A study on grammatical metaphor in English business letters

A study on grammatical metaphor in English
business letters

Vũ Lệ Huyền

Trường Đại học Ngoại ngữ
Luận văn ThS. Chuyên ngành: English Linguistics; Mã số: 60 22 15
Người hướng dẫn: TS. Nguyễn Huy Kỷ
Năm bảo vệ: 2011

Abstract: This study focuses on the investigation of grammatical metaphor in English
business letters. The theoretical framework for the analysis is mainly based on the
systemic functional linguistic theory by M.A.K Halliday, Christian Matthiessen, and
James Martin, who are considered as the representatives of systemic functional
linguistics. The corpus of the study contains 20 real life English business letters chosen
randomly. Through a variety of methods, namely qualitative and quantitative, synthetic
and analytic, the study investigates the frequency, the proportion and the types of
grammatical metaphor used in the corpus. The results of the study show that grammatical
metaphor appeared considerably frequently in the business letters. Then some
suggestions for pedagogical implication are also given with the hope of helping ESP
students easily approach grammatical metaphor in general and in business letter discourse
in particular. It is also hoped that the findings will contribute to a fuller understanding of
business letter discourse.
Keywords: Tiếng Anh; Phương pháp giảng dạy; Thư thương mại; Ẩn dụ ngữ pháp; Tu từ
học
Content

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP …………………………………………………………….i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……………………………………………………………………ii
ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………………………………… iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ………………………………………………………………… iv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ……………………………………………………………… vii
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

PART A: INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………… 1
1. Rationale …………………………………………………………………… 1
2. Objectives of the study ……………………………………………………… 2
3. Scope of the study …………………………………………………………….3
4. Methods of the study ………………………………………………………….3
5. Design of the study ……………………………………………………………3
PART B: DEVELOPMENT ………………………………………………… 5
CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND: OVERVIEW ON
SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR ………………5
1.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………….5
1.2. Language and context ………………………………………………………5
1.3. Metafunctions ……………………………………………………………….7
1.4. Summary ………………………………………………………………… 10
CHAPTER 2: THE NOTION OF GRAMMATICAL METAPHOR …… 11
2.1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………… 11
2.2. Definitions of Metaphor ………………………………………………… 11
2.3. Grammatical metaphor …………………………………………………….12

v
2.4. Grammatical metaphor vs. Lexical Metaphor ……………………………13
2.5. Classification of Grammatical Metaphor …………………………………15
2.5.1. Ideational Metaphor ………………………………………………… 15
2.5.2. Interpersonal Metaphor ……………………………………………… 18
2.5.2.1. Modality metaphors …………………………………………….18

2.5.2.2. Mood metaphors ……………………………………………… 18
2.6. Summary ………………………………………………………………… 19
CHAPTER 3: GRAMMATICAL METAPHOR IN ENGLISH BUSINESS
LETTERS …………………………………………………….21
3.1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………… 21
3.2. Definition of Business Letters …………………………………………… 22
3.3. Classification of Business Letters …………………………………………22
3.4. Characteristics of Business Letters ……………………………………… 23
3.4. 1. Characteristics of Business Letters in general ………………… 23
3.4.2. Characteristics of business letters in terms of field, tenor and mode 24
3.5. The use of Grammatical Metaphor in Business Letters ………………… 26
3.5.1. Data analysis framework …………………………………………. …26
3.5.2. Results ……………………………………………………………… 33
3.5.2.1. Frequency of use of grammatical metaphor …………………….33
3.5.2.2. Types of Grammatical metaphor used ………………………….33
3.5.3. Discussion ……………………………………………………… 35
3. 6. Summary ………………………………………………………………….36
PART C: CONCLUSION …………………………………………37
1. Recapitulation ……………………………………………………………….37
2. Implications …………………………………………………………………38

vi
3. Limitations of the study …………………………………………………… 38
4. Suggestions for further studies ………………………………………………39

REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………………… 40
APPENDIX 1 ………………………………………………………………………… I
APPENDIX 2………………………………………………………………………… X

1


PART A: INTRODUCTION

1. Rationale
Metaphor is a very important feature in human language and is always a subject of central
interest in the study of stylistics. But traditional linguistics has long focused only on lexical
metaphor whereas systemic functional linguistics has paid much attention on grammatical
metaphor.
English is considered a key to success in international business. Business letters are still
widely used in the world as a main channel of business correspondence. To achieve
desirable results in communicating through business letters, besides taking some
remarkable features into account such as: style, language, structure of a business letter, an
aspect of the lexicogrammar which involves a higher level of complexity in the process
of production and interpretation of clauses – the use of grammatical metaphor should be
paid a great attention, too. However, it has not attracted enough research attention. A
functional analysis of grammatical metaphor in discourse, especially in business letters will
be very helpful to benefit English learners in better understanding and employing target
language and thus improving the communicative competence more effectively.
2. Objectives of the study
(i) to give a general understanding of grammatical metaphor in the light of functional
linguistics.
(ii) to examine some typical characteristics of business letters to show the general features
of this genre.
(iii) to give an analysis of the corpus of business letters in terms of grammatical metaphor
in order to see how this notable feature is used.
Therefore, the research questions raised here are:
1) What is the frequency of the use of grammatical metaphor in English business letters?
2) What types of grammatical metaphor are used in English business letters?

