LV COMMON LINGUISTIC FEATURES OF CIRCUMSTANCES OF MANNER IN ENGLISH AND IN VIETNAMESE FUNCTIONAL GRA

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Chapter I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 RATIONALE
In everyday communication, language is used as a device to express
any happening or state in real life or in an imaginary world in people's mind.
Language is the most effective means of communication through which we
convey our ideas, our thought and our desire. Language helps us to clarify
what we mean.
Each language in the world has its own linguistic devices to express the
ways in which the action is carried out. Circumstances of Manner are some
of those devices. Beside Participants and Processes, Circumstances in general
and Circumstances of Manner in particular, syntactically, are considered to be
an optional part of the clause, they can be omitted without changing
grammatical structure of the clause. However, semantically, their functions
are more important; they are used to make clauses fully and thoroughly by
adding information about how the action happens and feeling of the agent
who does the action as well. Manner Circumstances are illustrated as follows:
(1) He looked at her with a soft smile on his lips.

[49, p. 26]

(2) His soul swooned slowly as he heard the snow falling faintly through the
universe and faintly falling, like the descent of their last end, upon the living
and the dead.
(3) Như con ngựa bứt khỏi yên cương
Phóng điên cuồng tơi bời thảo nguyên
Anh thét lên sung mãn: Anh - yêu - em
Em có nghe không?

[48, p.156]


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Như dòng sông từ bỏ đại ngàn
Lao thẳng về miền em khô khát
Anh gầm lên sôi sục: Anh - yêu - em
Em có nghe không?
( Ngo

Mai Phong )

[44, p. 153]

Therefore, we should note that there will be no communication about
how action happens, how the people’s feelings during the description are
without the appearance of Circumstances of Manner. For that importance,
circumstances of manner are always encouraged in using to convey meaning
of the clause more completely.
Manner Circumstances play a variety of semantic and syntactic roles,
however, they are least studied. For that reason, what I would like to do in
my research paper is to help Vietnamese learners of English have a clear view
of common linguistic features of English Circumstances of Manner versus
Vietnamese ones in the light of functional grammar.
1.2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
1.2.1. Aims
The study is expected to present a contrastive analysis of the Manner
circumstances used in English and in Vietnamese context, through this
analysis, the study aims to give a description of syntactic and semantic

features of Manner circs in both languages. Theoretically, the thesis is
intended to identify the similarities and differences of Manner circs in the
two languages semantically and syntactically. In practice, the study aims to
supply not only a theoretical insight into the Manner circs in English and in
Vietnamese for learners of English but also some implications in language


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teaching and learning so that they can use them effectively in writing and in
speaking English as well.
1.2.2. Objectives
- Based on the view of functional grammar, the study aims to identify,
describe and compare semantic, syntactic features of Circumstances of manner as
well as find out their similarities and differences in English and in Vietnamese.
- Providing a theoretical insight into Circumstances of Manner used in
English so that students can recognize this potential element in the clause
-The final objective is to make some implications for using
Circumstances of Manner in written and spoken speech in both languages.
1.3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. What are common syntactic and semantic features of the
Circumstances of manner in English and in Vietnam?
2. What are the main differences and similarities between English
circumstances of manner and Vietnamese ones?
3. What are implications for teaching and learning circumstances of manner?
1.4. SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study focuses on Semantic and Syntactic features of Circs of
manner in English and in Vietnamese novels, short stories, newspapers,
academic prose and poetry. Due to time and reference source constraints, in
this study, many attempts have been made to focus on some certain syntactic

and semantic features of three subtypes of Manner Circumstances – Means
and Quality and Comparison.


