AN INVESTIGATION INTO LISTENING STRATEGY INSTRUCTIONS AND APPLICATIONS IN A PRIVATE EFL SCHOOL IN VIETNAM NGHIÊN CỨU VỀ VIỆC HƯỚNG DẪN VÀ ÁP DỤNG CHIẾN LƯỢC NGHE TẠI MỘT TRUNG TÂM ANH NGỮ Ở VIỆT NAM

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST- GRADUATE STUDIES



VÕ THỊ NGỌC HÂN



AN INVESTIGATION INTO LISTENING STRATEGY INSTRUCTIONS
AND APPLICATIONS IN A PRIVATE EFL SCHOOL IN VIETNAM



NGHIÊN CỨU VỀ VIỆC HƯỚNG DẪN VÀ ÁP DỤNG CHIẾN LƯỢC NGHE TẠI MỘT
TRUNG TÂM ANH NGỮ Ở VIỆT NAM

M.A. MINOR THESIS


Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111

Hanoi, 2014



VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST- GRADUATE STUDIES



VÕ THỊ NGỌC HÂN


AN INVESTIGATION INTO LISTENING STRATEGY INSTRUCTIONS
AND APPLICATIONS IN A PRIVATE EFL SCHOOL IN VIETNAM



NGHIÊN CỨU VỀ VIỆC HƯỚNG DẪN VÀ ÁP DỤNG CHIẾN LƯỢC NGHE TẠI MỘT
TRUNG TÂM ANH NGỮ Ở VIỆT NAM


M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS


Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111
Supervisor: Dr. Nguyễn Trường Sa

Hanoi, 2014
i

SUPERVISOR’S REMARKS


















ii

JUDGEMENT OF THE EVALUATION BOARD

iii

ACKNOWLEDMENTS
First of all, I would like to send my gratefulness to the board of University of
Languages and International Studies - Vietnam National University, Hanoi for their
allowance for me to carry out the research.
The thesis is especially dedicated to Mr. Nguyen Truong Sa; my experienced
instructor, whose passionate enthusiasm and precise guidance have come along my
journey to fulfill this assignment on schedule.
It will be indispensable for me to take into account the contribution I have received
from Europe-Vietnam Language School. All of the school‟s staff has provided me
with the best assistance in terms of comprehensive knowledge and relevant materials.
Finally, I send my best to the six teachers and twelve learners who help me to justify
the data. Without their contribution, my thesis would not be completed.
iv

DECLARATION OF AUTHORITY
I, Vo Thi Ngoc Han, declare that this graduation thesis is original and has not been
submitted for assessment elsewhere.
I declare that this thesis is my own work and does not involve plagiarism or collusion.
I give my consent to electric version to be examined by relevant plagiarism software
programs.
I have made a copy or electronic copy of my assignment, which I can produce if the
original is lost for any reason.
Date:……/……/……
Vo Thi Ngoc Han
v


ABSTRACT
Derived from the nature of listening strategies, unconscious activities of learners but
conscious of teachers, in combination with the researcher‟s challenges in teaching listening,
the research is implemented to investigate listening strategy instructions and applications.
Research question that decides content of the research is how listening strategies are
instructed and applied in EFL class. It was carried out in Europe-Vietnam Language School
where learners are motivated by their apparent learning purposes. Six participants contain
three EFL teachers and three EFL students from the teachers‟ classes. Two instruments used
were observation and stimulated recall. As a result, despite teachers‟ different preferences of
using strategies, learners only get familiar with cognitive and social-affective strategies. Their
weaknesses found were their inability in controlling listening processes, problems in
pronunciation, and difficulties in building up learning spirit due to their passive learning style.
With the investigation into the reality of using listening strategies, the research is in
the hope to help teachers and learners remedy their current strategy use with the help
of their private school.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SUPERVISOR‟S REMARK i
JUDGEMENT OF THE EVALUATION BOARD ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
DECLARATION iv
ABSTRACT v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ix
TRANSCRIPTIONS OF CONVENTIONS x
PART A: INTRODUCTION 1
1. Research background and problem 1
2. Research aims/ objectives 2
3. Research questions 2
4. Context of the study 3
5. Importance/ value of the study 4
6. Definitions of some key terms 4
PART B: DEVELOPMENT 6
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW 6

