Capitalist development and technological innovation in open water fisheries impacts on traditional water slave fishing communities of southeastern bangladesh

CAPITALIST DEVELOPMENT AND TECHNOLOGICAL
INNOVATION IN OPEN-WATER FISHERIES:
IMPACTS ON TRADITIONAL ‘WATER-SLAVE’ FISHING
COMMUNITIES OF SOUTHEASTERN BANGLADESH










RANAJIT DASTIDAR

(B.A. (Honours in Economics),
CHITTAGONG UNIVERSITY)








A THESIS SUBMITTED

FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY





SOUTH ASIAN STUDIES PROGRAMME
FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE



2009
Capitalist Development and Technological Innovation in Open-water Fisheries
Acknowledgements

I have been blessed with two outstanding scholars as my PhD supervisors, who combine
many rare human qualities as well. The completion of this dissertation, as well as my overall
Masters-cum-PhD programme, is owed foremost to my teacher and supervisor, Prof Shapan
Adnan. He first introduced me to field level research at the grassroots on various socio-
economic issues and aroused my interest in understanding the transformation of traditional
peasant and fisher societies. Undertaking of this doctoral programme was the result of his
continuous encouragement and instilling of confidence in me. His innovative teaching and
dynamic guidance has led me to grasp the pertinent issues of this research. His innumerable
queries, comments and intense critiques of the drafts of the thesis chapters have kept me on
track in developing a coherent analytical framework within which to insert the thematic
arguments and supporting evidence. His extremely painstaking efforts in going between the
lines of the various chapter drafts, and numerous suggestions for correction, have enabled me
to revise the written dissertation in its present form. During my fieldwork in 2005, he spent

his personal leave visiting my study villages as well as a major fish market in Chittagong city,
providing me with vital practical guidance in accomplishing this task.

Beside this crucial academic and research support, Prof Adnan has voluntarily taken up the
entire financial responsibility of maintaining my family of four (including my wife and two
school-going children, paying foreign student fees) in Singapore since September 2008, by
lending generously when I had exhausted all my savings and sources of loan. From the very
outset of my graduate studies in the National University of Singapore (NUS), he has always
advised me not to worry about financial exigencies and to let him know if I require any such
support. Since discontinuation of my Research Scholarship after November 2007, having to
borrow to survive and pay tuition fees to the university has brought me close to bankruptcy
and despair. Consequently, I tried to give up the PhD programme several times, but Prof
Adnan’s relentless persuasion and firm guidance did not allow that to happen. In short, the
Ranajit Dastidar, FASS, NUS
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Impacts on Traditional ‘Water-Slave’ Fishing Communities of Southeastern Bangladesh
submission of my PhD dissertation would have been totally inconceivable without Prof
Adnan’s all-out support, and hence my debt to him knows no bounds.

I am also profoundly indebted to my co-supervisor and teacher, Professor Peter D. Reeves,
who was the former Head of South Asian Studies Programme (SASP). He taught and
introduced me to the rich fisheries literature, and his guidance and comments on my
dissertation have been invaluable. In particular, his feedback on all the nine thesis chapters
has served to enhance my confidence, and his critique has helped me to improve the quality of
the PhD dissertation.

During Prof Reeves’ tenure as Head of SASP, I benefited from all the required administrative
support like the other SASP students. Significantly, his high administrative capability and
towering personality helped me to obtain financial support for fieldwork as well as the
extension of the NUS Research Scholarship during his tenure. In this regard, I must also

acknowledge with thanks the support of Prof Alan Chan, former Vice Dean of the Division of
Research and Graduate Studies (DRGS), Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences (FASS), NUS. I
am grateful for the financial and administrative support received from SASP and DRGS under
the respective leadership of these two distinguished academics. Their subsequent absence was
deeply felt, when my applications for extension of scholarship were rejected
1
.

Besides much required academic and administrative support, Prof Reeves has always been
concerned about my difficult financial situation. He offered me “practical help” through
several emails after discontinuation of the scholarship. Prof Reeves has been a constant source
of encouragement to me from Australia through his numerous emails, which have contributed
largely to the fruition of this dissertation.


1
Unlike other PhD colleagues, I was given the NUS Research Scholarship (RS) for only 3 years and 4
months (inclusive of part of my M.A. candidature as well). My applications for extension of RS and
tuition fee waiver were rejected twice since November 2007, despite very strong recommendations
from both of my supervisors and keeping good academic and research track records [e.g., achieved
Cumulative Average Point (CAP) 4.88 out of the 5 point scale, presented papers in the international
conferences, received good feedback from the undergraduate students whom I tutored, etc.].
Ranajit Dastidar, FASS, NUS
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Capitalist Development and Technological Innovation in Open-water Fisheries

My friend, Shaju Sultana Adnan, has always provided great support, both psychological and
material, from the outset of my studies at NUS. Her affection and care for me as well as my
family have made our stay in Singapore worthwhile. Her invaluable contributions are
acknowledged with much gratitude.

I am grateful to Prof Mahbub Ullah of Dhaka University and Mr. Ulrich Kleih of Greenwich
University for providing referees’ reports at the time of my admission in graduate studies at
NUS. Besides, Mr. Kleih also provided me with several relevant reports from England and
encouraged me in undertaking and continuing the PhD programme.

I am thankful to the Asia Research Institute (ARI) of NUS for its partial financial support to
my fieldwork during 2005.