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1.5. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
The study consists of 5 chapters:
Chapter 1 is the general introduction of this paper, including the
rationale, aims and objectives, literature review, research method, research
questions. Scope of the study.
Chapter 2 is concerned with the Theoretical background. In this chapter,
the notions of circumstances are defined. Concepts and terms of them are
presented. All types of English and Vietnamese circumstances are introduced.
General view of Circumstances as well as Circumstances of manner in
English and in Vietnamese. In this chapter, Manner Circumstances in both
languages are presented simultaneously.
Chapter 3 focuses on

the Research Methodology and Procedure

including the research design and the steps to collect and analyze data.
Chapter 4 will concentrate on the contrast and analysis of semantic and
syntactic features of Manner circumstances. In this chapter, English
circumstances are discussed fully and thoroughly in comparison with
Vietnamese ones in order to draw out the similarities and differences of the
circumstances in both languages.
The study closes with Chapter 5. This chapter is the final conclusion
of the whole work that is carried out. Some implications and suggestions for
the teaching and learning are discussed in this chapter. Some suggested ideas

are mentioned for further research.


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Chapter 2
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.1. LITERATURE REVIEW
Up to now, the Circumstances of Manner have been paid greater
attention by some linguistic researchers. However, these elements have been
referred to by the researchers under the terms ‘Manner adverbs’ ‘Manner
adjuncts’ or Circumstance adverbials of manner’…These terms are involved
in the cover term Circumstances of Manner which are used to indicate their
functions in the clauses.
A number of classifications of manner adverbs have been proposed in
the literature, among them, those are of Bartsch (1976), Dik (1989), and Quirk
et al.(1985). These classifications although all based on semantic and
syntactic factors, differ in many ways. Quirk et al. identify a subcategory of a
verbal modifiers that they call process adjuncts. They define process adjunct
as adjuncts that restrict in some way the process denoted by a verb. They
distinguish manner adjuncts from other process adjuncts such as means
modifiers (independently, pictorially, etc.) and instrument modifiers (with a
knife, by hand). Manner adjuncts are those process adjuncts that specify the
way of manner in which the process denoted by the verb occurs. Quirk et al,
offer a number of syntactic diagnostics for distinguishing manner adverbs
from other types of process adjuncts. For example, they can serve as the focus
of clause comparison and can be premodified by how, so and however.
(5) They sprayed tears gas indiscriminately on the protesters. [32, p. 221]
(6) She replied to question with great courtesy.

[32, p. 221]

(7) He spoke in a way that reminded me of his father.

[32, p. 221]

(8) You should write as I tell you.

[32, p.221]


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(9) How independently Jill published her novel.

[32, p.221]

Bartsch identifies five subcategories of Manner adverbs based on their
semantic and syntactic behavior, including those that characterize the process
denoted by verb, those that characterize the agent of the process and those
that compare the process to some other things like a plan according to plan or
expectation (as expected). Dik identifies three subcategories, which he ties, at
least in part to a semantic subcategorizations of verbs: controller oriented,
soa (state of affair) oriented and the goal oriented.
In addition, Julia B. St. John in the research “ On the Semantics of
English Manner Adverbs” investigates the semantic properties of English
manner adverbs and subject modifiers and the verbs they modify.

The

purpose of the study is to determine which of these semantic properties are
relevant to manner adverb modification and to enable a comparison of those
properties to the semantic properties relevant to the syntactic phenomenon of
argument realization and to other semantic phenomena such as the temporal
and aspectual properties of verbs.
Besides, Angela Downing and Philip Lock (1992) also express their
concerns about the classifications and positions of adverbs in general and
adverbs of manner in particular. In the book “A University Course in English
Grammar” (1992:572), adverbs of manner, according to them are highly
expected to use in literature description (1992:553).
Furthermore, T.Givon has also touched on the matter in the book “A
Functional based Introduction - Volume 1”. During the discourse he suppose
that adverbs is the least homogeneous class and the hardest to define
(1993:71). And this heterogeneity is deeply reflected through the complexity
of adverbs of manner in syntax, semantics and morphology. Clearly, he
argues that “the semantic range of adverbs of manner is wide and


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heterogeneous and depends on the specific meaning of the verb” (1993:71).
What about syntactic construction , “the syntactic heterogeneity of manner
adverbs also is evident in the flexibility of their positioning the clause”
(1993:72). From their explanation, a closely related conclusion has been
reached in order to consider adverbs of manner in a range of semanticsyntactic diversity in English grammar system.
In Vietnamese, in the book “Thành phần câu Tiếng Việt” Nguyễn
Minh Thuyết and Nguyễn Văn Hiệp (p.288) have the research on elements of
sentences and kinds of adverbs in Vietnamese. They categorize types of
adverbs from the point of view of semantic function such as time, place,
manner. purpose, constrain, limit...