1.1. Listening comprehension 6
1.1.1. The nature of listening 6
1.1.2. Significance of listening 7
1.1.3. Difficulties in listening comprehension 7
1.1.3.1. Problems with spoken language 8
1.1.3.2. Problems in dealing with sounds 9
1.1.3.3. Problems with background knowledge 9
1.1.3.4. Problems with mood 10

1.2. Listening strategies 10
1.2.1. Nature of strategies 10
vii

1.2.2. Categories of listening strategies 11
1.2.2.1. Metacognitive listening strategies 11
1.2.2.2. Cognitive listening strategies 12
1.2.2.3. Social affective strategies 13
1.3. Teachers‟ roles in listening 13
1.3.1. Why listening strategies are taught in the context of classroom 13
1.3.2. What a teacher does in a listening class 14
1.4. A review of previous researches on teaching/applying listening strategy 15
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH 17
2.1. Instruments 17
2.1.1. Observation 17
2.1.2. Think aloud/ Stimulated recall 18
2.2. Participants 18
2.2.1. The teachers 19
2.2.1.1. Teacher 1 19
2.2.1.2. Teacher 2 19
2.2.1.3. Teacher 3 20
2.2.2. The learners 20
2.2.2.1. Learner 1 20
2.2.2.2. Learner 2 21
2.2.2.3. Learner 3 21
2.3. Data collection procedure 21
2.4. How to use the data to answer the research questions 22
CHAPTER 3: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 23
3.1. Teachers‟ strategy instructions when teaching listening 23
3.1.1. Teacher 1‟s (T1‟s) 23

3.1.2. Teacher 2‟s (T2‟s) 24
3.1.3. Teacher 3‟s (T3‟s) 25
3.1.4. Summary of the three teachers‟ listening strategy instructions 27
3.2. Learners‟ strategy applications when learning listening 27
3.2.1. Learner 1‟s (L1‟s, in T1‟s upper-intermediate class) 27
viii

3.2.2. Learner 2‟s (L2‟s, in T2‟s primary class) 28
3.2.3. Learner 3‟s (L3‟s, inT3‟s intermediate class) 29
3.2.4. Summarize of learners 30
3.3. Teachers‟ and learners‟ problems 30
PART C: CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS 32
1. Introduction of this chapter 32
2. Implication of the study to practice 32
3. Limitation and suggestion for future research 33
4. Final consideration 34
REFERENCES 35




APPENDIX 1 I
APPENDIX 2 II
APPENDIX 3 VIII
SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH XXV
ix

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Top 10 listening problems 8
Table 2: Data collection procedure 22

x

TRANSCRIPTIONS OF CONVENTIONS
R: Researcher
L1: Learner 1
L2: Learner 2
L3: Learner 3
T1: Teacher 1
T2: Teacher 2
T3: Teacher 3
[ ]: [text translated from Vietnamese into English]
T (L)…/ Sti/ …/ …: Teacher (Learner)/ Stimulated recall/ date/ month.
1

PART A
INTRODUCTION

1. Research background and problem
In Vietnam, since Doi Moi policy, English is chosen to be the foreign language taught
and used in Vietnam (Alter & Moreau, 1995). Goh and Nguyen (2004) pointed out that
“the learning of English in the schools gained in popularity” and “English quickly
became the first foreign language” (p. 30). Do (2006) concluded that in the decade of
1996-2006, English had been developed with an incredible speed in Vietnam. In the
context of globalization, teaching and learning English in Vietnam is a pivotal matter.
Ho Chi Minh City is the largest city of Vietnam with the most crowded population.
Requirements of English knowledge for economic development of the city are
inevitable. Therefore, Ho Chi Minh City has the biggest number of teachers and
learners all over the country (Do, 2006). Vu (2007) pointed out that HCMC has
become home to the strongest movement towards learning English with the largest
number of student learning and taking English examinations in Vietnam.

