A study on the adaptation of speaking activities in tieng Anh 11 at Nghi Xuan high school

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
VINH UNIVERSITY
ĐẶNG THỊ ANH PHƯƠNG
A STUDY ON THE ADAPTATION OF SPEAKING
ACTIVITIES IN “TIENG ANH 11” AT NGHI XUAN
HIGH SCHOOL

MASTER’S THESIS IN EDUCATION
NGHỆ AN - 2014
2
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
VINH UNIVERSITY
ĐẶNG THỊ ANH PHƯƠNG
A STUDY ON THE ADAPTATION OF SPEAKING
ACTIVITIES IN “TIENG ANH 11” AT NGHI XUAN
HIGH SCHOOL

Major: Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)
Code: 60.14.01.11
MASTER’S THESIS IN EDUCATION
Supervisor: NGÔ ĐÌNH PHƯƠNG, Assoc. Prof., Dr.
NGHỆ AN - 2014
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STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP
I hereby acknowledge that this study is my own work. The data and findings
discussed in the thesis are true, used with permission, and have not been published
elsewhere.
Author
Đặng Thị Anh Phương
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First of all, I would like to take this chance to express my deep gratitude to my
supervisor, Assoc.Prof.Dr.Ngô Đình Phương, for his invaluable guidance and
insightful comments, his deliberate guidance and wholehearted supervision throughout
the process of carrying out the research paper.
In addition, I would like to send my special thanks to all the teachers and
students at Nghi Xuan high school whose contributions are very meaningful in the
completion of this paper.
Finally, I also wish to express my since thanks to my family and all my friends
who have given me so much encouragement and support in conducting this research
paper.
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ABSTRACT
This study aims at investigating the reality of teaching and learning speaking
activities with the English textbook for grade 11 at Nghi Xuân high school – Hà Tĩnh
province, the necessity of adapting speaking tasks and suggesting some adaptions with
the hope they can maximize the learner’s involvement in oral activities.
In this study, quasi- experimental method was utilized to collect data, teachers'
and students’ attitudes towards adapting speaking activities in “Tieng Anh 11” and the
practicality of teachers' adaptation. The data in this research were collected from 6
EFL teachers and 90 students at Nghi Xuan high school. Data collection instruments
are students’ questionnaires, teachers’ interviews and classroom observations.
The findings of the research indicates that a majority of EFL teachers and
students encountered many difficulties from “Tieng Anh 11” such as students’ low
participation and limited vocabulary, large class-size and mixed ability, unsuitable and
less communicative tasks, too difficult tasks and shortage of teachers’ experience in
teaching speaking. Besides, the finding results reveal that teachers' perception on
adapting “Tieng Anh 11” was positive.
The research also conducts a pilot teaching and gets a feasible result. Hence,
together with the research results, the implications and conclusion of the research were
worked out to increase the effectiveness of teaching speaking sections in “Tieng Anh

11” at Nghi Xuan high school.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
CONTENT PAGE
STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP I
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS II
ABSTRACT III
TABLE OF CONTENTS IV
LISTS OF ABBREVIATION VII
LISTS OF TABLES VIII
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Rationale 1
1.2. Aims and Objectives of the Study 2
1.3. Scope of the Study 2
1.4. Research Questions 2
1.5. Organization of the study 3
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 4
2.1. Previous Studies Related to the Topic 4
2.2. Theoretical Background 6
2.2.1. Communicative Language Teaching 6
2.2.2. Material Adaptation 10
2.2.2.1. Definition of Adaptation 10
2.2.2.2. The purpose of Adaptation 11
2.2.2.3. Techniques of Adaptation 12
2.2.2.4. Levels of Adaptation 14
2.2.3. Background of Speaking 15
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2.2.3.1. Concept of Speaking 15
2.2.3.2. The Importance of Teaching English Speaking 16
2.2.3.3. Characteristics of a Successful English Speaking activity 17

