EXPLORATORY STUDY ON STUDENTS’ LEARNING OF TOEFL IBT SPEAKING SKILLS AT EQUEST HANOI CENTER Nghiên cứu thăm dò về việc học viên trung tâm EQuest Hà Nội học luyện thi kỹ năng nói theo bài thi Toefl iBT

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES & INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
*****************

VŨ THỊ HOÀI



AN EXPLORATORY STUDY ON STUDENTS’ LEARNING OF
TOEFL IBT SPEAKING SKILLS AT EQUEST HANOI CENTER
Nghiên cứu thăm dò về việc học viên trung tâm EQuest Hà Nội học
luyện thi kỹ năng Nói theo bài thi TOEFL iBT

M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS



Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111




Hanoi – 2014
VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES & INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
*****************

VŨ THỊ HOÀI


AN EXPLORATORY STUDY ON STUDENTS’ LEARNING OF
TOEFL IBT SPEAKING SKILLS AT EQUEST HANOI CENTER
Nghiên cứu thăm dò về việc học viên trung tâm EQuest Hà Nội học
luyện thi kỹ năng Nói theo bài thi TOEFL iBT


M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS


Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111
Supervisor: Phạm Thị Thanh Thùy, Ph.D




Hanoi – 2014
i

DECLARATION

I hereby, certify the thesis entitled “An Exploratory Study on Students' Learning of
TOEFL iBT Speaking Skills at EQuest Hanoi Center” is the result of my own
research for the Degree of Master of Arts at University of Languages and
International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi. The thesis has not been
submitted for any degree at any other universities or institutions. I agree that the
origin of my paper deposited in the library can be accessible for the purposes

of study.

Hanoi, 2014

Vu Thi Hoai








ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I owe a great many thanks to so many people who have supported me all the
way throughout my study to this final achievement.
Firstly, it is with heartfelt gratitude that I wish to thank Ms. Pham Thi Thanh
Thuy, Ph.D for her professional guidance, valuable suggestions and academic
advice, leading me through great hindrances and inspiring me to conduct the study.
I am grateful to all the lecturers in the Master course, who supplied me with
useful knowledge.
I would like to extend my appreciation to my colleagues and students at
EQuest Academy for their enthusiasm for responding to my questionnaires and
participating in my interviews.
Last but not least, words are not enough to express my gratitude to my family.
Without their help and encouragement, I could not have finished this study.

iii

ABSTRACT

This study is an attempt to explore some strategies commonly used by
EQuest learners in the TOEFL iBT Speaking test, discover some difficulties they
encounter in learning to respond to the test tasks, and suggest some possible
solutions. In the study, the researcher investigates the opinions of 78 students and
seven teachers from EQuest Hanoi center. These teachers and students were invited
to partake in survey questionnaires and interviews. The results of the study present
some strategies that students used to deal with the tasks, their difficulties in learning
and some suggestions to improve the situation. Based on those findings, the thesis
provides some pedagogical implications, which might be of great help for teachers
and learners of TOEFL iBT test.

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Format of TOEFL iBT Speaking Test
Table 2: Students’ strategies used in responding to TOEFL iBT Speaking
Independent Tasks
Table 3: Students’ strategies used in responding to TOEFL iBT Speaking
Integrated Tasks
Table 4: Learners’ difficulties in learning to respond to Independent Tasks from
teachers’ views and learners’ views
Table 5: Learners’ difficulties in learning to respond to Integrated Tasks from
teachers’ views and learners’ views
Table 6: Teachers’ recommendations and students’ expectations for teaching and
learning

v

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

1. TOEFL iBT: Test of English as a Foreign Language (Internet-Based Test)
2. TOEFL CBT: Test of English as a Foreign Language (Computer-Based Test)
3. ETS: Educational Testing Service
4. L1: First or native language
5. L2: Second language
6. ESL: English as a second language
7. EFL: English as a foreign language

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION………………………………………………………………
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………
ii
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………
iii
LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………….
iv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS…………………………………………………
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………
vi
PART A: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………