According to the scholars, adverbs of manner can be further described
in terms of various functional roles such as means, quality, comparison,
concession and agentive adverbs:
(10) Hắn thừ mặt ra, như một kẻ phải đi đày, một buổi chiều âm thầm kia,
ngồi trong một làn khói nặng u buồn kia mà nhớ quê hương.
(Manner: Comparison)

[9, p.320)]

(11) Chính qua tâm hồn ta, ta hiểu được tâm hồn mọi người.
(Manner: Means)

[9, p.320]

(12) Tuy biết vậy, nhưng nó vẫn cố làm bộ vui vẻ.
(Manner: Concession)

[9, p.320]

(13) Chùa xây từ thời cách đây một nghìn sáu trăm năm bởi một nhà sư Ấn
Độ. ( Manner: Agent)

[9, p.320]

Furthermore, Hoàng Văn Vân in “Ngữ Pháp Kinh Nghiệm của Cú tiếng
Việt mô tả theo Quan niệm Chức Năng Hệ Thống”, uses the term ‘ chuyển tác
chu cảnh’ to indicate the

circumstantial transitivity in

Vietnamese

transitivity system. In his research, Circumstances in general and Manner


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Circumstances (Manner Circs) in particular are mentioned sufficiently and
thoroughly. According to the researcher, Vietnamese circumstantial
transitivity can be subclassified into eight subtypes. Those are Extent (Spatial
& Temporal), Location. Manner (Means, Quality, Comparison), Cause,
Accompaniment, Matter, Role and Angle. Besides, he offers a number of
semantic and syntactic diagnostics for distinguishing Manner Circs from other
circumstances. Manner Circs are illustrated as bellow:
(14) Chú phải đi bằng xe Volga đen. (Manner: Means)

[10, p.429]

(15) Tôi đã đọc rất kỹ cuốn sách này. ( Manner : Quality)

[10, p178]

(16) Máy bay đang bay vun vút như những con én, trên bầu trời.(Manner:
Quality; Comparison)

[11, p.177]

Factually, the notions of manner circumstances are understood
differently by grammarians. Those can be realized in classification of these
elements, hence, there are some overlaps in distinguishing between subtypes

of manner circs.
In addition, in Vietnamese, researches on grammar lack in formality
criteria to identify adverbs and distinguish them from other components of a
sentence. Therefore, Hallidayan’s theory as well as his terms are used as a
guideline into investigate Manner Circumstances.
For that reason, we propose that the research on Manner circumstances
(Manner circs) should be a contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese to
yield more fruitful information for Vietnamese learners of English .
2.2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
In this section, the fundamental theoretical background relating to
Circumstances in general and Manner circs in particular will be referred.


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2.2.1. Semantics and Semantic field
Questions of 'semantics' are an important part of the study of linguistic
structure. They encompass several different investigations: how each
language provides words and idioms for fundamental concepts and ideas
(lexical semantics), how the parts of a sentence are integrated into the basis
for understanding its meaning (compositional semantics), and how our
assessment of what someone means on a particular occasion depends not only
on what is actually said but also on aspects of the context of its saying and an
assessment of the information and beliefs we share with the speaker. In the
book

“Semantics: A Coursebook” Hurford, J.R. and HeasleyB gave the

definition of semantics: “Semantics is the study of Meaning in Language”.
Then this question will natuarally come up. What is meaning? The word

“meaning” and corresponding verb “mean” were once focus of a great deal of
discussion among linguists interested in semantics.
2.2.1.1. Sense
An element of the meaning of a word; a description of the characteristic
feature of what the word refers to
E.g. the sense of grasshopper is ‘an insect which can jump high and make a
sharp noisy by rubbing its legs against its body’
In some cases, the same word can have more than one sense.
(17) I have an account at the Bank of Scotland.