I am also grateful to Dr. Khursid Alam for his support and encouragement for my PhD
project. He provided me with different reports and information from Bangladesh and helped
me in organising a team for validation of data in one of my study villages. Besides, he
provided me with access to his own data, collected from a marine village on the Chittagong
coast for his PhD. Beside these, as the Executive Director of CODEC, he approved a loan as
well as leave for the undertaking of my graduate study at NUS. In this respect, I am also
thankful to CODEC, which provided me with the opportunity to be introduced to the
traditional fishing communities and work with them since late 1994.

I thankfully acknowledge the valuable contributions of my research assistants, Ms. Sharmina
Chowdhury, Ms. Farzana Ferdous and Mr. Mohammad Aminul Hoque, who helped me in
collection of data in the study villages during September-November, 2005.

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Impacts on Traditional ‘Water-Slave’ Fishing Communities of Southeastern Bangladesh
Mr. Mobarrak Hossain carefully applied his cartographic skills in refining the maps of the
study villages as well as Chittagong district and Bangladesh. I gratefully acknowledge his
contributions.

Mr. Shuvashish Biswas (Suman), Mr. Md. Nasir Uddin, Mr. Surajit Dutta (Bachchu), Ms.

Rehana Akhter, Mr. Waliul Islam, Mr. Tapan Bhowmik, Mr. Mosharraf Hossain (Jhantu),
Ms. Husna Amena Akhter (Sweet), Mr. Debashish Biswas (Rupan), Mr. Utpal Dutta, Mr.
Mamun-ur-Rashid, Mr. Imrul Hasan and Mr. Sultan Md. Giasuddin have given me very
important support by providing data at different times. Some of them also made available
various reports and documents to me. In particular, Suman transcribed some of the recorded
interviews and sent several maps, and Nasir visited one of the study villages to collect and
validate data. Nasir, Rehana and Tapan also introduced me to the marine study villages. My
sincere gratitude goes to all these very helpful friends for their unfailing support.

Mr. Kamal Sengupta provided help in taking photographs of some boats, trawlers and
industrial ships during fieldwork in 2005 (Photograph Nos. 5.2, 5.14, 5.15 and 5.18), while
Mr. Moinul Alam gave his consent to use one of his photographs (No. 5.12) published in the
pictorial of CODEC (2001). I acknowledge their support with thanks.

I am grateful to my PhD colleague and friend, Ms. Fahmida Farzana, to stand as a guarantor
for my Tuition Fee Loan availed over three semesters since January, 2008. I appreciate her
generosity, in spite of apprehension about providing guarantee to an insolvent person like me!

Ms. Nur Jannah Mohamed and Miss Catherine Lee of the SASP office have always been very
helpful in extending their cooperation whenever required. I am thankful to them.

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Capitalist Development and Technological Innovation in Open-water Fisheries
Bishuda (Mr. Biswajit Dutta) and Bablidi (Ms. Sunanda Sengupta) had come forward to
support me financially, whatever they could. Besides, Bishuda has been very keen in tracking
the development of my PhD work since its initiation. My gratitude goes to them as well.

I have had always been supported and encouraged by my didi, Ms. Dipa Sen, and my brother
and friend, Surajit Dutta (Bachchu), whose financial support was of crucial importance after

the discontinuation of my scholarship. My younger sister, Shima (Mahua Dastidar), has taken
up my responsibility of looking after our ailing mother since January 2006 through her very
active physical presence, as well as financial support (since August 2008), even at the cost of
her own family responsibility. She has had to bear a lot of suffering and put in extra efforts
for undertaking this additional responsibility, relegated to her due to my long absence from
home. However, she has always been generously supported by her husband, Advocate Mrinal
Kanti Dasgupta, and their two children Saymonti and Aritra. My debt is profound to all of
them, including didi and Bachchu. I would not have succeeded in completing this dissertation
without their unforgettable contributions.

My father (Saradindu Dastidar) passed away on 12 May 2004, when I was preparing to
upgrade to the PhD programme from my M.A. studies at SASP. He felt my absence a lot
during those days! I have the feeling that my father could have lived a few more years, if I
had been beside him at home. This is an irrevocable cost of my graduate study at NUS. This
feeling haunts me quite often. My apology to him knows no bounds.

My mother (Pranati Dastidar) has accepted my absence ungrudgingly, and has been
encouraging me regularly to complete the PhD project. Her ailing elder sister, my mejomashi
(Arati Dutta), and younger brother, mejomamu (Nihar Kanti Das), are also very concerned
about my studies and are looking forward to the fruition of my PhD.

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Impacts on Traditional ‘Water-Slave’ Fishing Communities of Southeastern Bangladesh
My wife, Ankhi (Suparna Sen Gupta), and sons, Diganto (Navojit Dastidar) and Pranto
(Pritthijit Dastidar), have accepted all the hardships and disruptions in education (sons’)
entailed by my doctoral work without any significant complaint and indeed have been a great
source of encouragement to me. Their resilience in the face of poverty and destitution,
particularly since discontinuation of my scholarship, is admirable. They are also looking
forward to the successful completion of the PhD. I am moved by their patience and am ever

grateful to them.

I have also been encouraged by many other friends, relatives and colleagues during my study
at NUS. I am thankful to all of them (the list is quite long to be presented here).

Last, but not least, I would like to express my deep gratitude to the respondents of the study,
especially to the Jaladas fishing communities, for their invaluable contribution to this
research.

