THESIS SUMMARY DEVELOPING SPEAKING SKILL OF YOUNG LEARNERS THROUGH COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVES AT ATLANTIC LANGUAGES AND INFORMATICS SCHOOL

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST- GRADUATE STUDIES




ĐỖ THỊ HUYỀN
THESIS SUMMARY

DEVELOPING SPEAKING SKILL OF YOUNG
LEARNERS THROUGH COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVES
AT ATLANTIC LANGUAGES AND INFORMATICS
SCHOOL

(PHÁT TRIỂN KỸ NĂNG NÓI CỦA HỌC VIÊN NHỎ TUỔI THÔNG QUA QUAN ĐIỂM TRI
NHẬN TẠI TRƯỜNG NGOẠI NGỮ TIN HỌC ĐẠI TÂY DƯƠNG)


M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS
Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111


Hanoi, 2014

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST- GRADUATE STUDIES

ĐỖ THỊ HUYỀN
THESIS SUMMARY

DEVELOPING SPEAKING SKILL OF YOUNG
LEARNERS THROUGH COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVES
AT ATLANTIC LANGUAGES AND INFORMATICS
SCHOOL

(PHÁT TRIỂN KỸ NĂNG NÓI CỦA HỌC VIÊN NHỎ TUỔI THÔNG QUA QUAN ĐIỂM TRI
NHẬN TẠI TRƯỜNG NGOẠI NGỮ TIN HỌC ĐẠI TÂY DƯƠNG)


M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS
Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111
Supervisor: Dr. Phạm Hữu Đức


Hanoi, 201



DECLARATION OF AUTHORSHIP

I, ĐỖ THỊ HUYỀN, declare that this graduation thesis is original and has not been
submitted for assessment elsewhere.

I declare that this assignment is my own work and does not involve plagiarism or

collusion.


Date: … / … / 2014
Signature


Đỗ Thị Huyền















ACKNOWLEDMENTS
This study has been completed with the help and support of many people. Therefore, I
am grateful to all of them.
First, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Mr. Phạm Hữu Đức, PhD, my
supervisor, for his instructive suggestions and valuable comments on the writings on this
study. Without him, the present study would not been accomplished.
At the same time, I also give my thanks to all students at Atlantic Languages &

Informatics School (ALIS) who took part in the research for their active cooperation.
Last but not least, I would like to give my sincere thanks to my family, who have always
inspired and encouraged me to complete this study.




















ABTRACT
This research aims to develop speaking skill of young learners through
Cognitive perspectives at Atlantic Languages & Informatics School ( ALIS). The
participants were 18 primary school students including 10 females and 8 males aged
from 7 to 10 years old. They studied three lessons a week (each lesson lasts 90
minutes) and all the learners had been learning English at ALIS for eight months. This
study focused on the development of young learners‟ speaking skill at ALIS by

applying one of cognitive strategies in teaching process: imagery. The author hopes
that this study will help students develop their English speaking skill in a natural way
through the use of pictures.



















TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Declaration of authorship i
Acknowledgements ii
Abstract iii
Table of contents iv
List of tables vi
PART A: INTRODUCTION

1. Rationale 1
2. The scope and subject of the study 2
3. Significance of the study 2
4. Purposes of the study 3
5. Research questions 3
6. Methods of the study 3
7. Organizations of the study 4
PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1 Concepts of speaking 5
1.1.1 What is speaking skill? 5
1.1.2. Communicative competences 6
1.1.2.1. Grammatical competence 6
1.1.2.2. Sociolinguistic competence 7
1.1.2.3. Discourse competence 7
1.1.2.4. Strategic competence 8
1.2. Young learners 9
1.3. Cognitive perspectives 10

1.3.1 Definition of cognitive perspectives 10
1.3.2 Cognitive theory on learning 12
1.3.3. Kinds of cognitive strategies in language teaching 15
1.4. Pictures 16
1.4.1. Types of pictures 16
1.4.2. Why use picture in speaking class? 18

CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY
2.1. Participants 20
2.2 Data collection 22
2.2.1. Data collection instrument 22

2.2.2. Data collection procedure 23
CHAPTER 3: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. The students‟ speaking ability development 25
3.2. Influences of using pictures in the teaching learning process 28
3.3. Summary 30

PART C: SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION
1. Overview 31
2. Limitations of the study 32
3. Suggestions for further study 32
REFERENCES 34
APPENDICES: pre-test and post-test





LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Record of students‟ test scores 25
Table 2: t-test 26
Table 3: ranking scale 27
Table 4: The score frequency gained in both pre and post test of students‟ speaking
ability 28

Part 1: INTRODUCTION

1. Rationale
English is the international language. Almost all the people from many different
countries around the world use it to communicate. “English is spoken as a first
language by more than 300 million people throughout the world’s population speaks
English with some degree of competence. It is an official or semi- official language in
over 70 countries and it plays a significant role in many more” (A S Hornby, 2005: 91).
It is also widely known as a tool for international communication in transportation,
commerce, banking, tourism, technology, diplomacy, and scientific research.
Therefore, teaching and learning English is very important and necessary because
mastering it is the best and the shortest way for us to have many opportunities to reach
the success of life. Realizing the significance of this language, more and more
Vietnamese people at different ages start to learn it. A long time ago, English was

learnt at secondary school and college. Today, in our country education system,
students are introduced to English at elementary school. According to Vietnam‟s
Ministry of Education and Training (MOET), by 2020 all senior high school students
will have to study English as a compulsory subject. Nguyen (2011, as cited in Le,
2013) pointed out that some private schools in the larger cities in Vietnam have taught
English courses to the first grade (6 periods per week). Beside the lessons at primary
school, the increasing number of parents let their kids attend English courses at the
private language centers. There are many reasons that parents let their kids go to study
at these centers. Some want their kids to be familiar with English while the other
people simply expect their children to have higher marks at school. No matter what
reasons are, this statement is very praiseworthy.

As we know, listening and speaking are the two most important skills and related to

each other in terms of communication, but “speaking seem intuitively the most
important”. ( Ur,1996, p.120). During the process of teaching English to young
learners at ALIS, I recognize that teaching speaking is not an easy job at all. Unlike the
usual way of learning of teenagers or adults, the very young learners are unable to
concentrate for an extended period time. Therefore, the teachers have to apply activities
in class to make them less bored. To help students make better in speaking activity, I
consulted some methods to increase their motivation and to improve their speaking
ability. These above reasons gave me a desire to conduct the study: These above
reasons gave me a desire to conduct the study: “Developing speaking Skill of Young
Learners through Cognitive perspectives at Atlantic Languages & Informatics School
(ALIS)”. I hoped this research will be a helpful contribution in teaching and learning
English to enhance speaking ability for the young learners.

2. The scope and subject of the study
This study investigated the effects of cognitive strategies in teaching and
learning speaking at ALIS. Because of the limit of the study, I will focus on one of

cognitive strategies: Imagery through using pictures in teaching progress; the study will
carried be out in English classes for young learners at ALIS; The study involves the
participation of 18 learners who are attending” LET‟S GO 2” class.

3. Significance of the study:
Because the study was conducted on a small scale with a group of LET‟GO
classes at a language and technology school, the researcher hopes to contribute to the
teaching of speaking English at ALIS. The result of the study is considered helpful for
teachers and learners at this school. This study will be a useful material for teachers of
English at ALIS, especially for those who are in desire of developing and improving
their students‟ speaking.

4. Purposes of the study
This study focused on the development of young learners‟ speaking skill at
ALIS by applying one of cognitive strategies in teaching process. The writer hopes to
help students develop their English speaking skill in a natural way using pictures.
Besides, she desires to contribute to the teaching and learning of English to enhance
speaking ability for young learners. To achieve this aim, some objectives are posed for
the exploration as follows:
(1) To find out the effects of pictures on the students‟ performance in English
lessons;
(2) To discover students‟ attitudes towards the use of pictures in the classroom

5. Research questions
With those objectives, my research questions are:
1. What are the effects of pictures on students‟ achievement?
2. What are the students‟ attitudes towards using pictures in English class?