3. Scope of the study
Grammatical metaphor in the chosen corpus of English business letters.
The theoretical framework for the analysis: systemic functional linguistic theory by M.A.K
Halliday, Christian Matthiessen, and James Martin.
2


4. Methods of the study
The study employs the combination of qualitative and quantitative methods.
5. Design of the study
The study consists of three parts:
Part A: Introduction. This part introduces the rationale, the objectives, the scope and the
methods of the study.
Part B: Development. This part is divided into three chapters.
Part C is the conclusion
PART B: DEVELOPMENT
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW ON SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL
GRAMMAR

1.1 Introduction
From this point of view, Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) w a s developed by
Michael Halliday and his colleagues. This has been a great contribution to linguistic
theory. Our overview on the SFG will focuse on some of the key points (Language and
social context, Context of culture, Context of situation, Metafunctions… ) of this theory in
the next part.
1.2. Language and context
A full understanding of a text is often impossible without reference to the context in
which it occurs. And context can be considered from two perspectives: the context of

culture and the context of situation.
1.3. Metafunctions
With respect to the context of situation, all the situational differences between texts can be
explained by three aspects of the context, namely, field, tenor, and mode.
1.4. Summary
In this chapter, an overview of systemic functional linguistics has been briefly given. It is
described as a functional-semantic approach to language which explores how language is
used in different contexts, and how it is construed for using as a semiotic system.
3


CHAPTER 2: THE NOTION OF GRAMMATICAL METAPHOR

2.1. Introduction
As we know metaphor is a very important feature in human language. There is no
exaggeration when we say that language itself is a metaphor.
2.2. Definitions of Metaphor
We start with the definitions of metaphors. A lot of defitions has been given
2.3. Grammatical Metaphor
Grammatical metaphor is one of the most interesting theoretical notions developed by
Halliday (1985/1994) within systemic-functional Grammar. In this research paradigm,
language is regarded as a semiotic system which comprises four different strata (context,
semantics, lexicogrammar, and phonology) related to each other by means of subsequent
realizations.
2.4. Grammatical metaphor vs. Lexical Metaphor
Halliday (1985) suggests that metaphor does not necessarily happen at the lexical level
but often at the grammatical level, which is called grammatical metaphor. “We are
looking at metaphor not „from below‟, as variation in the meaning of a given
expression, but rather „from above‟, as variation in the expression of a given meaning”
(1994: 342)

2.5. Classification of Grammatical Metaphor
2.5.1. Ideational Grammatical Metaphors
Ideational Grammatical Metaphors are called metaphor of transitivity. The grammatical
variation between congruent and incongruent forms here applies to transitivity
configurations.
2.5.2. Interpersonal Grammatical Metaphors
Two types of interpersonal grammatical metaphors can be distinguished as metaphors of
mood and of modality.
2.5.2.1. Modality metaphors
The grammatical variation which occurs is based on the logico-semantic relationship of
projection.
2.5.2.2. Mood metaphors
4


In order to understand the notion of interpersonal metaphors of mood, it is necessary to
consider what the default types of encoding are.
2.6. Summary
This chapter has focused mainly on the notion of grammatical metaphor within the
framework of systemic functional grammar. To master the notion of grammatical
metaphor, the notion of lexical metaphor, which is traditionally known, has been also
discussed. As we can see in this chapter, grammatical metaphor can be explained in
relation to lexical metaphor.
CHAPTER 3: GRAMMATICAL METAPHOR IN ENGLISH BUSINESS LETTERS
3.1. Introduction
Due to the profound political and economic changes in the world, the commercial relations
of different nations have noticeably increased and English language is now considered by
many nations as an international language.
3.2. Definition of Business Letters
According to Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, a letter is a written message

addressed to a person or an organization, usually in an envelope and is sent by post.
Business refers to the exchange of goods or services for the reason of money or other
goods. So a business letter is a letter dealing with business, used in the negotiation of trade
conditions in national or international business, concerning the quality of specified goods,
specifications, quantity, price, shipment, insurance, payment, disagreement, claim, etc
The other definition by Jacky Gamble eHow contributor: business letters are formal letters
used for business-to-business, business-to-client, or client-to-business correspondence.
3.3 Classification of Business English letters
Business is very complicated transaction involving series of different procedures.
Stewart (1984) classified business letters as follows:
1) Classification according to the content of the letter.
2) Classification according to the different functions in the process of a business trade.
3) Classification according to the nature of the information given.
3.4. Characteristics of Business Letters
3.4. 1. Characteristics of Business Letters in general
Scientific Expression must be of great consideration. Scientific expression means
something said directly and briefly.
5