Ranajit Dastidar
South Asian Studies Programme
Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences
National University of Singapore (NUS)

13 November 2009

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Capitalist Development and Technological Innovation in Open-water Fisheries
Table of Contents
(Summary)

Acknowledgements i

Table of Contents (Summary) vii

Table of Contents (Detailed) viii

Thesis Summary xv

List of Tables, Maps, Charts and Figures xvii


List of Photographs xix

Glossary and Acronyms xxi


CHAPTERS

1. INTRODUCTION 1


2. ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE 35


3. TRADITIONAL FISHING COMMUNITIES OF BANGLADESH: HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVES 63


4. FEATURES OF THE STUDY AREAS: VILLAGES, FISHING GROUNDS, MARKET-
PLACES 75


5. TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION AND PROCESSES OF CHANGE 110

6. FACTOR AND PRODUCT MARKETS IN THE FISHERIES SECTOR 151

7. PRODUCTION RELATIONS AND SOCIAL ORGANISATION IN THE STUDY
VILLAGES 199

8. NATURE AND EXTENT OF CAPITALIST DEVELOPMENT IN FISHERIES 239

9. CONCLUSION: MAJOR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY 271


Bibliography 290

Appendix-1 299

Appendix-2 301


Appendix-3 302

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Table of Contents
(Detailed)

Acknowledgements i


Table of Contents (Summary) vii


Table of Contents (Detailed) viii

Thesis Summary xv


List of Tables, Maps, Charts and Figures xvii

List of Photographs xix


Glossary and Acronyms xxi

CHAPTER 1

1. INTRODUCTION 1


1.1. STATEMENT OF THE ISSUES ADDRESSED 1


1.2. THE FISHERIES SECTOR OF BANGLADESH 4


1.2.1. Marine Fisheries 7
1.2.2. Inland Fisheries 8
1.2.3. Social Groups and Classes involved in Fishing 10
1.3. ANALYTICAL ISSUES 14

1.4. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND KEY QUESTIONS 16

1.4.1. Research Objectives 16
1.4.2. Key Questions 17
1.5. APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH 18


1.5.1. Methods and Techniques used 19
1.5.1.1. Primary and Secondary Data Sources 19


1.5.1.2. Fieldwork in Multiple Sites 21

1.5.1.3. Selection Criteria for the Study Villages/Communities 22

1.5.1.4. Fieldwork Methods in the Study Villages 26

1.5.1.5. Methods of Data Collection for Fish and Credit Market Surveys 28

1.5.1.6. Itinerary of Fieldwork in Bangladesh 29

1.5.2. Problems Encountered in Collection of Data 31
1.6. SCOPE AND LIMITS OF THE STUDY 32


1.7. LAYOUT OF THE DISSERTATION 33



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Capitalist Development and Technological Innovation in Open-water Fisheries
CHAPTER 2

2. ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE 35


2.1. CONCEPT OF CAPITAL: PRODUCTIVE AND UNPRODUCTIVE CAPITAL 36


2.2. THE CLASSICAL PARADIGM OF CAPITALIST DEVELOPMENT 38


2.2.1. Processes leading to the Emergence of Capitalism 39
2.2.1.1. Differentiation of the Peasantry 39


2.2.1.2. Primitive Accumulation 40


2.2.1.3. Capitalist Reconstitution 41


2.2.2. Production Relations and the Social Organisation of Production 41
2.2.3. Capitalist Transformation as Systemic Change 42
2.2.4. Role of Impersonal and Interlocked Markets in Capitalist Development 44
2.2.5. Adaptation of the Classical Paradigm of Capitalist Development to Fisheries 45
2.3. ANALYTICAL REVIEW OF LITERATURE 47


2.3.1. Technological Change 48

2.3.2. Factor and Product Markets 49
2.3.3. Forms of Production Organisation 53
2.3.4. Differentiation amongst Traditional Fishing Communities 54
2.3.5. Emergence of Capitalist Relations 56
2.3.6. Socio-cultural Changes with Capitalist Development 57
2.4. INCONSISTENCIES AND GAPS IN EXISTING KNOWLEDGE 58


2.5. HYPOTHESES 60


2.6. OVERVIEW 61


CHAPTER 3

3. TRADITIONAL FISHING COMMUNITIES OF BANGLADESH: HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVES 63


3.1. RELIGIOUS AND CASTE COMPOSITION OF TRADITIONAL FISHING COMMUNITIES
…………………………………………………………………………………….63

3.2. HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTS AND POWER RELATIONS 66


3.2.1. Legal and Property Rights in Fisheries: 1793–1947 67
3.2.2. Considerations underlying Changes in Property Rights: 1793–1947 69
3.2.3. Typology of Fisheries Organisation during the Colonial Period 70
3.2.4. Property Rights and Power Relations in the Post-Colonial Period 72

3.3. OVERVIEW OF HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES 73

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Impacts on Traditional ‘Water-Slave’ Fishing Communities of Southeastern Bangladesh

CHAPTER 4

4. FEATURES OF THE STUDY AREAS: VILLAGES, FISHING GROUNDS, MARKET-PLACES
75

4.1. FEATURES OF THE STUDY VILLAGES/COMMUNITIES 75


4.1.1. Shagarmala: the Marine Fishing Village (MFV) 76
4.1.2. Shangkhomala: the Inland Fishing Village (IFV) 82
4.1.3. The Supplementary Study Villages 85
4.2. PRODUCTION CONDITIONS IN MARINE AND INLAND FISHERIES 86