6. Methods of the study
On one hand, the analysis is involved in the process of data collection and analysis.

The data collected will go through analysis and yield conclusion about the subjects of
the study. The instruments for this process include the pre- test and final speaking test
score.
On the other hand, the students‟ attitude of cognitive strategies reflected through the
teacher‟s observing students in the activities, have been subjectively analyzed.
Thus, main instruments for data collection are used in this study, including the test
score and teacher‟s observation. Hopefully, the study will yield beneficial results which
support the learning and teaching speaking in the future.
7. The organizations of the study

The study comprises three parts: Introduction, Methodology, and Conclusion
Part one, INTRODUCTION, presents an overview of the study in which the rationale,
the aims, and the significance of the study, the research questions, the method, the
scope and the design of the study are presented.
The next part provides the DEVELOPMENT of the thesis with three chapters.
Chapter 1 presents the literature review with some aspects of speaking such as
definition of speaking, communicative components; what the cognition is, some kinds
of cognitive strategies in learning English language.
Chapter 2 is research methodology. In this chapter, the focus will be on
background information of the subject of the study, the instruments used to collect data,
the procedure of data collection as well as the data analysis procedures.
Chapter 3, findings and discussions, presents a description of data analysis and
discussions. With the description of data analysis through two instruments: and the pre-
test and post-test, I explored some interpretations of the findings.
The last part CONCLUSION is devoted to the overview of the study. This
chapter also provides the limitations of the study as well as some suggestions for
further study.

Part II. DEVELOPMENT


CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1 Concepts of speaking
1.1.1 What is speaking skill?
In teaching English, there are four important skills, listening, speaking, reading,
and writing. However, teaching and learning speaking skill is different from the way of
learning and teaching other skills. Whereas, teaching reading or writing related to the
text, speaking happens in real time since it interacts between the speaker and the
listener. Moreover, when you speak, you cannot edit or revise what you wish to say as
you can if you are writing. The speaker has to decide on their message and
communicate it without taking time to check it over and correct it.

There are various different definitions of speaking skill. In Oxford Advanced
Dictionary, the definition of speaking skill is “to express or communicate opinions,
feeling, idea, etc., by or as talking and it evolves the activities in the part of the
physical (acoustic) stages.” (Oxford Advanced Dictionary, 1995:13). Speaking is an
interactive process in which individuals alternate in their roles as speakers and listeners
and employs both verbal and non-verbal means to reach their communicative goals.
Chaney‟s definition describes speaking in a similar way saying that speaking is “ the
process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal
symbols, in a variety of contexts” (Chaney, 1988: 13)

Bailey (2005) states that “ speaking is a process of interaction where speakers
intent to build meaning through producing, receiving, and processing information”
Nunan (1991: 40) states that speaking “is the same an oral interaction which are
conventional ways of speaking information, expressing our idea, and thought have in
mind.” In other words, speaking is the activity of giving speeches and talks, to indicate

the opinion you are giving. According to Ladouse ( as cited in Nunan, 1991: 23),
speaking is described “ as the activity as the ability to express oneself in the situation,
or the activity to report acts, or situation in precise word or the ability to converse or
to express a sequence of ideas fluently.”

From the above definitions of speaking, we can conclude that the objects of
speaking are various such as discussion, speech, debate, dialogue and conversation.
Therefore, speaking itself is considered as the most effective tool for social
communication.

1.1.2. Communicative competences
Language proficiency is not a one-dimensional construct but a multifaceted modality
consisting of various levels of abilities and domains. Hymes (1971) also assumes that
language learners need to know not only the linguistic knowledge, but also the
culturally acceptable ways of interacting with other people in various context and
relationships. He further proposed the theory of communicative competence that is
comprised of the interaction of grammatical, psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, and
probabilistic language components. Based on Hymes‟ theory, Canale and Swain
(1980); identified the keys components of communicative language as grammatical
competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, strategic competence.
1.1.2.1. Grammatical competence
Grammatical competence is related to knowledge of language itself, its form
and meaning. In the other word, linguistic competence concerns knowledge of syntax
and phonic concepts as: spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary, word formation,

grammatical structure, sentence structure. In order to covey meaning, EFL learners
must have the knowledge of words and sentences. They must understand how words
are segmented into different sounds, and how sentences are stressed in particular ways.

Therefore, linguistic competence enables speakers to use and understand English
language structures accurately which contributes to their fluency. Nunan (1999, p226)
pointed that one person wants to speak another language, and he needs to know: “how
to articulate sounds in a comprehensible manner”. Nunan further expressed that one
needs adequate vocabulary, and one needs to have the mastery of syntax. Faerch,
Hasstrup, and Philipson (1984: 168) also expressed that “ it is impossible to conceive
of a person being communicatively competent without being linguistically competent.”
Linguistic competence is doubtlessly an integral of communicative competence.