2.2.3.4. Problems with English speaking and Speaking Activities 19
2.2.4. The English Textbook “Tieng Anh 11” 21
2.2.4.1. The Overall Design of the Textbook “Tieng Anh 11” 21
2.2.4.2. The General Features of the Textbook “Tieng Anh 11” 21
2.2.4.3. Description of the Speaking Section 23
CHAPTER 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 26
3.1. The Teaching and Learning Situation in Nghi Xuan High School 26
3.2. Research Method 26
3.3. Participants 27
3.4. Data Collection Instruments 28
3.4.1. Classroom Observation 28
3.4.2. The Teacher Interviews 29
3.4.3. The Student Questionaires 29
3.4.4. Follow -up Student Interview 30
3.5. Procedure of Data Collection 30
CHAPTER 4. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 31
4.1. Results of Students’ Participation from Pre-experiment Observation 31
4.2. Results from Student’s Questionnaire 34
4.3. Results from Teachers’ Interview 44
4.4. Results from the End of Experiment Observation 51
4.5. Students’ Participation in the Experimental and Control Group in
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Three Adaptation 61
4.6. Comparision of Students’ Participation before and at at the End of the
Experiment 62
4.7. Follow-up student interview 63
CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS 65
5.1. Conclusion 65
5.2. Limitation of the Study 66
5.3. Suggested Further Study 66

REFERENCE 68
APPENDICES
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CLT: Communicative Language Teaching
E.g: Exempli gratia (for example)
EFL: English as Foreign Language
ESL: English as Second Language
Etc: et cetera
MOET: Ministry of Education and Training
No: Number
STT: Student Talking Time
TTT: Teacher Talking Time
%: Percent
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LISTS OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Page
Table 1: Students' Background Information 28
Table 4.1: STT and TTT in control and experimental group before
the experiment. 33
Table 4.2: Students’ reasons for learning English 35
Table 4.3: Factors prevent students from participating in speaking in 37
the class.
Table 4.4: Students’ learning styles in both groups 37
Table 4.5: Students’ opinions towards the speaking tasks of the textbook 42
Table 4.6: Students’ opinion about the teachers’ way of teaching speaking 43
Table 4.7: Students’ evaluation on their teacher’s adaptation. 43
Table 4.8: Students’ assessment of their currents speaking lessons 44
Table 4.9: STT and TTT in the control group before the experiment 52
Table 4.10: Students’ participation in experimental and control group in

three lessons at the end of the intervention 61
Table 4.11: TTT and STT in the two classes before and at the end of
experiment. 62
Chart 4.1: Students’ self-evaluation of their participation in speaking lessons 35
Chart 4.2: Evaluation of speaking skill 38
Chart 4.3: The importance of speaking skills 39
Chart 4.4: Students’ interests in speaking lessons 40
Chart 4.5: Affecting factors of students’ interest in speaking class 41
Chart 4.6: Students’ opinions about speaking topics in “Tieng Anh 11” 41
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Chart 4.7: Teachers' perception on which parts of speaking activities
in “Tieng Anh 11” need adapting to increase students’ participation
in speaking lesson 50
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1. 1. RATIONALE
In today’s global world, the importance of English cannot be denied and
ignored since English is the most common language spoken everywhere. With
the help of developing technology, English has been playing a key role in many
sectors including medicine, science, tourism , engineering,… and education,
which, in my opinion, is the most important arena where English is needed. In
Viet Nam, it has become one of the major and compulsory subjects at schools
and colleges.
In order to improve Vietnamese learners’ competence to meet the demand of
globalization , the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) has also made
great efforts to help students learn English better, among which the effort to
search for new sources of materials has always beken encouraged. Especially,
the introduction of new textbooks “ Tieng Anh 10,11,12” to school curriculum
marks a dramatic change in the way of language teaching and learning from the