Any business letter must be short. The significance of a short letter is that the person
reading the letter must understand the significance of the letter in the minimum possible
lines.
The tone of the letter is another very important aspect of the letter. The letter must sound
polite, courteous and firm.
Accuracy is important in a business letter. Whatever you communicate in a letter must be
accurate.
Association of ideas is also crucial. The ideas and facts mentioned in the letter must be
interlinked.
Politeness and optimism are the ‘passwords’ in the business world. Business letters must

be conducted in a polite tone.
3.4.2. Characteristics of business letters in terms of field, tenor and mode
(i) Field
There is no denying the fact that we cam easily recognize a business communication
situation. We are subconsciously aware of the nature of the social activity and expect the
participants to behave in a certain way. Thus what people actually do in such situations
determines the field of business letters.
(ii) Tenor
The tenor of business letters relates to the role relationship between participants in
such situations. The social roles have already been observed and very well defined. Now,
for instance, considering the ultimate purpose of the shopkeeper or producer, there is a lot
of persuasion, be it gentle or other, to effect a transaction.
(iii) Mode
As this thesis focuses on the written business letters, the transmission channel is
through the written communication. On the other hand, mode deals with the cohesion and
textual structure of the written work
3.5. The use of Grammatical Metaphor in Business Letters
3.5.1. Data analysis framework
The corpus is a collection of 20 authentic real-life English business letters randomly
chosen from the eBook titled Instant Business Letters Kit by Shawn Fawcett. They are then
analyzed in terms of grammatical metaphor in detail.
The examples below, taken from the corpus of the present study, will illustrate the
6


instances of mapping and realization discussed in chapter II. The metaphorical
expressions in the examples were taken from the corpus of business letters used in the
present study and the congruent expressions were provided by the author of this paper.
Metaphorical: Your cooperation is appreciated.
Congruent: The way you cooperate is appreciated.

Halliday & Mathiessen suggested a detailed description of the metaphorical types. The
classification is based on metaphoric shifts from one elemental class to another. Each type
is treated as a phenomenon on its own.
3.5.2. Results
Twenty business letters were studied carefully in order to identify grammatical metaphor
with reference to Table 1. The author was then able to determine first the frequency of use
of grammatical metaphor, and second, the average number of grammatical metaphor
instances in each clause and third, types of grammatical metaphor used.
No. of business letters: 20
No. of business letters with grammatical metaphor: 20
No. of instances of grammatical metaphor: 418
No. of clauses in these 20 business letters: 346
3.5.2.1. Frequency of use of grammatical metaphor
The frequency of use of grammatical metaphor in the business letters was shown in terms
of, first the percentage of business letters containing grammatical metaphor, and second the
ratio (the average number of GM instances) of grammatical metaphor to the number of
clauses. Table 2 summarizes the results.
Frequency

Figures

Percentage of business letters with grammatical
metaphor
100 %
(20/20 business letters)

GM ratio
1.21
(418/346 clauses)

Table 2: Frequency of use of grammatical metaphor in business letters

7


Table 2 shows that grammatical metaphor was used in all of the business letters and the
average number of GM instances in each clause is 1.21 (418 instances out of 346 clauses).
It can be inferred that the use of GM in the corpus is of quite high frequency and large
proportion.
3.5.2.2. Types of Grammatical metaphor used
A summary of types of grammatical metaphor found in the corpus is displayed in table 3.
The first row shows the types of grammatical metaphor employed by the business letters
authors using the same numbering as in Table 1. The last two rows show respectively the
total number of GM instances in each type and the percentage rate of each type to the total
cases.
Types of
GM
Letter
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