1
1. Rationale…………………………………………………………………….
1
2. Aims and Research Questions………………………………………………
1
3. Significance of the study……………………………………………………
2
4. Scope of the study…………………………………………………………
2
5. Method of the study…………………………………………………………
2
6. Organization…………………………………………………………………
3
PART B: DEVELOPMENT…………………………………………………
4
Chapter 1: Theoretical background……………………………………….
4
1. TOEFL iBT test and Speaking
section……………………………………
4
1.1. Introduction to the TOEFL iBT
test……………………………………….
4
1.2. Format of TOEFL iBT Speaking Section…………………………………
4
2. Learners’ strategies used when learning and responding to TOEFL
iBT Speaking Section………………………………………………………
6
2.1. Definitions of learner strategies…………………………………………
6

vii

2.2. Classification of learner test-taking strategies…………………………….
8
3. Difficulties in learning Speaking skills of EFL/ESL learners…………
12
3.1. Difficulties from teachers…………………………………………………
13
3.2. Difficulties from students…………………………………………………
14
3.3. Difficulties from objective factors………………………………………
17
Chapter 2: Methodology……………………………………………………
19
1. Context of the study…………………………………………………………
19
2. Participants………………………………………………………………….
19
3. Instruments………………………………………………………………….
20
4. Data collection procedures………………………………………………….
21
Chapter 3: Results and Discussion………………………………………
23
1. Some strategies students often use to respond to TOEFL iBT Speaking
questions…………………………………………………………………….

23
1.1. Students’ strategies used in responding to TOEFL iBT Speaking
Independent Tasks…………………………………………………………

23
1.2. Students’ strategies used in responding to TOEFL iBT Speaking
Integrated Tasks……………………………………………………………
25
2. Some difficulties students encounter when learning TOEFL iBT
Speaking preparation courses at EQuest………………………………
27
2.1. Students’ difficulties in learning to respond to TOEFL iBT Speaking
Independent Tasks……………………………………………………………
27
2.2. Students’ difficulties in learning to respond to TOEFL iBT Speaking
Integrated Tasks………………………………………………………………
30
3. Some suggestions to improve the situation……………………………
32
3.1. Teachers’ recommendations for teaching and learning…………………
33
viii

3.2. Learners’ expectations for teaching focus……………………………….
33
PART C: CONCLUSION………………………………………………
35
1. Summary of the findings…………………………………………………….
35
2. Implications of the study…………………………………………………….
36
3. Limitations of the study…………………………………………………….
37
4. Suggestions for further

studies………………………………………………
38
REFERENCES………………………………………………………………
39
APPENDIX 1: Questionnaire for
Learners…………………………………….
I
APPENDIX 2: Questionnaire for Teachers……………………………………
V
APPENDIX 3: Guided Questions for Student Semi-structured Interview…….
VIII
APPENDIX 4: Respondents’ Personal Information…………………………
IX
1

PART A - INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
It is widely known that English is playing an important role in opening up
new opportunity for people in many developing countries, including Vietnam.
English is regarded as a passport for those who wish to have good jobs or study
abroad. As a result, many proficiency tests have been spawned to help English
learners measure their competence. Among these tests, TOEFL iBT (Test of English
as a Foreign Language, Internet-Based Test) emerges as a reliable one, so TOEFL
iBT score, according to Educational Testing Service (ETS), is accepted by over
9000 colleges, universities, and agencies in more than 130 countries all over the
world.
A considerable amount of money and effort is invested in test preparation by
test-takers; nonetheless, the results are not always satisfactory. Many candidates
report that Speaking skills pose a great challenge to them in this new generation of
the TOEFL test as they need to deploy multiple skills ranging from listening,

reading, speaking to computer-using. As an instructor of TOEFL iBT working at
EQuest center for more than three years, I empirically realize that my students
experience a number of problems practicing Speaking skills to prepare for the test.
The problems may be about time limitation, vocabulary and expressions, or even
speaking to a microphone. Because of this fact, I am concerned with the nature of
the problems that my students encounter, and what teachers can do to help them
overcome these troubles to better their scores, leading to the implementation of this
research.
2. Aims and Research Questions
This study is carried out with the aim of gaining an insight into the activity of
learning TOEFL iBT Speaking skills of students at EQuest center - my working
place - and recommending some suggestions to improve the situation.
The study is conducted to answer the following questions:
2