traditional approach-grammar translation method to communicative approach.
Among the four skills known as listening, speaking, reading and writing, it can
be said that speaking seems to be the most challenging skill for most of the
students at Nghi Xuan high school. Almost students only focus on learning the
grammar without developing speaking skill while the goal of learning English is
to communicate in it. Consequently, the students become accustomed to sitting
and listening quietly rather than presenting orally. After 5 school years
teaching the new textbook “Tiếng Anh 11” at Nghi Xuan high school, I find that
there are some problems with some activities in the textbook . Some are too
difficult for my students, some are not real communicative, some are too long
… All these reasons greatly contribute to the demotivation of students from in
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the lessons at Nghi Xuan high school. In this case, it is necessary for teachers to
adapt some activities to make it suitable and interesting for learners. There are
many things that teachers can do to improve the unit such as looking for
interesting extra materials from different sources, designing activities which can
motivate learners in oral presentation
The above mentioned reasons have inspired the writer to conduct a research
titled “A Study on the Adaptation of Speaking Activities in “Tieng Anh 11” at
Nghi Xuan High School.”
1.2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
Aims: The present study is carried out with the aims to investigate the
current situation of teaching and learning spoken English as well as how
Students’ Oral presentation is improved in speaking lessons teachers at Nghi
Xuan high school.
Objectives: Firstly, the present study focuses on investigating the reasons
why teachers at Nghi Xuan upper-secondary should adapt speaking activities in
“Tieng Anh 11”. Secondly, it points out what speaking activities in “Tieng Anh
11” should be adapted. Finally, it determines the effects of the adapted activites
in improving students’oral presentation in speaking lessons at Nghi Xuan high

school
1.3. SCOPE OF THE STUDY
There is a variety of aspects affecting students’ oral presentation in class
activities so there exists a numerous methods to improve students’ involvement.
However, it is not my attention to cover all of them because of time and length
constraint of the study. Adaptation of speaking activities in “Tieng Anh 11” is
focused on and tested in classes at Nghi Xuan high school. As the result, the
samples of the study were restricted to 4 teachers and 90 students at 11th form at
Nghi Xuan high school.
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1.4. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. Why should teachers adapt speaking activities in “Tiếng Anh 11”?
2. What speaking activities in “Tiếng Anh 11” should be adapted to improve
students’ oral presentation?
3. To what extent do the adapted speaking activities in “Tieng Anh 11”
increase students’ participation in speaking classes at Nghi Xuan high school?
1.5. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
Apart from acknowledgements, abstract, table of contents and
appendices, this thesis is structured in five main chapters:
Chapter 1- Introduction includes: Rationale, Aims of the Study, Scope of
the Study, Research Questions and Organization of the Study.
Chapter 2- Theoretical Background focuses on the theory about textbook
adaptation, speaking skill, and students’ oral presentation and gives out an
overview of the curriculumn and the textbook “Tieng Anh 11”. The situation of
teaching English learning at Nghi Xuân high school will be also presented in
this chapter.
Chapter 3 - Methodology describes the research method, settings and
participants , data collection instruments and data collection procedures.
Chapter 4- Findings and Discussion focuses on the results of
investigation

Chapter 5 – Conclusions summarises the study, implications , limitations
and suggestions for further study.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Previous Studies Related to the Topic
Speaking is a crucial part of second language learning and teaching. Today’s
world requires that the goal of teaching speaking should improve students’
communicative skills, because, only in that way, learners can express themselves
and learn how to follow the social and cultural rules appropriate in each
communicative circumstance. Because of its important roles, speaking has received
a lot of attention from experts as well as methodologists in the world and in
VietNam.
One of the major early books on materials development, Harold S. Madson
and Donald J. Bowen, did, focused on adaptation in language teaching, republished
in Newbury House publisher in 1978. It made the important point that good teachers
are always adapting the materials they are using to the context in which they are
using them in order to achieve the optimal congruence between materials,
methodology, learners, objectives, the target language and the teacher’s personality
and teaching style. In this book, the authors said that it was not necessary to teach
every drill, every section and every grammar point. Madson and Bowen set out and
analyzed ways in which the language teachers can complement the textbook with
his own ideas and modify the content to suit his own teaching style, the needs of his
learners or the constraints and advantages of the circumstances. Concentrating on
the practical aspects of language teaching, the author drew upon their considerable
experience with the mainstream of foreign language teaching, both in United States
and abroad. They covered the principles and techniques of adaptation exceptionally
well. According to them, adaptation took three forms-individualizing, modifying
and compensating- and utilized any of a wide variety of techniques: supplementing,
editing, expanding, personalizing, simplifying, ect.