4.2.1. Technical Conditions and Environmental Resources of the Fisheries 86
4.2.1.1. Seasonality of Inland and Marine Fisheries 86


4.2.1.2. Fishing Grounds, Property Rights and Practices in Marine Fisheries 87

4.2.1.3. Fishing Grounds, Property Rights and Practices in the Inland Village 92

4.2.2. Distribution of the Fisheries’ Means of Production 96
4.2.2.1. Marine Fishing Village (MFV) 96

4.2.2.2. Inland Fishing Village (IFV) 98

4.2.3. Occupational Patterns during the Peak Fishing Season 99
4.2.3.1. Marine Fishing Village (MFV) 99


4.2.3.2. Inland Fishing Village (IFV) 100

4.3. FISH-LANDING SITES AND MARKET-PLACES IN CHITTAGONG 101


4.4. RISK AND INSECURITY IN THE FISHING GROUNDS AND LANDING SITES 102


4.4.1. Natural Calamities 102
4.4.2. Threats from Piracy 104
4.4.3. Coercion and Constraints 106
4.5. CONCLUDING REMARKS 108


CHAPTER 5

5. TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION AND PROCESSES OF CHANGE 110


5.1. ARTISANAL FISHING TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIAL ORGANISATION OF PRODUCTION
111

5.1.1. Fishing Crafts 111

5.1.2. Traditional Fishing Nets and other Fishing Gear 114
5.1.3. Pre-Innovation Social Organisation of Production 117
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Capitalist Development and Technological Innovation in Open-water Fisheries
5.2. CHANGES IN TECHNOLOGY IN FISHERIES PRODUCTION 119

5.2.1. New Crafts and Fishing Gear for Mid-sea Fishing by Commercial Entrepreneurs 121
5.2.2. Deep Sea Fishing by Industrial Ships 123
5.2.3. New Fishing Crafts and Gear used by the Traditional Fishers 126
5.2.4. Proliferation of the New Technology 129
5.2.5. Absence of New Technology in Inland Fishing Village (IFV) 131
5.3. ADDITIONAL FACTORS OF CHANGE 131


5.3.1. Shrimp Larvae Collection for Coastal Shrimp Aquaculture 131
5.3.2. Waste Disposal in the Fishing Grounds by nearby Factories 134
5.3.3. Waste Disposal from Ships brought to local Scrapyards 136
5.3.4. Impacts of Flood Control and Irrigation Projects 136
5.4. CONSEQUENCES OF TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION AND OTHER FACTORS OF
CHANGE 137

5.4.1. Environmental Consequences 138
5.4.2. Impacts upon the Social Organisation of Production 143
5.5. OVERVIEW OF TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION AND PROCESSES OF CHANGE 148


CHAPTER 6

6. FACTOR AND PRODUCT MARKETS IN THE FISHERIES SECTOR 151

6.1. MARKETS FOR CAPITAL GOODS, TECHNICAL INPUTS AND LABOUR 152


6.1.1. Fishing Boats 152
6.1.2. Nets and Other Fishing Gear 154
6.1.3. Fuel, Foodstuff and other Consumables 156
6.1.4. Labour 157
6.1.4.1. Labour deployment in Shagarmala (MFV) 157


6.1.4.2. Labour deployment in Shangkhomala (IFV) 160


6.1.4.3. Inter-sectoral Mobility of Labour 163


6.2. CREDIT MARKET 165


6.2.1. Features of Credit Sources 165
6.2.2. Patterns of Borrowing in the Inland and Marine Fishing Communities 167
6.2.3. Purpose of Loans taken by Fishers 169
6.2.4. Changes in the Forms and Nature of Borrowing since the 1980s 172
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Impacts on Traditional ‘Water-Slave’ Fishing Communities of Southeastern Bangladesh
6.3. PRODUCT MARKETS 173

6.3.1. Fish Marketing Structure and its Linkages with the Marine Village, Shagarmala 174
6.3.2. Fish Marketing Structure and its Linkages with the Inland Village, Shangkhomala 177
6.3.3. Fish Marketing Structure and Linkages: District Level 180
6.3.4. Changes in the Fish Marketing System over the last few decades 183
6.4. ANALYTICAL ASPECTS OF CREDIT-PRODUCT INTERLOCKED MARKET
TRANSACTIONS 183


6.4.1. Interlocked Markets: Financing of Fishing by Dadan 184
6.4.2. Role of Dadan in financing Technological Change in Marine Fisheries 188
6.5. CYCLES OF INDEBTEDNESS AND THEIR DYNAMICS 190


6.6. OVERVIEW OF FACTOR AND PRODUCT MARKETS AND THEIR INTERACTIONS 196

CHAPTER 7

7. PRODUCTION RELATIONS AND SOCIAL ORGANISATION IN THE STUDY VILLAGES.199


7.1. PRODUCTION CONTRACTS AND THE SOCIAL ORGANISATION OF PRODUCTION
200

7.1.1. Production Organisations in Shangkhomala – the Inland Fishing Village (IFV) 201
7.1.2. Production Organisations in Shagarmala – the Marine Fishing Village (MFV) 203
7.1.3. Emergence of the Pannowas: A Complex Type of Labour Force 206
7.1.4. Seasonal Variations in Production Organisation in the Marine Village 208
7.1.5. The Relative Significance of Family and External Labour 209
7.1.6. Operation of Large Trawler by Jaladas Entrepreneur in Shagarmala 210
7.1.7. Absence of Large-scale Trawler Operation among the Jaladas Fishers of Shangkhomala211