1. What are some strategies students often use to respond to TOEFL iBT Speaking
questions?
2. What are some difficulties students encounter when learning TOEFL iBT
Speaking preparation courses at EQuest?
3. What suggestions can be given to improve the situation?
3. Significance of the study
It can be seen that there are quite a number of researches about TOEFL iBT
test; however, not many of them are about speaking skills. Recognizing this gap, the
author of this study endeavors to have a close investigation into students’ problems
in learning speaking skills for the TOEFL iBT test and give a helping hand to
remove them. It is hoped that this study is advantageous to both students and
teachers in conquering the test. For students, they may be well aware of the possible
challenges and what to prepare to tackle them. Regarding teachers, they can predict
their students’ troubles and devise effective solutions for themselves to heighten
their teaching qualities. This research is of certain help as a source of reference to

any teachers having the same concern.
4. Scope of the study
Because of the framework of a minor thesis, this study focuses on 78
students who were at the level of 65 points (out of 120) of TOEFL iBT and above,
preparing for their upcoming exams at EQuest center to explore the problems they
had. At the same time, seven EQuest teachers were involved in the research.
5. Method of the study
To address the presented research questions, a combination of questionnaires
and semi-structured interviews were deployed. Two sets of survey questionnaires
were used to gather data from 78 EQuest students and seven EQuest teachers.
Participants were asked to choose the answers best reflecting their viewpoints, and
expand their answers if they wish to. Interviews with 10 students were conducted to
get more in-depth information about the students’ opinions in the questionnaire.

3

6. Organization
The research is composed of three parts: Introduction, Development and
Conclusion.
Part A: Introduction supplies a brief sketch of the study, including the
rationale, aims and research questions, significance and scope of the study.
Part B: Development consists of three chapters.
Chapter 1:Theoretical background deals with the theory and previous
research relevant to the study.
Chapter 2: Methodology presents the methodology of the study, explaining
the context of the study, instruments and the procedure of data collection.
Chapter 3: Results and Discussion states the findings relating to students’
strategies to respond to the test, their difficulties in learning as well as suggests
some recommendations to improve the situation.
Part C: Conclusion summarizes the main findings of the research, exposes

its limitation and puts forward suggestions for further research.














4

PART B - DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
1. TOEFL iBT test and Speaking section
1.1. Introduction to the TOEFL iBT test
The Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), which was established
in 1964, is an international standardized test which “measures how well students use
English, not just their knowledge of the language” (The Official Guide to the
TOEFL iBT, Third Edition, p.1). It is created by a nonprofit educational
organization called Educational Testing Service (ETS). The TOEFL iBT test,
administered via the Internet, replaced the TOEFL computer-based test (TOEFL
CBT). It simulates the university classroom and student life communication to let
test-takers demonstrate their ability to communicate ideas effectively.
The test contains four sections – Reading, Listening, Speaking and Writing –

and it takes about four hours to complete the whole test, not to mention the time for
checking identification and other procedures. There is no requirement for the score
to pass the test, but it varies from institution to institution. Each section of the test is
scored separately, and then converted to a scaled score of 0-30. The total possible
score is 120. The test can be taken as many times as given. The records of scores are
kept for two years by ETS.
1.2. Format of TOEFL iBT Speaking Section
The Speaking sub-test is designed to assess the speaking abilities of the
candidates whose native language is not English but want to study in an English-
speaking context. This section is delivered via computer, and candidates are
equipped with headphones and microphones. Test-takers have to speak to a
microphone and their answers are recorded and saved.
In this section, test-takers are asked to speak about a range of topics that
“draw on personal experience, campus-based situations, and academic-type content
material” (The Official Guide to the TOEFL iBT, Third Edition, p. 165).