Previous studies on listening strategies mainly used the context of state schools where
students are at the same age and have the same learning goal (Thompson and Rubin,
1996; Yu-mei & Lei, 2012; Siegel, 2013; Goh, 2000). However, Do (2006)
emphasized that “hundreds of English centers have been established everywhere – Ho
Chi Minh City alone has around 300 language centers” (p.8). The centers are
attracting learners of different backgrounds aiming to secure a bright future of work by
enriching English. In this research, private school is an environment to investigate. It is
a different context where learning goal is, in most of cases, not for testing but to
improve English competence. Learners in private schools come from different
2

backgrounds, possess various foundations of English, hold a variety of learning
purposes, and perform diverse attitudes as well as learning styles. More important, it is
teachers‟ job to satisfy each learner‟s needs and goals.
In teaching and learning English for communicative purpose, listening is emphasized.
It is considered the most vital in oral interaction, as Richards and Renadya (2002)
emphasized, “without understanding input at the right level, any learning simply
cannot begin, listening is thus fundamental to speaking” (p.239). To be good at the
skill, the concept of “listening strategies”- way to facilitate listening learning – is
discussed. A question raised is that whether listening strategies are “conscious” or
unconscious” (Ridgway, 2000). Teachers‟ role is to instruct learners how to use the
listening strategies consciously, because as Oxford (1990) pointed out, “if strategies
are unconsciously and automatically used, then explicit strategy training makes little
or no sense, so it involves some degrees of conscious awareness on the part of the
learner.” (p2). However, to learners, when learning process happens continuously,
they do not have time to choose which strategies to employ. Therefore, strategies
become autonomous and unconscious. If strategies are unconscious for students, have
they been using them effectively? After a long period of time working at some
different private schools, the researcher finds that a large number of learners in the
private classes still fail to gain success in listening. Therefore, the researcher wonders

what problems are obstructing the teaching and learning process. In other words, it is
necessary to investigate whether listening strategies is instructed and applied
appropriately.

2. Research aims/ objectives
This research is carried out to meet its practical purpose. From the failure of EFL
learners in listening, the researcher wonders what problems are obstructing the
3

teaching and learning process. In other words, it is necessary to investigate whether
listening strategies is instructed and applied appropriately. At first, teachers‟ strategy
instructions in the context of classroom are manifested. Secondly, under the directions,
learners‟ strategy applications are analyzed. Finally, challenges that affect listening
teaching and learning results are also revealed for later surmount.

3. Research questions
The general question addressed in this study is: How are listening strategies instructed
and applied in EFL class?
This question can be answered by addressing these specific questions:
1. How do teachers instruct listening strategies when teaching?
2. How do learners apply listening strategies into their practice in their class?
3. What are the challenges in teaching and applying listening strategies?

4. Context of the study
Context chosen in the research is a private English school, Vietnam- Europe
International School. The school is located in district 12 of Ho Chi Minh City with one
head office at 114 Nguyen Anh Thu street, Trung My Tay ward, district 12 and one
branch at 5C, To Ky street, Tan Chanh Hiep ward, district 12. Established in 2010,
with the increase of English demand, the private school has continuously developed.
The private English school possesses a system of teachers including English experts

from Melbourne University of Australia, Foreign teachers and Vietnamese teachers.
Until April of 2014, the school has possessed forty five teachers and more than one
thousand four hundred learners. Aiming at the main objects as students in The
University of Labor and Social Affair (ULSA), the English school has been
4

developing three main curriculums; communication, TOEIC (Test of English for
International Communication), and IELTS (International English Language Testing
System). Especially, communication program is boosted to meet the need of the
majority of English learners.
Communication course was chosen for the purpose of this research based on three
main criteria. At first, the program requires listening as a major skill. If learners do not
use suitable strategies, such as predicting, inferring, recognizing cognates and so on,
they will fail to meet listening goals. Next, tasks are composed basing on different
contexts, it is significant for students to equip their background knowledge about the
contexts and corresponding strategies. Last but not least, without listening, any oral
communication cannot be implemented.
With the hope of releasing the most objective and reliable results, the researcher chose
this program to investigate the thesis issue. The context meets the need of the thesis, a
private English school teaching communicative listening with the program requires
applications and instructions in strategies.

5. Importance/ value of the study
This research will be carried out to meet its practical purpose. It will hopefully take
attention of EFL teachers and learners who concerns about improving listening
strategies. The research is expected to assist teachers in bewaring of how their learners
are dealing with the instructed strategies. Then it finds out effective ways to instruct
strategies to learners. On the aspect of learners, the results will help them pay more
attention to listening strategies and make use of the strategies more effectively.
Finally, the study‟s result is intended to help administrators of private English schools

in Vietnam enhance their quality of listening education so that they can serve their
learners better.