7.2. COST-RETURN ANALYSES OF FISHING PRODUCTION UNITS IN THE MARINE
VILLAGE 211


7.2.1. Bases of the Analysis 211
7.2.2. Case I: Suchitra Jaladas: Owner-operator with One Engine-boat 214
7.2.3. Case II: Mintu Jaladas: Owner-operator with Two Engine-boats 216
7.2.4. Case III: Shataranjan Jaladas: Owner-operator with Three Engine-boats 218
7.2.5. Case IV: Dinabandhu Jaladas: A Pannowa 220
7.2.6. Case V: Haribandhu Jaladas: Mid-sea Fishing Operator with Trawler 221
7.2.7. Case VI: Md. Alauddin: Mid-sea Fishing Operator with Trawler 222
7.2.8. Overview of Cost-Returns 224
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Capitalist Development and Technological Innovation in Open-water Fisheries
7.3. CHANGES IN PRODUCTION ORGANISATION AND DIFFERENTIATION OF THE
TRADITIONAL FISHERS 226


7.3.1. Changing Trends of Differentiation among Traditional Fishers 226
7.3.2. Inequality between Jaladas Fishers and Market Functionaries 229

7.4. SOCIAL, OCCUPATIONAL AND DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGES 229

7.4.1. Changes in Socio-Demographic Composition of the Fisheries Labour Force 229
7.4.2. Changes in Indigenous Social Institutions of Jaladas Fishing Communities 231
7.4.3. Changes in the Gender Division of Labour among Traditional Fishers 232
7.4.4. Changes in Social and Occupational Identity among Jaladas Fishing Communities 234
7.5. OVERVIEW OF CHANGES IN THE SOCIAL ORGANISATION AND PRODUCTION
RELATIONS IN THE FISHERIES SECTOR 236

CHAPTER 8

8. NATURE AND EXTENT OF CAPITALIST DEVELOPMENT IN FISHERIES 239


8.1. ROLE OF UNPRODUCTIVE CAPITAL IN FISHING 240


8.2. ROLE OF PRODUCTIVE CAPITAL IN FISHING 246


8.2.1. The Bahaddars: Commercial Entrepreneurs 246
8.2.2. Industrial Fishing Ships 249
8.2.3. Inland Fisheries 251
8.3. INTERACTION BETWEEN PRODUCTIVE AND UNPRODUCTIVE CAPITAL IN MARINE
FISHERIES 252


8.3.1. Collaboration and Co-existence 252
8.3.2. Trends of Change: Declining amounts of Loan to Traditional Fishers and Dadandars 253
8.3.3. Piracy, Fish Depletion and Conflicts between Productive and Unproductive Capital 255
8.3.4. Conflicts among Capitalist Producers 257
8.3.5. Constraints to Transformation of Jaladas Fishers into Capitalist Producers 258
8.4. FISHING AND THE INTER-SECTORAL CIRCULATION OF CAPITAL 260


8.4.1. Inflow of Capital into Fishing 260

8.4.2. Deployment of Surplus from Fishing 264
8.5. NATURE AND EXTENT OF CAPITALIST DEVELOPMENT AMONG TRADITIONAL
FISHERS 265


8.6. OVERVIEW OF CAPITALIST DEVELOPMENT IN FISHERIES 268



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CHAPTER 9

9. CONCLUSION: MAJOR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY 271


9.1. ADAPTATIONS TO THE PARADIGM OF CAPITALIST DEVELOPMENT 271


9.2. FACTOR AND PRODUCT MARKETS 273


9.3. PRODUCTION ORGANISATION AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION 275


9.4. INTERACTIONS BETWEEN PRODUCTIVE AND UNPRODUCTIVE CAPITAL 278


9.5. EXTENT OF CAPITALIST TRANSFORMATION AMONG JALADAS FISHERS 279

9.6. ROLE OF STATE, CREDIT AND RESISTANCE 280


9.6.1. Role of State 280
9.6.2. Role and Impact of Credit tailored for the Traditional Fisherfolk 281
9.6.3. Forms and Role of Resistance of the Traditional Fishers 283


9.7. FUTURE SCENARIOS 286


9.8. BROADER RELEVANCE OF THIS STUDY 288



Bibliography 290

Appendix-1
Table A: Types of Data Sources by Period and Sites of Research 299


Appendix-2
Drift Nets introduced by BOBP 301


Appendix-3
Table B: “Marketing of Hilsa from a Landing Centre near Chittagong to Dhaka Markets, July 2001
302

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Capitalist Development and Technological Innovation in Open-water Fisheries
Thesis Summary

Capitalist Development and Technological Innovation in Open-Water Fisheries:
Impacts on Traditional ‘Water-Slave’ Fishing Communities of Southeastern Bangladesh


This is a study of technological innovation and capitalist development in open-water capture
fisheries of Chittagong in southeastern Bangladesh. It focuses upon the role of traditional low
caste Hindu fishing communities, known as the Jaladas (literally meaning ‘water-slave’),
involved in marine and riverine fishing. The dynamics of change have involved a process of
levelling effect followed by differentiation among the traditional fishers as well as the
entrance of new entrepreneurs and workers from very different social and religious
backgrounds. The pre-existing forms of production organisation prevailing among traditional
fishers have been partially undermined by the advent of the new technology, while new forms
of capital-mediated production have emerged under the control of commercial entrepreneurs
or trader-moneylenders. These complex outcomes have been associated with changes in the
social institutions, cultural practices and power relations characterising the traditional fishing
communities as well as the ecological resources on which their livelihoods are predicated.