5

Section
Number of Questions
Timing
Score
Speaking
2 Independent Tasks
(preparation: 15 sec. / response: 45 sec.)
 1 personal experience
 1 personal choice/ opinion
2 Integrated Tasks: Read-Listen-Speak
(preparation: 30 sec. / response: 60 sec.)
 1 campus situation topic

- reading: 75 ~ 100 words (45 sec.)
- conversation: 150 ~ 180 words (60 ~ 80 sec.)
 1 academic course topic
- reading: 75 ~ 100 words (45 sec.)
- lecture: 150 ~ 220 words (60 ~ 90 sec.)
2 Integrated Tasks: Listen – Speak
(preparation: 20 sec. / response: 60 sec.)
 1 campus situation topic
- conversation: 180 ~ 220 words (60 ~ 90 sec.)
 1 academic course topic
- lecture: 230 ~ 280 words (90 ~ 120 sec.)
20
minutes
30 points
Table 1: Format of TOEFL iBT Speaking Test
(Source: How to Master Skills for the TOEFL iBT Speaking – Advanced, p.6)
For the first two questions, Independent Speaking Tasks, the answers should
be given based on candidates’ personal ideas, opinions, and experiences. In
Question 1, candidates are asked about a person, place, object or event that is
familiar to them. In the second Independent Speaking task, candidates are presented
with two possible actions, situations or options. They are asked to state their more
preferable choice and explain their choice with reasons and examples.
As the other four questions require test-takers to integrate different skills,
they are called Integrated Tasks. For Question 3, they have to read a short passage
6

appearing on the screen about a topic of campus-related interest like university
policies, rules or procedures, university plans. The readings are shown in various
forms such as a bulletin, a letter, or an article. The reading is about 75-100 words
long. They then will listen to two people discussing that topic and expressing an

opinion about the topic related to the reading. The question will be about what they
have read and heard. Question 4 requires candidates to read a short academic
reading passage and listen to a professor giving a brief lecture on the subject
presented in the reading. The topics may vary from different fields, including life
science, social science, physical science and the humanities. Questions 5 and 6 are
not accompanied by reading passages. For Question 5, a short conversation about
campus-related situation will be played. Its topics may be about any everyday
situation arising in the college or university. In this listening, two people discuss a
problem and suggest two possible solutions. The problem directly concerns one or
both of them. After listening, test-takers need to briefly describe the situation in the
listening and give their own opinion about solutions to the problem. The last
question, Question 6, is based on academic content. A short lecture focusing on a
single topic is presented by a professor. The lectures might be about a process,
method, theory or idea of any type. Normally, the lecture is started with a definition
of a concept, or highlight of an issue, and then goes on with discussing some
important aspects related to it. Test-takers are supposed to summarize the
information they heard from the listening.
2. Learners’ strategies used when learning and responding to TOEFL iBT
Speaking Section
2.1. Definitions of learner strategies
There has existed considerable debate over the definition of learner strategies
and different terminologies have been coined within the field of second-language
acquisition (SLA) (Cohen, 1998; Ellis, 1994). According to Abhakorn (2008),
learner strategies are “conscious actions in learning and using a second or a foreign
language” - one of the variable factors that have profound effects on how individual
7

learners approach language learning and how successful they are. From the point of
view of McDonough (1999), the term “learner strategies” is related to “learning a
second language, for using the language, for communicating in the language and for

compensating for lack of knowledge or break down of communication, for exercise
of language in macro-skill areas such as reading, writing, speaking, and listening,
and for coping with difficult elements of language instruction such as classroom
presentation and instruction, and taking tests”. A widely accepted definition of
learning strategy was made by Oxford (1990): learning strategies are “specific
actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more
self-directed, and more transferable to new situations”.
Brown (2000) figured out the differences between language learning
strategies and communication strategies. The former is associated with “input
processing, storage and retrieval” while the latter is related to “output – how we
productively express meaning and how we deliver messages to others”. The use of
communication strategies by speakers to deal with communication breakdowns is
referred to as strategic competence. (Canale & Swain, 1980)
In language testing research, the main focus is on the test-taking strategies
used by learners to perform the tasks and handle communication needs in the test-
taking time, rather than the strategies deployed when students are learning to
communicate. O’Malley & Chamot (1990), Oxford (1990) and Phakiti (2003) saw
test-taking strategy as “the conscious, goal-oriented thoughts and behaviors test-
takers use to regulate cognitive processes, with the goal of improving their language
use or test performance”. Having a similar viewpoint, Swain, Huang, Barkaoui,
Brooks, & Lapkin (2009) defined strategies as “the deliberate thoughts and
behaviors used to manage or carry out cognitive processes with the goal of
successful test performance” and “strategy use is closely linked to cognitive
processes”.