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McGrath (2002) also devoted a chapter to discussing the objectives,
principles and procedures of adaptation. He proposed “four evaluative processes”
(p. 59) when basing a lesson on a course book and went on to discuss the issues and
procedures involved in each process. Teachers may select the materials that will be
used unchanged, reject either completely or partially sections of the material, add
extensions or further exploitation of the existing materials and replace components
of the materials. McGrath set a series of useful tasks for the readers to check their
understanding of his suggested procedures and their ability to use them. Some of
these tasks involved the reader adapting course book materials; others involved
them in evaluating adaptations suggested by experts.
Anson Yang and Chan-piu Cheung’s research (2003) was about adapting
textbook activities for communicative teaching and cooperative learning in some
speaking class in Hong Kong. According to them, one obstacle that most schools
cannot overcome is the extensive language syllabus prescribed by the textbook.
Actually, each level of a textbook is often a set of texts, which may include an all-
in-one textbook. In theory, teachers have to follow the rationale and sequence of
each chapter; but in reality, for a variety of reasons, teachers skip items in the
textbooks. If a teacher uses such an activity without any adaptation, English
students will be distanced from the situation because the task won’t be meaningful
to them. Communicative language teaching requires authentic communication,
which includes a believable setting, a normal speed in speaking, a range of lexical
items suitable for the students’ ages, and an overall promotion of learning. This
research suggested small modifications of activities, so that even when teachers
have to follow textbook tasks, they can easily adapt them for communicative
teaching with minimal extra preparation for themselves or their students. Also, this
research showed that a small change of task can make it more authentic for students
and enhance the cooperative learning potential of a textbook activity.
Another research conducted by Tran Thi Lan Anh (2010) was about
challenges and solutions in teaching and learning speaking skill with the new

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English textbook for grade 10 at Xuan Hoa high school, Vinh Phuc province. She
mentioned the difficulties from teachers such as teachers’ insufficient
communicative competence, teachers’ lack of training and difficulties from students
were learners’ level of English, learners’ traditional features. She also suggested
some solutions to those problems.
Mai Thị Lan (2013) carried out a research on how to motivate the 10 grade
students in speaking skill at Hoa Lu A high school in Ninh Binh province. An
action research was planned and implemented with such data collection instruments
as classroom observation, questionnaire and document analysis. This study set out
to investigate the types of motivation possessed by students in speaking lessons at
Hoa Lu A high school. It also focused and evaluated motivational techniques used
by teachers at this school, students’ expectations of speaking teaching. Then, it
suggested some recommendations for teachers to motivate students in speaking
skill.
In summary, it can be seen from the above review that researchers focused
on adapting speaking activities to increase students’ participation and motivation in
speaking class. However, not many researchers have conducted research on
adaptation of "Tieng Anh 11" yet. Therefore, the author has decided to conduct the
research with the aim of adapting some difficult speaking activities in “Tieng Anh
11” to increase students’ participation in speaking lessons and help improve
teaching and learning English at Nghi Xuan high school.
2.2. Theoretical Background
2.2.1. Communicative Language Teaching
It is known that the history of language teaching has shown the change on
methods, which have reflected recognition of changes in the sort of proficiency
learners needs. What has changed in a second language teaching is not the way we
teach but in the aim of language teaching and learning (Le, 2004). According
Mackey (1965) most teaching methods still exist both advantages and
disadvantages, and it is difficult to say which method is the most appropriate