13
Group 1













Letter 1
2
14


2
4
1




1
10
Letter 2

1
11



4


1


1
6
Letter 3
2
11


2



1



5
Letter 4
1
11

3
1





1
8
Letter 5
1
8


2
2





2
8
Letter 6

8

2
2






6
Letter 7
1
15

1
6
1






16
Letter 8

6



2

1
7
Letter 9

9









1
8
Letter 10
1
10


1

1

1
1
Group 2













Letter 1
1
8


2

1
7
Letter 2
1
7


1
1



1

2
4
Letter 3

9


1
2
1

2
Letter 4

3


4







6
Letter 5
3
4


3




1

1
8
Letter 6

8


1

1




1
5
8


Letter 7

7


3




1


3

Letter 8

9


3
3
1




2
6
Letter 9

10



1






5
Letter 10

14


4






1
11
No. of
instances
14
182

1
40
23
5

2
3

16
132
Rate (%)
3.35
43.5

0.24
9.57
5.5
1.2

0.48
0.72

3.8
31.6

Table 3: Types of grammatical metaphor used in the corpus
As the figures in the last two rows in Table 3 above show, the authors of the business
letters preferred to use the same few types of grammatical metaphor most frequently. In
descending order, these types are 2, 13, 5 and 6. That is, they nominalized a verb (type 2)
most frequently, followed by expanding the noun (type
13), then
changing a verb into an
adjective (type 5) and
changing a prepositional phrase into an adjective
(type 6).
3.5.3. Discussion
From the above results, one can see that grammatical metaphor was used frequently in the
business letters. All the letters in the corpus contained grammatical metaphor with quite
high GM ratio (1.21). These two figures suggest that the authors of the letters showed a
strong tendency to use grammatical metaphor in constructing their discourse. This seems to
indicate that the authors of the letters were aware of the advantages of using grammatical
metaphor. It could make the message concise and brief. However, the use of grammatical
metaphor in a large proportion of the business letters studied seems to infer that business

letter discourse might not be as simple and straightforward as it has been claimed to be.
The two types of grammatical metaphor used most frequently were types 2 and 13 suggests
that the authors of the letters tended to condense the information which would otherwise be
expressed congruently with a clause (or clause complex) into a nominal group. A nominal
group can be expanded to 'pack in' a great deal of important information (Christie, 1998).
This way of condensing information is called nominalization. Nominalization increases the
density of the information and enriches the content of expressions through making a clause
into a noun or noun phrase. According Halliday, nominalizing is the single most powerful
resource for creating grammatical metaphor. By this device, processes (congruently
9


worded as verbs) and properties (congruently worded as adjectives) are reworded
metaphorically as nouns; instead of functioning in the clause, as Process or Attribute, they
function as Thing in the nominal group. For example:…my sincere apologies for any
inconvenience…can be used in stead of a congruent form: I apologize sincerely because it
is inconvenient for you….
3. 6. Summary
We can infer from the results of the present study that the authors of the business letters
showed a strong tendency to use grammatical metaphor to construct their messages. All
the letters in the corpus contain grammatical metaphor. The most pervasive types of
grammatical metaphor used in the corpus with the reference to table 1 are type 2 and type
13. This suggests that the authors of the letters tended to condense the information into a
nominal group and thus nominalization plays a powerful source of grammatical metaphor
in business letters.

PART C: CONCLUSION
1. Recapitulation
The study has achieved the objectives previously set up. To have a clear understanding
about grammatical metaphor, a feature of lexicogrammar, an overview on the SFG was

given with some of the key points. It is described as a functional-semantic approach to
language which explores how language is used in different contexts, and how it is
construed for using as a semiotic system. The notion of grammatical metaphor was then
clarified
To achieve the objectives mentioned above, the combination of qualitative and quantitative
methods was used. The data were collected and then analyzed. In the investigation of data,
the descriptive method is also employed to give a detailed description of grammatical
metaphor found in the corpus. After the description of the data, the combination of analytic
and synthetic methods was used.
It is first observed that the authors of the business letters showed a strong tendency to use
grammatical metaphor in their message. Second, the use of grammatical metaphor in a
large proportion of the business letters of the corpus seems to suggest that business letter
discourse might not be as simple and straightforward as it has been claimed to be. Third,
10


the authors of the business letters mostly used type 2 (nominalizing a process) and type 13
(expanding the noun resulting from nominalizing a verb) of grammatical metaphor because
nominalization plays a key role in creating grammatical metaphor in business letter
discourse.
2. Implications
It is suggested that grammatical metaphor should be taken in to account in writing work.
The teachers can help the students with the practice of changing a congruent realization
into a metaphorical one, paying much attention with the skills of nominalization for
nominalizing is the single most powerful resource for creating grammatical metaphor.
However, in writing a business letter, remember that the use of grammatical metaphor
could make the massage concise, but at the same time, making the message more
complicated and thus less interpretable than when the same message was realized by
clauses written in their congruent form. Therefore, the students should be trying to strike a
balance between conciseness and interpretability of their messages. It means that a proper

proportion of grammatical metaphor is recommended.
3. Limitations of the study
Due to the limitation of time, there exist some limitations in this study first in terms of its
corpus size. The corpus could be made more representative by including more business
letters. Stronger claims concerning the reliability and validity of the findings obtained in
this study could then be made. Second, much focus was put on the analysis of ideational
grammatical metaphor without much attempt in analyzing the instances of interpersonal
metaphor.
4. Suggestions for further studies
From the limitations mentioned above, further studies of the topic should cover a broader
investigation into the use of grammatical metaphor in business letters with a larger corpus.
Furthermore, a contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese business letters in terms of
grammatical metaphor should be carried out.





40
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