8

2.2. Classification of learner test-taking strategies
Gagne, Yekovich, & Yekovich (1993) noted that during tests or in language

use situations, strategy use is pertaining to “the ongoing working memory in
association with the short-term memory regarding the language to retrieve
necessary declarative (knowing what), procedural (knowing how) and conditional
(knowing when) knowledge in the long-term memory to solve task difficulty.”
Cohen (2002) viewed that language test-taking strategies consist of both language
use strategies and test-wiseness strategies.
 Test-wiseness strategies
Test-wiseness strategies depend on the respondents’ knowledge of how to
take the tests. They allow test-takers to utilize the features and formats of tests
and/or test-taking situation to gain better scores. Benson (1988) and Rogers and
Bateson (1991) supposed that test-wiseness strategies are “a cognitive ability or a
set of test-taking strategies a test taker can use to improve a test score no matter
what the content area of a test.”
A number of taxonomies for test-wiseness strategies have been devised so
far. Nitko (2001) categorized test-wiseness strategies into three groups: (1) Time-
using strategies (starting to work as fast as possible with reasonable assurance of
accuracy); (2) Error-avoidance strategies (determining the nature of the task and the
intended basis of response and paying careful attention to directions); (3) Guessing
strategies (always making guesses if only right answers are counted). Sarnacki
(1979) devised a taxonomy of five categories: (1) Test-using strategies (working as
fast as possible with reasonable assurance of accuracy); (2) Error-avoidance
strategies (paying serious attention to directions); (3) Guessing strategies (keeping
guessing if there is no penalty for incorrect answers); (4) Deductive reasoning
strategies (utilizing relevant content information in other test items and options); (5)
Intent consideration and cue-using strategies (using any idiosyncrasies of the test to
distinguish correct answer from other incorrect choices). Watter & Siebert (1990)
and Wenden (1991) classified test-wiseness strategies into three major categories:
9

(1) Strategies used before answering the test (starting with easy questions, outlining,

budgeting time, and identifying key words in the questions…); (2) Strategies used
during answering the test (revising each question after answering, immediately
writing what comes to mind, answering all the questions even ones do not know…);
(3) Strategies used after answering the test (revising both content and language,
avoiding last minute change…)
 Language use strategies
Language use strategies are used to help produce response to language
testing tasks. They refer to actions that individuals consciously take to enhance the
use of second/ foreign language in order to accomplish language tasks. Language
use strategies have been classified in various ways. They may be grouped based on
question-type, language skills, or task type.
According to Cohen (2002), there are four types of language use strategies,
including retrieval strategies (to recall language material from storage), rehearsal
strategies (to rehearse target language structures), cover strategies (to create the
impression that test-takers can have control over the material when they cannot),
and communication strategies (to convey a meaningful and informative message to
listener or reader).
Based on the concept of “strategic competence”, which means “a set of
metacognitive components, or strategies, which can be thought of as higher order
executive processes”, Bachman and Palmer (1996) suggested another
conceptualization and taxonomy for language test-taking strategies constituting
three groups.
(1) Goal setting (deciding what going to be done)
(2) Assessment (taking stock of what is needed, assessing how well one has done)
(3) Planning (deciding how to use what one has)
There are contrasting viewpoints on the model proposed by Bachman and
Palmer. In the point of view of Alderson & Banerjee (2002), it is a “significant
advance” in language testing because it is “an interactional model of language test
10