The dissertation addresses a number of critical issues and questions: What are the features of
production organisation among the traditional Jaladas groups and how do these differ from
the new forms of organisation characterising capitalist fishing units? What factors have
facilitated or constrained the adoption of new technology by traditional fishers? In what ways
have market transactions, particularly the credit-product interlocked market (dadan) contract,
mediated such technological innovation and served to extract surplus from Jaladas groups by

trader-moneylenders? How have dadan contracts been used in the case of capitalist
entrepreneurs? What factors have constrained capitalist transformation in traditional fishery?
What kind of economic competition and extra-economic conflicts have taken place between
Ranajit Dastidar, FASS, NUS
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Impacts on Traditional ‘Water-Slave’ Fishing Communities of Southeastern Bangladesh
traditional fishermen, moneylenders and merchants, as well as different types of capitalist
entrepreneurs?

The study has followed an ethnographic approach, involving fieldwork at multiple sites. The
analysis has combined primary evidence with secondary data to examine the structures of fish
production and marketing, as well as processes of change triggered off by technological
innovation and the inflow of capital. The analytical framework draws upon the classical
paradigm of capitalist development in the tradition of political economy, while adapting it to
the specific context of fisheries characterised by interactions between subsistence-oriented
and profit-driven producers as well as the various classes operating with productive and
unproductive capital.

The findings of the study indicate that the differentiation of peasantry (fishers), primitive
accumulation and capitalist reconstitution have displayed analytically distinctive features in
the fisheries sector compared to the classical paradigm of agrarian capitalism. Furthermore,
the conflict between the classes operating productive and unproductive capital takes place not
only in terms of command over markets and new technology, but also through use of extra-
judicial violence for encroaching on fishing grounds, destruction of fish habitats, as well as
piracy for grabbing fish catch and assets.

In addition to providing new empirical data, the thesis draws out certain theoretical inferences
about the nature and determinants of capitalist development. These conclusions provide
analytical insights into the processes and dynamics of capitalist transformation which may
have a wider applicability to comparable instances in other parts of the world.

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Capitalist Development and Technological Innovation in Open-water Fisheries
List of Tables, Maps, Charts and Figures


Tables


Table 1.1: Distribution of Different Types of Inland Fishing Grounds in 2003-04 9

Table 1.2: Earlier Fieldwork for Fisheries Research over 1997-2002 20

Table 3.1: Traditional Fishing Groups in Colonial Bengal by Religion, Caste and Occupational
Activities …………………… 64


Table 4.1: Distribution of Jaladas Fisher Households by Ownership of Fishing Boats and Nets
and Role in Production Organisation during the Peak Season in Shagarmala (MFV), 2005 97

Table 4.2: Distribution of Jaladas Fisher Households by Ownership of Fishing Boats and Nets
and Role in Production Organisation during the Peak Season in Shangkhomala (IFV), 2005 98


Table 4.3: Distribution of Jaladas Fisher Households of Shagarmala (MFV) by Principal Occupation
during the Peak Season of 2005 100


Table 4.4: Distribution of Jaladas Fisher Households of Shangkhomala (IFV) by Principal Occupation
during the Peak Season of 2005 100

Table 5.1: Distribution of Marine Fishing Vessels in Bangladesh by Type during 1981/82-2004/05 .130

Table 5.2: Fish Species that have Disappeared or Declined in the Fishing Grounds used by Shagarmala
(MFV) and Shangkhomala (IFV) Fishers 140


Table 5.3: Annual Catch, No. of Crafts and Catch per Craft (CPC) in the Marine Fisheries of Bangladesh
by Industrial and Non-Industrial Units: 1983/84-2003/04 142


Table 6.1: Prices of Wooden and Fibreglass Boats and Engines used by the Traditional Fishers of
Shagarmala (MFV) during 2005 154

Table 6.2: Types of Nets and other Fishing Gear used by Traditional Fishermen of the Inland and
Marine Fishing Villages in 2005 154


Table 6.3: Prices of Nets and Fishing Gear used by the Traditional Fishers of Shangkhomala (IFV),
2005 …………… 155


Table 6.4: Prices of Nets and Fishing Gear used by the Traditional Fishers of Shagarmala (MFV),
2005………… 156

Table 6.5: Types of Labour Deployment in Fishing by Jaladas Households of Shagarmala (MFV)
during 2005 …… 158

Table 6.6: Types of Labour Deployment in Fishing by Jaladas Households of Shangkhomala (IFV)
during 2005 ………… 161
Table 6.7: Terms and Conditions of Employment of Fisheries Workers in Shangkhomala (IFV) during
the Peak Season of 2005 162


Table 6.8: Relative Incidence of Multiple Loan Transactions Outstanding in 2005 by Jaladas
Households by different Categories of Lenders 168

Table 6.9: Number of Aratdars by major Wholesale Fish Markets in 1987 and 2002 181

Table 6.10: Outstanding Dadan, Usurious and other Loans as well as Debt-Asset Ratio of Jaladas
Households of Shagarmala (MFV) and Shangkhomala (IFV) in 2005 193


Table 7.1: Traditional Fisher (Jaladas) Households of Shangkhomala (IFV) by Principal Occupation
and Major Role in Production Organisation, 2005 202