1.1.2.2. Sociolinguistic competence
It is concerned with knowing how to use language, in a particular context, in
order to achieve certain communicative goals or intentions. An example would be “The
door is over there”. This sentence could have a number of illocutionary forces. It might
be a statement about the position of something - the door, or an attempt to elicit the
implication “you get out of my eyes as I don‟t want to see you any more”.

1.1.2.3. Discourse competence
This type of competent deals with the mastery of how to use a language in order
to achieve a unified spoken or written text in different genres, that is, cohesion and
coherence of utterances in a discourse. This cohesion of thought is attained by means
of cohesive devices such as pronouns and grammatical connectors, together with a
unity of thought and continuity in a text.
Consider the example: “the teacher asking students about the hurricane”.
Teacher: what does the hurricane do?
Students:
Student A: The hurricane uprooted the trees.

Student B: The trees are uprooted.

Student C: Hundreds of trees were uprooted by the hurricane.
Student D: It uprooted hundreds of trees.
All of the above answers are true in grammar, but students B and C put new
information first; and as Widdowson (1978) points out, it is more normally in the case
in discourse that shared information (about the hurricane) precedes new information
(about its effect). Moreover, student D uses a reference item “it” as a cohesive device
to link the answer to the question and this fits in with the normal pattern of oral
discourse. In this way, a unified spoken text is achieved.

1.1.2.4. Strategic competence
Strategic competence refers to the mastery of verbal and non-verbal
communication strategies by means of both the underlying knowledge about language
and communicative language use or skill. The main goal to attain with this competence
is first, to compensate for breakdowns in communication, and secondly, to enhance the
effectiveness of communication. On this issue, further comments will be examined
later in the section of the model assessment.
Communicative competence includes (a) knowledge of grammar and
vocabulary of the language; (b) knowledge of rules of speaking (e.g.),
knowing how to begin and end conversations, knowing what topic can
be talked about in different types of speech events, knowing which
address forms should be used in different persons one to speak to and
in different situations; (c) knowing how to use the respond to different
types of speech acts such as request, apologies, thanks, and
invitations; ( d) knowing how to use language appropriately.
(Richard, Platt & weber (1985, as cited in Nunan, 1999:226)


1.2. Young learners

Young learners are usually described as learners aged between 6 to 10 or 11.
Slatternly and Willis (2001: 4): “Young Learners” (YL) were from 7 to 12 years old"
Teaching young learners are different from teaching adult. Knowing characteristics will
help teachers teach young learners more effectively.

In general, young learners show “an enthusiasm for learning and a curiosity
about the world around them” (Harmer, 2007:82). Young learners are very outspoken
imaginative, inquisitive, and keen. They enjoy repetition of routines and activities and
they love to be creative. They are less inhibited than other age groups but their self-
control is very poor. Since they have a lot of physical energy, physical movement
should be an essential part of their learning (Brendon, 2012). Children at the ages are
not only interested in the physical, but also the tangible. As Scott and Ytreberg (1990)
describe, “Their own understanding comes through hands and eyes and ears. The
physical world is dominant at all times.”

Young learners learn by example and the most important role for a teacher is to
be their living example (Harmer, 2007: 82-83). These children also have a positive
attitude to learning and learning new things is an adventure for them. Harmer further
argues that young learners have different characteristics and the way they learn is
different from how adolescents, adults and even from older children learn. Generally,
young learners have very limited attention and concentration spans, and therefore,
“they can easily get bored” and lose interest. These children also are very sensitive and
dislike criticism. They look for guidance and support, and for this reason, they require
individual attention and approval from their teachers. They seem to respond well to
praising, and it is very important to praise them for what they do. It is common sense
that if children are praised, they are motivated and feel successful (Scott and Ytreberg,
1990: 3). A child receiving the right sort of support and encouragement become

creative, independent and adventurous learners. Most experts agree that teaching a

group of young learners is enormously rewarding, but also demanding. Harmer
highlights that teachers should be able to understand “how their students think and
operate” (2007: 83). As young learners have a very keen sense of fairness, teachers
should avoid playing favorites and they must treat each student equally (Scott and
Ytreberg, 1990: 9). Teachers also need to pay attention to “their students” current
interests so that they can use them to motivate the children (Harmer, 2007: 83)”.
In conclusion, understanding young learners‟ needs and characteristics will help
teachers to implement appropriate strategies of teaching and techniques. It will also
help them to deal with students successfully, so this will lead to better outcomes