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without considering the background in which it is applied. Because of the limitation
in my thesis, I only spotlight on CLT which is considered as one of the most
effective method to teach speaking skill in second language.
2.2.1.1. Definition of CLT
Perhaps the majority of language teachers today, when asked to identify the
methodology.They employ in the classroom, identify “communicative” as the
methodology of choice. However, when pressed to give a detailed account of what
they mean by “communicative”, explanations vary widely. Does communicative
language teaching (CLT) mean teaching conversations, an absence of grammar in a
course, or an emphasis on open-ended discussion activities as the main features of a
course?
The origin of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) are found in the
changes in the British language teaching tradition in the late 1960s.There are many
definitions of CLT by different methodologists. Among the available definitions,
the one given by Nunan (1989, p.194) seems to be the most widely-accepted and the
most favorable one. As for him:
"CLT views language as a system for the expression of meaning. Activities involve
oral communication, carrying out meaning tasks and using language, which is
meaningful to the learners. Objectives reflect the needs of the learners; they include
functional skills as well as linguistic objectives. The learner's role is as a negotiator
and integrator. The teacher's role is as a facilitator of the communication process.
Materials promote communicative language use; they are task-based and
authentic". Nunan also asserts that in communication process, learners are
negotiators and integrators where as teachers are facilitators.
According to Richards (1998), CLT can be understood as a set of principles
about the goal of language teaching, how learners learn language, the kind of
classroom activities that best facilitate learning, and the roles of teachers and
learners in the classroom.
The definitions above, as with any definitions of the language teaching

method, represent a particular view of understanding and explaining language
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acquisition. It is socially constructed and must be seen as a product of social,
cultural, economic, and political forces.
Canale and Swain (1980) expanded on the theoretical basis of CLT for both
teaching and testing. In their reaction against an over emphasis on functions and a
lack of emphasis on grammatical complexity, they pointed out that external oriental
communication is not necessarily more essential than other proposes of language
such as "self-expression, verbal thinking, problem solving, and creative writing".
CLT is usually characterized as a broad approach to teaching, rather than as
teaching method with a clearly defined set of classroom practices. As such, it is
most often defined as a list of general principles of features that Nunan (1991)
remarked:
- An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target
language.
- The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.
- The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but
also on the learning management process.
- An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important
contributing elements to classroom learning.
- An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside
the classroom.
2.1.1.2. Characteristics of CLT
Language is not simply a system of rules. It is now generally seen "as a
dynamic resource for the creation of meaning" (Nunan, 1989). This point of view is
really supports CLT.
• CLT is aimed at (a) making communicative competence the goal of language
teaching and (b) developing procedures for the teaching of the four language skills
that acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication (Canh,
2004).

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• CLT is grounded on a theory of language as communication. The goal of CLT is
to create a realistic context for language acquisition in the classroom to order
communicative competence (Hymes, 1972).
• CLT is also associated with learner-centered and experienced based tasks
(Richard & Rodgers, 1986, L.Tsang & Wong, 2000).
• The focus of CLT is on functional language usage and learners' ability to express
themselves. In other words, for CLT, developing learners' skills is more important
than the content of the teaching and learning (Johnson, 1982).
• There are three major principle of CLT:
(1) communication principle: emphasizes activities that involve real
communication promote learning.
(2) task principle: supports that activities in which language is used for
carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning.
(3) meaningfulness principle: claims that language that is meaningful to the
learners supports the learning process.
(Canh, 2004)
• In communicative classes, learners communicate with each other and learning
tasks are completed by means of interaction between learners. It is clear that
learners' completing a task is fore-grounded and communicating with each other is
back-grounded. This may lead to considerable use of pair work, group work and
mingling activities.
• In ESL classes, teachers are facilitators and monitors, usually, without
interruption and then to provide feedback on the success.
However, CLT is not a perfect method. There still exist critical remarks on CLT as
its inappropriateness to local contexts and cultures, its negation of rote-learning,
memorization, displaying questions, teacher's talk, etc.
In spite of limitations and shortcomings, no one can negate that Communicative
Language Teaching allows teachers to incorporate motivating and purposeful
communicative activities and principle into their teaching, which later results in the