5

6. Definitions of some key terms
Listening comprehension
“Listening comprehension is an active process of constructing meaning, and that this
is done by applying knowledge to the incoming.” (Buck, 2000, 30)
Strategies
Language learning strategies are “approaches or techniques that learners use to
enhance their progress in developing L2 skills” (Oxford, 1990, 22). They are
considered “conscious” for teachers to instruct and “unconscious” or “autonomous”
for learner to use frequently because there is no time for learners to employ them in
actual situation.
Cognitive strategies: the strategies relate directly with processes of listening, in other
words, steps of acquiring listening knowledge for reasoning, analyzing, summarizing,
and practicing a listening task (Anderson, 1991).
Metacognitive strategies for evaluating one‟s progress, planning for language tasks,
consciously searching for practice opportunities, paying attention, and monitoring
errors. It is the biggest term that controls other strategies (Efteckhary & Gharib, 2013).
Social affective strategies: the techniques listeners used to interact, collaborate with
others, such as teachers, speakers, or peers to clarify understanding or to lessen their
stress during listening (Vandergrift, 2003).

6

PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1
LITEARATURE REVIEW

1.1. Listening comprehension
1.1.1. The nature of listening
In common sense, listening comprehension is passive and simple (Thompson & Rubin,
1996; Jung, 2003; Vandergrift, 2004; Rahimi, 2012). On one hand, listening seems
passive as it is uncreative and unimaginative when listeners receive speakers‟
information. Speakers, not listeners, control over speed, structure and meaning of a
talk (Ridgway, 2000). On another hand, it is thought to as simple because it does not
require any production, with good knowledge, learners can be a good listeners
(Rahimi, 2012). However, researchers defeated the sense by their arguments.
At first, researchers, such as Buck (2000), Underwood (1989), and Vandergrift (1999),
defeated the term “passive”; they proved that listening had to be „active‟. Underwood
(1989) used the adjective “passive” to indicate “hearing” instead of “listening”.
Vandergrift‟s study (1999) affirmed that listeners could not be passive because during
listening, they did not merely receive speakers‟ sound but also had to make clear the
differences among elements of utterances, such as sounds, vocabulary, grammar,
pronunciation, and prior knowledge as well as what inputted into their mind. Buck
(2000) proved, “listening comprehension is an active process of constructing meaning,
and that this is done by applying knowledge to the incoming” (p.30).
Listening, in addition, is a complicated process requiring people‟s serious
concentration and profound knowledge. According to Brody (2004), focusing is never
7

enough for a good listener. The complicated nature of listening is also revealed by
language components, such as phonology, syntax, semantics, as well as knowledge of
context, which must be done simultaneously (Pearson, 1983 cited in Butt et al., 2010).
From the definitions of listening, a conclusion of the skill is drawn. It is not simple to
deal with and the level of success in the skill requires numerous factors of an active
learning process. Nevertheless, why must learners attempt to be good at the
complicated and active process? The reasons will be discussed in the following part.

1.1.2. Significance of listening
In Rahimi‟s research (2012), listening in this modern era is regarded a significant goal
in numerous teaching curricular of a language. Richards (1999, 200) concluded in his
research, “second language acquisition researches have given a major boost to
listening.” According to Brown (2001), listening is an important skill through which
language learners input linguistic information, or material, in order to produce
language. In daily communication, speaking is necessary, but listening is inevitable to
maintain a conversation. Misunderstanding or lack of understanding will lead to failure
in every dialogue. An oral interaction can never be implemented without listening.
Moreover, Vandergrift (1999) noted that “listening comprehension plays a key role in
facilitating language learning” (p.168). Good listening competence provides learners
with knowledge, confidence, and motivation of language learning (Rost, 2002a). In
brief, the significance of listening is revealed by its frequent use in daily life, leading
role in communication, and the role as a source of mental benefits including
knowledge, confidence, and motivation. Thanks to its importance, the need to achieve
it is vital. However, the decisive oral skill is evaluated complicated. The next part will
discuss troubles in its applications that listeners have to overcome.

8

1.1.3. Difficulties in listening comprehension
As the importance of listening skill discussed, the demand to master it is necessary.
However, due to its complicated nature, its success seems to be a challenge. According
to Siegel (2013), listening has been considered the most awkward of the four macro
skills. The difficulties of listening derive from the following sources.