1.3. Cognitive perspectives
1.3.1 Definition of cognitive perspectives

There are a number of psychology perspectives. These perspectives involve
different explanations for human behavior. One of these psychology perspectives is the
cognitive perspective. What is the cognitive perspective? The cognitive perspective is
concerned with understanding mental processes such as memory, perception, thinking,
and problem solving, and how they may be related to behavior. Imagine that a college
student makes little effort to achieve good grades in college courses. One possible
cognitive explanation for this low achievement motivation is that the person has low
self-efficacy. The person may believe that he or she does not have the ability to
achieve good grades, and thus the person makes little effort.
Cognition refers to mental activity including thinking, remembering, learning
and using language. When we apply a cognitive approach to learning and teaching, we
focus on the understanding of information and concepts. If we are able to understand

the connections between concepts break down information and rebuild with logical
connections, then our mention of material and understanding will increase.
When we are aware of these mental actions, monitor them and control our learning
processes it is called metacognition.

Other psychological approaches focus on different components of human
activity. Behaviorists focus on the examination and analysis of objectively
observable and quantifiable behavioral events. Those who favor the humanistic
approach focus on the individual in relation to their own environment. Human
welfare, values, and dignity are major components of this theory.
Thought processes have been studied by philosophers for centuries. However, the
psychological study of cognition is a relatively new area of study with its origins in
the 1950's. The study of metacognition is even newer, much of the work in this area
originated in the 1970's.

Rejecting the pure stimulus-response approach of the behaviorists, cognitive
psychology draws much from the Gestaltists who focus upon insight and define it as
"the sudden perception of relationships among elements of a problem
situation."(LeFrancois, 1972). Cognitive theories view learning as a process of
recognition. The learner perceives new relationships among the parts of a problem.

Researchers who contributed significantly to the development of cognitive
psychology include Jerome Bruner, who developed a learning theory based upon
categorization, and David Ausubel, who attempted to explain meaningful verbal
learning as a phenomenon of consciousness rather than of behavior.


Cognitive theory maintains that how one thinks largely determines how one
feels and behaves. This relates to and incorporates to all forms of knowing,
including memory, psycholinguistics, thinking, comprehension, motivation, and
perception.

Memory is an important component of this theory. Much of the material
learned in school is dependent on rote memorization of declarative or factual

knowledge. Recently attempts have been made to develop methods of teaching
which are based on meaningful integration of material and the master y of
procedural knowledge. Thinking of the learner will determine how effectively the
information is retained or processed.

According to Kate McGilly (1996), students are not learning to their full
potential due to the fact that more often than not, they use rote memory procedures
in the classroom. With the increased competition in the work force and jobs
becoming more demanding, students need to be more prepared for higher learning
and the job market with skills that evolve from cognitive theory. These skills,
including study skills, social skills, problem solving, and organizational skills to
name a few, should be taught and integrated across the curriculum.

1.3.2 Cognitive theory on learning
Cognitive theory of learning sees second language acquisition as a conscious
and reasoned thinking process, involving the deliberate use of learning strategies.
Learning strategies are special ways of processing information that enhance
comprehension, learning or retention of information. This explanation of language
learning contrasts strongly with the behaviorist account of language learning which

sees language learning as an unconscious, automatic process. This view leads to a
classroom focus on using learning strategies that have been observed in successful
language learners and to a view of the learner as an 'information-processor', with
limitations as to how much new information can be retained, and who needs strategies
to be able to transfer information into memory. In the classroom relevant activities
include review and revision, class vocabulary bags, using a scaffolding approach with
young learners, analysis and discussion of language and topics, inductive approaches
and learner training.

Children acquire receptive language before expressive language. Children‟s

ability to understand language develops faster than their ability to speak it. Receptive
language is the ability to understand language, and expressive language is the ability to
use language to communicate. If a mother tells her fifteen-month-old child to put the
toy back in the toy chest, he may follow her instructions even though he can‟t repeat
them himself.

Moreover, environment can influence children‟s language acquisition. A major
proponent of the idea that language depends largely on environment was the
behaviorist B. F. Skinner, who believed that language is acquired through principles of
conditioning, including association, imitation, and reinforcement. According to this
view, children learn words by associating sounds with objects, actions, and events.
They also learn words and syntax by imitating others. Adults enable children to learn
words and syntax by reinforcing correct speech.

Critics of this idea argue that a behaviorist explanation is inadequate. They
maintain several arguments:


 Learning cannot account for the rapid rate at which children acquire language.