performance that includes two major components: language ability and test
method”. However, there are some disagreements from other researchers.
Chalhoub-Deville (2001) considered it a theoretical model lacking congruence
between theoretical models and operational assessment frameworks. McNamara
(1996) suggested that the Bachman model does not take the social dimension of
language proficiency into consideration.
Oxford’s (1990) taxonomy of language learning strategies has been used as a
frame of reference by many researchers. According to this classification, there are
four groups of strategies: cognitive, metacognitive, affective and social. Cognitive
strategies are “test-takers’ ongoing mental activities to use their language and world
knowledge to solve the test tasks.” Metacognitive strategies are deliberate mental
processes to direct and control the cognitive strategy processing of test-takers to
have a successful test performance. Affective strategies are related to the learner’s
emotional requirements and social strategies are pertaining to interaction with the
target language.
Swain et al. (2009) synthesized a list of strategies drawn from both second-
language acquisition and language testing fields as follows.
A List of Strategic Behaviors
This is a compilation of L2 use, learning, test-taking, and communication strategies
found in the literature.
Communication Strategies: Involving conscious plans for solving a linguistic
problem in order to reach a communicative goal
Reduction Strategies:
Topic avoidance: Avoiding topic areas that pose linguistic difficulties
Message abandonment: Leaving a message unfinished because of
linguistic difficulties
Semantic reduction: Changing a message (e.g., reducing the scope of
message) rather than abandoning the message
Achievement Strategies:
11

Guessing using linguistic or other clues
Approximation: Use of such strategies as lexical substitution, over-
generalization, and exemplification
Paraphrase: Use of circumlocution, synonym, word coinage, and
morphological creativity
Interlingual strategies: Use of such strategies asborrowing and
“foreignizing” literal translation
Stalling/slowing/time-gaining strategies: Use of verbal fillers or
formulaic expressions
Restructuring: Reconstruction of the sentence to deal with linguistic
limitations

Cognitive Strategies: Involving manipulating the target language for understanding
and producing language
Selecting (attending)
Comprehending
Clarifying or verifying
Translating
Inferencing
Analyzing contrastively
Analyzing inductively
Reasoning deductively
Storing or memory
Repeating
Associating
Linking with prior knowledge
Summarizing
Using imagery
Using mechanical means to store information

12

Retrieval or using
Recombining
Applying rules
Transferring
Translating
Practicing naturalistically
Using outside resources
Rehearsing

Metacognitive Strategies: Involving a conscious examination of the learning/test
taking process in order to organize, plan, and evaluate efficient ways of learning/test
taking
Goal formation
Organizing
Planning
Evaluating

Affective Strategies: Involving self-talk or mental control over affect
Lowering anxiety
Encouraging self
(Source: The Speaking section of the TOEFL iBT (SSTiBT): Test-Takers’ Reported
Stratgic Behaviors (Swain,M., Huang,L., Barkaoui,K., Brooks,L., & Lapkin,S.
(2009))

3. Difficulties in learning Speaking skills of EFL/ESL learners
Speaking skills, to many students, are a considerable challenge because
“some language learners may be good at learning other skills but when it comes to
learning to speak another language, they claim to have a “mental block” against it

(Steinberg and Horwitz, 1986). Difficulties in learning speaking skills may be
13

rooted from teachers, students as well as other objective factors affecting the
teaching and learning process (Larsen, 1986).
3.1. Difficulties from teachers
Teachers’ inappropriate teaching practices are likely to result in some
troubles for their students. There are two most common problems from teachers,
namely improper teacher talking time and ineffective correction techniques.
3.1.1. Improper teacher talking time
Nunan (1991) claimed that “In terms of acquisition, teacher talk is important
because it is probably the major source of comprehensible target language input the
learner is likely to receive.” However, a number of studies have suggested the
negative effects of teachers talking for an excessive amount of time. Allwright
(1982: 10) commented that teachers who “work” too much in the classroom were
not teaching effectively. A good language teacher is able to “get students to do more
work” in the classroom. Ross (1992: 192-93 cited in Nunan, 1999: 209) stated that
constant teacher talk during the lesson did not help to improve students listening
comprehension and communication skills significantly. Chaudron (1988), Zhao
(1998), Cook (2000) proved that teachers tend to make up over 70% of the total talk
in the classroom. As a result, students have very limited time to practice their
speaking skills to develop their proficiency.
3.1.2. Ineffective correction techniques
Brown (2002: 205) supposed that students’ errors are vital evidence to show
how they acquire the language through certain strategies and procedures. As
teachers are supposed to be highly proficient, one of their main duties is to provide
correction for their students. However, how correction should be expressed remains
a debatable topic. Some students are more in favor of nice, tactful correction
whereas others prefer frank and assertive way. Whatever techniques the teachers
use, they need to pay particular attention to the face-threatening nature of corrective

feedback since some shy students might feel embarrassed to be corrected publicly
(Ellis, Loewen & Erlam, 2006).
14