Number
Sources of listening problems

%
1
Speaking rate
100
2
Distraction
95
3
Unable to recognize words they knew
90
4
New vocabulary
85
5
Missing subsequent input
80
6
Nervousness
70
7
Sentence complexity
60
8
Background knowledge
55
9
Anxiety and frustration
45
10
Unfamiliar pronunciation beside what they

usually listen to
40
Table 1: Top ten listening problems (Renandya & Farrell; 2010, 54)
From the above problems, I sort them into four main groups; group of numbers 1, 2,
and 5 belongs to problems with spoken language, group of number 3 and 10 is
9

problems in dealing with sounds, numbers 4, 7, and 8 relate to problems of knowledge.
Finally, numbers 6 and 9 refer to problems of listeners‟ mood. The four problems are
explained below prior to discussion on their solutions presented in section 2.2.

1.1.3.1. Problems with spoken language
The three aspects counted here are speaking rate, missing subsequent input, and
distraction. At first, speaking rate, or speed, is a challenge for EFL learners because it
is impossible to use strategies in written texts, such as “breaking down a word into its
components, looking a word up in the dictionary, or guessing the meaning of a word
from its context” (Ridgway, 2000, 181). There is almost no chance to check previous
information right before any input. Secondly, there are various tasks to do
simultaneously during listening, including word meaning identification, context,
attitude of speaker, meaning inside the heart of words, and so on (Eysenck and Keane,
1995). Hence, missing adequate input seems hardly avoidable. Finally, Siegel (2013)
claimed that learners often got distraction in listening. When listeners miss previous
information due to speaking rate, unknown words, or other subjective reasons, they
easily turn to neglect following ideas (Rahimi, 2012). In short, the three difficulties
derived from spoken language are barriers for learner to approach listening success.

1.1.3.2. Problems in dealing with sounds.
Problems learners encounter in the sections are recognizing known words and
unfamiliar sounds. Firstly, Goh (2002) identified that learners failed to listen to what
they had learned due to their inadequate knowledge in pronunciation. Even an EFL

listener who is rich at vocabulary, the variety of speech may confuse him/ her because
“sometimes the words are fully articulated, but most of the time, they undergo radical
phonological changes. It is quite natural for speakers to modify, drop, and add sound
10

when speaking” (Renandya & Farrell, 2010, 53). Especially, while listening to tapes or
CDs, EFL learners in this case do not have chance to interact and to receive support
from non-verbal gestures (Renandya & Farrell, 2010). Secondly, the problem becomes
more serious when they adapt into different kinds of accent. There are a variety of
spoken English, such as British English, American English, Australian English, and
other kinds all around the word. Without a long time experiencing various listening, it
seems to be a big trouble for learners. Briefly, difficulty with sounds due to lack of
listening affects listening totally negatively.

1.1.3.3. Problems with background knowledge
Knowledge mentioned here includes vocabulary, sentence complexity, and
background knowledge. First of all, before achieving any further understanding, EFL
learners initially need to comprehend the surface of a language. According to Ridgway
(2000; cited from Swan, 1985), vocabulary was a matter to deal with. The lost of
meaning leads to the failure in listening (Griffiths & Parr, 2001). In fact, although
listener can identify sounds clearly, if they fail to understand what they hear, listening
is just a hearing process. Secondly, even listeners could recognize every single word,
building sentences is a challenge, especially with complex sentences (Underwood,
1989). They have to deal with the distinction between content words and transitional
words to identify ideas. Last but not least, challenges come from the lack of sufficient
background knowledge (Field, 1999). Due to the shortage, listeners meet difficulties in
orienting their listening process. Besides, with some information absent, they cannot
use their background knowledge to guess or to understand ambiguous ideas. To sum
up, with the lack of crucial knowledge, listeners definitely fail to achieve listening
purpose.

1.1.3.4. Problems with mood
11

Good mood and confidence ease students‟ learning process (Brody, 2004). As EFL
learners, when preparing to listen, they usually feel nervous about how they can meet
learning goal and catch ideas of listening tasks (Jung, 2003). The feeling pushes them
into the state of stress and that affects their listening result negatively (Brown, 2006).
Moreover, when they fail to listen to an idea, they tend to be frustrated and forget to
pay attention to other ones (Pearson, 1983). In brief, mood partially contributes spirit
for their listening process.