 There can be an infinite number of sentences in a language. All these sentences
cannot be learned by imitation.

 Children make errors, such as over-regularizing verbs. For example, a child may
say Billy hitted me, incorrectly adding the usual past tense suffix -ed to hit.
Errors like these can‟t result from imitation, since adults generally use correct
verb forms.

 Children acquire language skills even though adults do not consistently correct
their syntax.

It is impossible for the young child to voice concepts that are totally unknown to
them. Children learn about the world first, and then map language onto their prior
experience. For example: an infant experiences the house cat; they know that it meows,
is furry, purrs, eats from a bowl in the kitchen – hence develops the concept of cat first
then learns to map the word “kitty” onto that concept.

Memory and the concept of time and space determine the use and understanding
of language (Piaget, 1926; Sinclair-deZwart, 1973). Therefore, children's first words
and first steps occur near their first birthday. For the cognitive theorist, it is no
coincidence that language and mobility are correlated because mobility better allows
the infant to experience the world and thus begin to map verbal concepts onto their
experiences.


However, it is difficult to know exactly how much of language development is
defendant on other facets of development (causation-correlation errors possible). Many
concepts may be acquired long before any language is used to convey them yet simply
never voiced. Possible disassociations between cognitive and linguistic development
are not a hindrance upon regular language development.

1.3.3. Kinds of cognitive strategies in language teaching
Cognitive strategies are one type of learning strategy that learners use to learn
more successfully. They are the useful tools to support students with learning problems.
In O‟ Mally and Chamot‟s framework (1990), language learning strategies are
divided into three main categories: metacognitive strategies; cognitive strategies;
social/ affective strategies. O‟ Mally and Chamot( 1990: 45) further divided these
categories into the smaller ones. According to them, cognitive strategies are branched
into as the follows:
Resourcing: using reference materials such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, or

textbooks;
Repetition: imitating the language model, including overt practice and silent
rehearsal.

Grouping: classifying words, terminology, numbers, or concepts according to
their attributes;
Note taking: writing down key words and concepts in abbreviated verbal,
Summarizing: making a mental or written summary of information gained
through listening or reading.
Deduction: applying rules to understand or produce language or solve problems.
Imagery: using visual images (either mental or actual) to understand and
remember new information or to make a mental representation of a problem.

Auditory representation: playing in back of one‟s mind the sound of a word,
phrase, or fact in order to assist comprehension and recall.
Keyword method: remembering the language in the second language
by(1)identifying a familiar word in the first language that sound like the new word or
otherwise resemble that new word,(2) generating easily images of some relationship
with the first language homonym and the new word in the second language
Elaboration: relating new information to prior knowledge, to different parts of
new information to each other or making meaningful personal associations with the
new information.
Transfer: using what is already known about the language to assist
comprehension or production.
Inferencing: using the information in the text to guess meaning of new items,
predicting outcomes, or complete missing parts,
Recombination: constructing a meaningful sentence or large language sequence
by combining known element in the new way.
Translation: using the first language as the base for understanding and/ or
producing the second language.

1.4. Pictures
Wright (1990) states that “picture is not just an aspect of method but through its
representation of place, object, and people, it is essential part of the overall
experiences”.

1.4.1. Types of pictures
Gerngross and Puchta (1992, p. 4) divides pictures as:


1. - Photographs from magazines or newspapers, which include portraits, action
photographs, landscapes, objects, animals, etc.
2. - Personal photographs taken by the teacher or students
3. - Drawings including visual material like artwork, stickers, maps, etc.
4. - Cartoons as pictures stories
5. - Classroom visual aids, which are all kinds of visual stimuli, created for use in
the classroom only.
6. - Commercial artwork, i.e. advertisements, book covers, etc.

According to Harmer (2007: 178), pictures “can be in form of flashcard, large wall
pictures, cue cards, photographs or illustration, and projected slide, images from an
overhead, or projected computer images.”

Flashcard
It is a small card that teacher hold on for their students to see.

Large wall pictures
They are big enough for everyone to see details. “Sometimes, teachers use large wall
pictures, where pointing to detail of a picture will elicit a response, such as there’s
some milk in the fridge or he’s just been swimming, etc.” (Harmer, 2007:178)

Cue cards
They are the small cards used in pair or group work. Teachers put their students in pair
or groups and give them some cue cards so that when a student picks up the top cue
card in a pile he or she has to say a sentence that the card suggests.

Photograph or illustration