3.2. Difficulties from students
A number of factors might cause students difficulties in learning, namely fear
of public failure, fear of making mistakes, lack of confidence, low English
proficiency, inability to keep up with native speakers, incompetence in the rules and
norms of English conversation, disorientation, etc (Dwyer and Murphy, 1996). This
claim is supported by many other scholars: Jones (1999), Cortazzi & Jin (1996);
Jackson (1999, 2001); Li (1998); Zou (2004).
Tsui (1996) listed some factors causing learners’ difficulties in learning
speaking in class: “students’ fear of making mistakes and losing face in front of
their peers, students’ low opinion of their own proficiency level, teachers’
intolerance of silence, uneven participation and incomprehensive input.”
Burns and Joyce (1997) suggested that cultural, linguistic, and affective factors
are three main reasons for students’ difficulties in learning a foreign language.
3.2.1. Cultural factors
Cultural factors are related to students’ prior learning experiences and the
expectations that are formed on their basis. According to Sapir (1992), if a learner
expects to speak a language well, he must appreciate the way it is used in social
contexts. Each language has its own rules of applications as to when, how and to
what degree a speaker may impart a given verbal behavior to one’s conversational
partner. Therefore, it is challenging for non-native speakers to choose the
appropriate forms for different communicative situations (Berns, 1990). The
cultural differences between that of learners and the target language seem to be an
important anxiety-producing factor. Tanveer (2007) claimed that the more students
are uncertain or unfamiliar with the target language culture, the more it is likely to
be anxiety-provoking. Ellis (1994) observed that learners having positive attitudes
towards their own ethnic identity and towards the target culture were likely to

develop a strong motivation and high level of second language proficiency besides
maintaining their own mother tongue.

15

3.2.2. Linguistic factors
Besides the fears regarding making mistakes and getting negative feedback
from teachers or peers in the formal setting of a language classroom, a common
difficulty encountered by students is related to linguistic issue. Scarcella and Oxford
(1992) classified the linguistic factor into three areas, including grammar
(morphology, syntax), vocabulary and mechanics, which means the basic sounds of
letters, syllables, pronunication, intonation and stress in speaking.
One of the most important aspects pertaining to linguisitic difficulties should
be grammar. Tanveer (2007: 49) listed several major problems related to this such
as tenses, word classes, prepositions, articles, and modal verbs. For example, this
researcher described an example of his student’s problem with the adjectives, verbs
and adverbs or nouns that are not from the same root, like confidence, confident,
confidently, etc. He concluded that “the learners face difficulties with the word
endings or suffixes that are not the part of their L1 (first or native language)
system.” Steinberg and Horwitz (1986) commented that “such difficulties can lead
to the impression that anxious students are not capable communicator in the second
language as they impede learners’ fluency in conveying the spoken messages.”
Previous research consistently showed that difficulties of remembering and
retrieving vocabulary items are considerable to a number of learners. Participants in
a research conducted by Tanveer (2007) shared that “I don’t have exact words to
express my ideas”, or “sometimes I am conscious I am not using the right word”, or
“I always feel nervous speaking English because I do not have enough vocabulary.”
McCarthy (1990) contended that no matter how well students learn grammar, no
matter how successfully the sounds of L2 are mastered, without words to express a
wide range of meanings, communication in an L2 just cannot happen in any

meaningful way.
Nair, Krishnasamy, & de Mello (2006: 27) noted that “Despite having a good
grasp of vocabulary and the grammatical rules of the English language, speakers
would be unintelligible if they have poor pronunciation.” Ha (2006), in her study on