1.2. Listening strategies
1.2.1. Nature of strategies
The word “strategy” appears as an essential part of learning. Discussing about the
origin of the word, Oxford (1990) cited that it “comes from the ancient Greek word
“strategia”, which means steps or actions taken for the purpose of winning a war”
(p.21). The control and goal-directedness remain in the modern version of the word.
Oxford (1990) defines language learning strategies as “approaches or techniques that
learners use to enhance their progress in developing L2 skills” (p22). From the
definition, Li (2010) concluded that foreign language learning strategies refer to
behaviors or thinking in learning process to make it effective.
1.2.2. Categories of listening strategies
To deal with problems mentioned in 2.1.3., listening strategies is discussed. The term
“listening strategies” includes ways to strengthen language learners‟ motivation
(Vandergrift, 2005) and techniques during learning (Rahimi & Katal, 2012). They are
evaluated through outcome of each listening section (Zhang & Liu, 2008).
Throughout listening comprehension, “three-phase model proposes that
comprehension happen to learners include perception, parsing, and utilization”
(Anderson, 1995 cited in Goh, 2000, 56). The first phase is perception, which is

12

defined as the encoding of oral message. The second step is parsing where meaning of
words are understood basing on meanings of segments. The last but most important
step is utilization. These segments are then recombined to express a meaningful
representation of the original sequence (Goh, 2000). In term of merging
categorizations of listening strategies together according to its importance, there are
three main types of listening strategies adapted from Dornyei (2005)
1. Metacognigive listening strategies involve clarifying objective, preparing mind,
requesting progress, guessing unfamiliar accents, checking what part students confuse,
double checking answers, being and correcting them, reflecting on problems,
evaluating understanding, and taking notes.
2. Cognitive listening strategies deal with learning vocabulary before listening,
identifying content words, inferring missing words by prior knowledge, listening to
main ideas, predicting on text, guessing meaning basing on context, and visualizing
lesson by charts or diagrams.
3. Social-affective listening strategies include behaviors and control of emotional
conditions and experiences that shape learners‟ learning improvement.

1.2.2.1. Metacognitive listening strategies
Metacognitive strategies are used to prepare, monitor, and evaluate learning (O‟Malley
and Chamot, 1990). At first, preparation and planning can improve students‟ listening.
Prior to listening, students must think about their goals and steps set to accomplishing
them (Zhao, 2013). Secondly, during listening, metacognitive strategies would control
cognitive strategies as well as increase learners‟ self- confidence and motivation
because they adjust what listeners have to do. Goh (2008) also confirms that, active
monitoring, regulate and organize important events to achieve a goal. Finally, learners
use the strategies to evaluate the listening result by comparing their real achievement
13

with the initial goal then draw experience for later use. To sum up, metacognitive
listening strategies are vital tools to facilitate listening process (Zhao, 2013; Liu &
Goh, 2006; Rahimi & Katal, 2012; Vandergrift, 2004). Therefore, developing
students‟ metacognitive listening strategies is the responsibility of both teaching and
learning process.

1.2.2.2 Cognitive strategies in listening comprehension
The strategies relate directly to processes of listening, in other words, steps of
acquiring listening knowledge for reasoning, analyzing, summarizing, and practicing a
listening task. Understanding processes of listening, language learners know firmly
about their duties in their learning process. In English language‟s receptive skills
(listening and reading), knowledge of the notions, bottom-up, top-down is seriously
indispensable. The nature of differences between the two terms is revealed by their
impact on listening activities. Cognitive strategies assist learners combine two
cognitive processes, top-down and bottom-up, in one listening process. On one hand,
top-down strategies, such as listening to main ideas, predicting or make hypotheses,
guessing meaning, are used to construct the speaker‟s original meaning by using
background knowledge to understand meaning of tasks (Nunan, 1999, Brown, 2006;
Ohata, 2006, and Norris, 2002). On the other hand, bottom-up strategies, including
identifying content words or noticing on transitional signal, are used to decode the
sounds that one hears from the smallest meaningful units (or phonemes) to complete
texts (Nunan, 1999; Hedge, 2000; Brown, 2006; Field, 1999; Eysenck, 2001). In some
tasks requiring general information, top-down is in the upper hand over bottom-up. In
other cases, such as filling in blanks or finding out specific information, bottom-up is
paid more attention. In general, learners use the processes simultaneously well will be
successful listeners.