs the business well, except he rarely holds meetings. (partial variation)
 Alternation
In paratactic alternation, one clause is offered as alternative to another. The
most typical conjunctions in this type include or, conversely, alternatively, on the
other hand. For example:
Hurry up, or you‟ll be late for school.
2.2.2.2. Hypotactic extension (α + β)
In a hypotactic extending clause complex, the secondary clause extends the
meaning of the primary clause by one of three ways: addition, replacement and

alternation, but with the extending clause dependent. The dependent clause may be
finite or non-finite.



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 Finite
Hypotactic extension of this type can be recognized by the use of conjunctions
while, whereas. In this case, the meaning is ―addition with contrast‖ (Thompson,
1996: 203). For examples:
Some of the studies show positive results, whereas others do not.
While Tom's very good at science, his brother is absolutely hopeless.
Another type of hypotactic extension, alternation, is expressed by conditional
structure “if… not”, which can be paraphrased by “either … or”. In this structure,
the dependent clause always comes first. For instance:
“If you haven‟t lost it, then it‟s in that cupboard”.
(Halliday, 1994: 231)
The hypotactic form of subtractive relation is expressed by finite clauses
with conjunctive signals except that, but for the fact that:
“She remembered nothing about him except that his hair was black”.
(Halliday, 1994: 231)
 Non-finite
The non-finite form of hypotactic extending, as stated by Halliday (1994: 231), is
an imperfective clause. This clause is often introduced by a preposition or a
preposition group functioning conjunctively such as apart from, besides (additive),
without (adversative), instead of (replacive), other than (subtractive).
“We're going away in June but other than being here all summer”.
“She said nothing, preferring instead to save her comments till later”.
(Source: ―Runaway‖ by Alice Munro)

However, in reality, there might not be any conjunctive signals as in the
case of taxposition. For example,
“Dozens of people were killed, many of them being children”.
(Quirk & Greenbaum, 1987: 312)

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2.2.3. Enhancement
In enhancement, one clause enhances the meaning of another by qualifying it in a
number of ways: by reference to time, place, manner, purpose, cause or condition.
In other words, the enhancing clause provides temporal, spatial, causal or
conditional circumstantial features to the primary clauses. The symbol ―x‖ is
employed to signal enhancement. Enhancement might be either paratactic or
hypotactic.
2.2.3.1. Paratactic enhancement (1 x 2)
The paratactic enhancing clause is a coordinated one with a circumstantial feature.
Typical conjunctions, as listed by Halliday, include then, so, for, but, yet, still, or a
combination of and with another conjunctive element such as and then, and thus,
and yet, afterwards, and at that time, etc. Halliday distinguishes four subtypes of
paratactic enhancement: temporal, spatial, manner and causal-conditional.
Temporal enhancement can be signaled by a conjunction or a conjunction group
such as and then, and afterwards, first … then (later time), and just then, and at the
same time, and at this time, now (same time). It is worth to note that conjunction
“and” is usually used to introduce an extending clause of addition; however,
in narratives, it can be used with the meaning „and then‟, and thus might be seen
with enhancing meaning. For example:
―And to her surprise he got up and came into the kitchen”.
(Source: ―Runaway‖ by Alice Munro)
The second subtype of enhancement is Spatial, which is introduced by „and there‟
to denote the same place. For instance:

―Alice looked up, and there stood the Queen in front of them”.
(Halliday, 1994: 234)
Manner enhancement consists of means and comparison. Enhancing clause of
means is typically expressed by such conjunction groups as and in that way,