improvement of their learners' proficiency.
For the reasons mentioned above, CLT has served as the dominant approach to
language teaching since the demise of Audio-lingual Method.
To summarize, CLT is characterized as:
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- an emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target
language;
- the introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation;
- the provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language
but also on the learning process itself;
- an enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important
contributing elements to classroom learning;
- an attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation
outside the classroom. (Brown 1994 a, p. 78)
CLT is so popular that “no self- respecting teacher, materials designer, or
applied linguist would think of teaching English as anything else.” (Harmer 1982,
p. 164)
2.2.2. Material Adaptation
As Cunningsworth (1984, p.89) has pointed out: no course book will be total
suited to a particular teaching situation. The teacher will have to find his own way
of using it and adapting it if necessary. So we should not be looking for the perfect
course book which meets all our requirement, but rather for the best possible fit
between what the course book offers and what we as teachers and students need.
2.2.2.1. Definition of Adaptation
Naturally, adaptation is the action or process of adapting or fitting or the
stage of being adapted or fitted. Being considered in the points of view of
linguistics and educators, course book adaptation means changing existing course
book in order to make them more suitable for specific learners, teachers, or
situations (Tomlinson, 2000). In addition to this issue, Peacok (1996) states that
adaptation is essentially a process of matching to maximize the appropriacy of

teaching materials in context by changing some of the internal characteristics of a
course book to better suit particular circumstances.
Madsen and Bowen (1978, ix) claimed adaptation is an action of employing
“one or more of a number of techniques: supplementing, expanding, personalizing,
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simplifying, modernizing, localizing, or modifying cultural/ situational content”.
Ellis, M (1986, p.47) considered adaptation as the process of “retaining, rejecting,
re-ordering and modification” and Tomlinson (1998, xi) refers to “reducing,
adding, omitting, modifying and supplementing”.
Materials adaptation means matching materials with the learner’s needs, the
teacher’s demands and administration’s purpose.
2.2.2.2. The Purpose of Adaptation
Despite the great effort that textbook writers make to meet the needs of the
intended users, textbooks are subject to adaptation when they are actually used in
the classroom. After all, most commercial textbooks are not written for any
particular class. What makes the matter worse is that sometimes the teachers are
compelled to use certain materials, that is, materials imposed by authorities. In a
word, in most ELT cases, teachers have to adapt the materials they are using if they
want their teaching to be more effective and more interesting.
Cunningsworth (1995) makes the statement that: textbooks are an effective
recourse for presentation material, a source of ideas and activities, a reference
source for students, a syllabus where they reflect pre-determined learning objectives
and support for less experienced teachers who have yet to gain in confidence.
However there is no perfect suitable material. Therefore, teachers adapt textbook to
match it with their teaching environment, their learners, their own preferences, the
course objectives and the text, the tasks, the activities
McDonough and Shaw (1993, p.86) have listed more reasons for materials
adaptation. The most important reason is that there is mismatch between what is
needed and what is provided by materials.
2.2.2.3. Techniques of Adaptation

After recognizing a gap (mismatch or non-congruence) between published
teaching materials and the needs and objectives of the classroom, the teacher has to
address the practicalities of adapting the material to meet her class objectives more
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closely. Mc Donough and Shaw (1993) and Cunningsworth (1995) offered lists of
techniques that may be used when adapting materials better to fit a specific class
Adding
The notion of addition is, on its face, a very obvious and straightforward
idea, implying that materials are supplemented by putting more into them, while
taking into account the practical effect on time allocation. We certainly can add in
this simple quantitative way by the technique of "extending". For example, adding a
second passage parallel to the one provided is helpful in reinforcing the key
linguistic features-tenses, sentence structure, vocabulary, cohesive device-of the
first text.
Adding technique by extending is to supply more to the original material. This
means that the techniques are being applied within methodological framework of
the original materials. We can also add in a qualitative way by the technique of
"expanding". Adding technique by expanding is to add to the methodology by
moving outside it and developing it in new directions, for instance by putting a
different language skill or a new component. This can be thought of as a change in
the overall system.
Deleting or omitting
Deletion is clearly the opposite process to addition, and as such needs no
further clarification as a term. However, although material is taken out rather than
supplemented, as a technique it can be thought of as "the other side of the same
coin". The technique is used to omit material or reduce the length of material as
subtracting from it. For instance, the teacher leaves out lengthy and difficult tasks
which are unproductive or inappropriate for a particular group of students.
Addition and deletion often work together, of course. Material may be taken
out and then replaced with something else.

Modifying
Modification is, at one level, a very general term in the language applying to
any kind of change. In order to introduce further possibilities for adaptation, we
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