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Impacts on Traditional ‘Water-Slave’ Fishing Communities of Southeastern Bangladesh
Table 7.2: Traditional Fisher (Jaladas) Households of Shagarmala (MFV) by Principal Occupation and
Major Role in Production Organisation, 2005 204


Table 7.3: Cost-Return Calculations of a Fishing Unit Operating One Engine-boat 215


Table 7.4: Cost-Return Calculations of a Fishing Unit Operating Two Engine-boats 217

Table 7.5: Cost-Return Calculations of a Fishing Unit Operating Three Engine-boats 219


Table 7.6: Cost-Return Calculations of a Fishing Unit operated by a Pannowa working on a Bahaddar’s
Engine-boat 220

Table 7.7: Cost-Return Calculations of a Mid-sea Fishing Trawler Operated by Haribandhu Jaladas 222

Table 7.8: Cost-Return Calculations of a Mid-sea Fishing Trawler Operated by Md. Alauddin – a non-
Jaladas Entrepreneur 223


Table 7.9: Comparative Position of Six Fishing Operators of Shagarmala (MFV) in terms of their Actual
Cost-Return Data in 2005 224

Table 7.10: Comparative Position of Four Jaladas Subsistence Producers of Shagarmala in terms of their
Actual and Notional Sales Revenue and Net Returns in 2005 225




Maps

Map 1.1: Bangladesh and the Principal Study Villages in Chittagong District 6

Map 1.2: Location of the Principal Study Villages in Chittagong District 24

Map 4.1: Shagarmala: The Marine Fishing Village 77

Map 4.2: Shangkhomala: The Inland Fishing Village ……………………………………………… 83

Map 4.3: Fishing Zone of Shagarmala Fishers between their Village and Sandwip Island 88


Charts and Figure

Chart 1.1: Fieldwork Activities in Bangladesh during 2005 30

Chart 4.1: Seasonality of Fishing in Shangkhomala and Shagarmala in 2005 86

Figure 2.1: Fish Marketing Structure in Bangladesh during the 1970s and 1980s 51


Ranajit Dastidar, FASS, NUS
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Capitalist Development and Technological Innovation in Open-water Fisheries
List of Photographs


Photograph 3.1
A Jaladas fisherman in the coastal village Shagarkonnya, Chittagong 65


Photograph 4.1
Boats anchored on the bank of Monpura Canal by the side of Jaladas Para 79

Photograph 4.2
Catching fish from nets in the faar by Shagarmala fishers ………………………………………. 91

Photograph 5.1

A Dinghi boat with bhesal net 113

Photograph 5.2
Chandi boats on the shore 113


Photograph 5.3
A Chandi-type boat of Shagarmala (MFV) propelling with sail and oar in the sea 113

Photograph 5.4
A Dinghi boat of Shangkhomala (IFV) propelling with sail in the river Shangkho 113


Photograph 5.5
Balam boat on the shore . 113


Photograph 5.6
A gill net being dried on the road 116

Photograph 5.7
A set-bag net being dried on the road 116


Photograph 5.8
Moi net 116

Photograph 5.9
Jhnaki net. 116


Photograph 5.10
Bhel net 116

Photograph 5.11
Polo and chak net 116


Photograph 5.12

Operation of seine net 117

Photograph 5.13
A fisher mending net in Shagarmala (MFV) 117


Photograph 5.14
Three trawlers beached on the bank of Karnafuli river (near the Bay of Bengal) 122


Photograph 5.15
An industrial fishing ship anchored at the estuary of the Karnafuli river. The fertilizer factory,
KAFCO, on the other side of the river is seen in the background 124


Photograph 5.16

Wooden engine-boats anchored in Monpura canal, Shagarmala 127

Photograph 5.17
A fibreglass engine-boat anchored in Monpura canal, Shagarmala 127


Ranajit Dastidar, FASS, NUS
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Impacts on Traditional ‘Water-Slave’ Fishing Communities of Southeastern Bangladesh
Photograph 5.18
Catching shrimp-fries using push nets 133


Photograph 5.19

The colour of brackish and muddy water in Monpura canal under natural conditions 134

Photograph 5.20
Water in Monpura canal turns reddish when chemicals are discharged from nearby factories. 134


Photograph 5.21
A scrapped ship beached near the ship-breaking yard close to Shagarmala 136

Photograph 6.1

Packing fish at Shagarmala landing site 175

Photograph 6.2
‘Token’ given to a fisher citing dadan-loan and repayment. 175

Photograph 6.3
Hilsa fish landed in an arat for auction sale. 175

Photograph 7.1

Fisherwomen sorting fish in Shagarmala 233

Photograph 7.2
A female fish vendor of Shagarmala peddling fish in the village 233

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Capitalist Development and Technological Innovation in Open-water Fisheries
Glossary and Acronyms

Ambashya: Last day of the ‘dark’ fortnight of a lunar month, when the moon is invisible.
Arat/Aratdar: Arat is a warehouse commonly found in the wholesale markets. The sale is
normally carried out in an arat through the mediation of the aratdar
(owner/operator of the warehouse), who conducts public auction in the role of
a commission agent (for details, see Sections 6.3 and 6.4 of Chapter 6).
ASA: Association for Social Action, an NGO.
Bahaddar: The profit-oriented commercial entrepreneur, who operates trawlers for mid-
sea fishing, is generally known as a bahaddar (see Subsection 5.2.1, Chapter
5). In addition, the small-scale traditional fishers of the study villages,
working in their boats as family labourers, are also locally termed as
bahaddars (see Subsection 5.2.3, Chapter 5).
Bangladesh: The area presently comprising Bangladesh was part of the Bengal Presidency
in colonial India. It became the eastern province of Pakistan and was known

as East Bengal after the partition in 1947 and subsequently as East Pakistan.
Baor: Natural depression consisting of oxbow lake.
BDT: Bangladesh Taka (Tk) – the unit of the Bangladesh currency.
Beel: Wetlands, low-lying farm lands and inundated marshy lands.
Bepari: A distributor or retail seller of fish.
BFDC: Bangladesh Fisheries Development Corporation.
BOBP: Bay of Bengal Programme.
BRAC: Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee, an NGO.
CARITAS: An NGO.
CODEC: Community Development Centre, an NGO.
CPC: Catch per craft.
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Impacts on Traditional ‘Water-Slave’ Fishing Communities of Southeastern Bangladesh
Dadan: It is a type of loan advanced by the financiers (dadandars and/or aratdars)
on the basis of interlocked market contracts for tying the product. This has
been discussed in detail in Chapter 6 (Subsection 6.4.1).
Dadandar: Providers of loan under dadan contract.
Dala: The days of lean fishing in a fortnight of the lunar month.
DANIDA: Danish International Development Agency.
Demersal fish: Fish species which generally inhabit the bottom of the sea.
DoF: Department of Fisheries – a wing of the Ministry of Fisheries and
Livestock, Government of Bangladesh.
DRGS: Division of Research and Graduate Studies.
DSK: Dushtha Shasthya Kendra (means ‘health centre for the destitute’), an
NGO.
ESBN: Estuarine set-bag net.
Faar: In marine villages of the Chittagong coast, fishing is principally undertaken
by setting nets in fixed locations in the sea. This practice requires the
specific area to be owned (communally allotted under common property

rights) or leased-in by the concerned fishermen. This setting of net in a
demarcated area is locally known as faar. More details about the features
and operation of faars have been provided in Chapter 4 (Subsection
4.2.1.2).
FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
FASS: Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences.
FL/s: Family labour/ers
GoB: Government of Bangladesh or Government of the People’s Republic of
Bangladesh.
Grameen Bank: The bank established by the Nobel-laureate Dr. Md. Yunus for providing
microfinance service to the poor people of rural (grameen) areas.
H: Hypothesis.
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Capitalist Development and Technological Innovation in Open-water Fisheries
Haor: Wetlands, low-lying farm lands and inundated marshy lands.
HH/s: Household/s.
Hilsa: Taxonomically recognised as tenualosa ilisha, hilsa ilisha and
clupanodon ilisha (Hamilton 1822), hilsa (termed ilish in
Bengali) is one of the major and very popular fish species in
Bangladesh. This marine and brackish water species enjoys a
high demand both in the domestic and overseas markets, and as
such this fish is one of the very important commercial species in
Bangladesh. Consequently, hilsa fishing is the major activity for
most of the traditional fishermen and commercial entrepreneurs.
hp: horse-power – unit for measuring engine capacity.
IDF: Integrated Development Foundation, an NGO.
IFV: Inland Fishing Village.
Ijaradar: Leaseholder of open water-bodies or market-places.
ILM: Interlocked market.

Jaal: Net.
Jaladas: Literally, the Bengali word Jaladas may be translated as slave
(das) of the water (jala), or ‘water-slave’. This is the jati title of a
traditional fishing community belonging to the lowest caste
(Sudra) among the Hindus.
Jalkar: Rent derived from fishers or tax paid for fishing in the leased out
open-water bodies.
Jalkar mahal or jalmahal: Leased out open-water bodies for fishing in lieu of payment of
rent.
Jow: The days of peak fishing in a fortnight of the lunar month.
Kg: Kilogram.
Khal: Canal.
LGED: Local Government Engineering Department.
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Impacts on Traditional ‘Water-Slave’ Fishing Communities of Southeastern Bangladesh
Lungi: A kind of sarong, worn by men in Bangladesh.
Mahajan: The usurious moneylender, who charges very high interest at fixed rate.
Majhee: The most experienced and skilled fisherman, who steers the boat and also
plays the role of an operations manager on behalf of the owner of the fishing
unit (bahaddar).
Mandapghar: A kind of small and makeshift temple for worshipping certain deities by the
Hindus.
MFV: Marine Fishing Village.
MoFL: Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Government of Bangladesh (GoB).
MP: Member of Parliament
MSBN: Marine set-bag net.
MT: Metric Ton.
NGO: Non-governmental Organisation.
NO/s: Net operator/s.

NUS: National University of Singapore.
OSC: Output sharing crew.
Paikar: A small-scale fish trader or wholesaler.
Pannowa: Net operator working on lease-labour contract (see Subsection 7.1.3, Chapter
7 for details).
Para: Neighbourhood or cluster of homesteads.
Pelagic fish: Fish species which are predominantly surface dwelling.
PKSF: “Palli Karma Shahayak Foundation”, translated as Rural Employment
Support Foundation.
Polo: Local name of the ‘bell-shaped trap’ for catching fish in shallow waters (see
Photograph 5.11 in Chapter 5).
Proshika: Proshikkhon-Shikkha-Karjokrom (means ‘training-education-action’), an
NGO.
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