[27, p.29]

(18) We steer the raft to the other bank of the river.
(19) The DC-10 banked sharply to avoid a crash.
(20) I bank the furnace up with coke last night.
The word bank here has at least 4 different senses.
However, we talk about not only the sense of word, but also of longer
expression such as phrases and sentences.


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The following pairs mean the same thing:
(21) Harriet wrote the answer down.
(22) Harriet wrote down the answer.
(23 ) Bachelors prefer redheads.
(24) Girl with red hair are preferred by un married men.

[27, p28]

On the relationship between sense and reference: reference of an
expression is often a thing or a person in the world; whereas the sense of an
expression is not a thing at all.
2.2.1.2. Word Meaning
One point all linguists probably agree on is the centrality of words to
language. All aspects of language are tied in some ways or other to words.
Words have two aspects, their forms and their meanings, actually we'll only
be considering words in one category, those words that refer to things in the
world. How people use words to refer is just one aspect of the question of
what it means, which turns out to be an enormously complicated topic, one
where linguists and other cognitive scientists still have a long way to go. But
the idea of meaning is at the heart of what language is, so we can't really put it
off. Even just scratching the surface of this topic, as I'll do in this chapter, will
lead us to look at notions that seem to be beyond language: how people
categorize objects in the world and how people use one kind of situation to
help them understand another kind of situation. But to say anything at all
about the meanings of words seems to require an account of where those
meanings come from and what good they are for us.


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2.3. SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR
2.3.1. What is Systemic Functional Linguistics ?
Systemic-Functional Linguistics is concerned with understanding how
the ways in which language is used for different purposes and in different
contexts and situations that shape its structure.
The key argument is that to understand linguistic meaning we have to
appreciate the function of items in a structure.
The ways in which human beings use language - the meanings that we

can make with language - are classified by Halliday (1978, pp. 36-58) into
three broad categories or metafunctions (Bloor & Bloor, 2004, pp. 10-11).
2.3.1.1. Metafunctions
The grammar is the central processing unit of a language, where
meanings accepted from different metafunctional inputs and spliced together
to form interpreted outputs ( Halliday, 1985, pp. 34-35)
Language is used to organize, understand and express our perceptions
of the world and of our own consciousness. This function is known as the
ideational function. The Ideational metafunction is about the natural world in
the broadest sense, and is concerned with clauses as representations. The
Ideational function can be classified into two subfunctions: the experiential
and the logical. The Experiential function is largely concerned with content or
ideas. The Logical function is concerned with the relationship between ideas.
Language is used to enable us to participate in communicative acts with other
people, to take on roles and to express and understand feelings, attitude and
judgments. This function is known as the interpersonal function. The
Interpersonal metafunction is about the social world, especially the relationship
between speaker and hearer, and is concerned with clauses as exchanges.


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Language is used to relate what is said (or written) to the real world and
to other linguistic events. This involves the use of language to organize the
text itself. This is known as the textual function. The Textual metafunction is
about the verbal world, especially the flow of information in a text, and is
concerned with clauses as messages.
Table 2.1: The three Metafunctions with Subfunctions
Metafunctions
Ideational

Experiential

Interpersonal

Textual

Logical

2.3.1.2. Experiential function
In daily life, we usually use language to talk about our experience of
the word, including the worlds in our own minds, to describe events and states
and the entities involved in them. This function of language is known as
experiential metafunction in Hallidayan systemic functional linguistics.
Experiential Metafunction is one of the most important parts in his
three metafunctions. (The other two are: interpersonal metafunction and
textual metafunction.) Experiential metafunction is composed of many
semantic systems, among which, the transitivity is the most important. The
term transitivity refers to a system for describing the whole clause, by using
several processes to express the experience of the real worlds and the world in
people’s mind, and label the participants involved and the circumstantial element.


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2.3.2. The main Units of SFG
The main units recognized by SFL are: sentence, clause, group, word
and morpheme. These can be hierarchically organized in a rank scale from the
largest to the smallest so that items higher up the scale consist of items below.
Unit
Sentence

Clause
Group
Word
Morpheme

Members of a unit are grouped and assigned to a particular class. For
example, there are nominal, verbal, adjectival and adverbial groups, and
nouns, verbs, adjectives as classes of word. Within a unit, systems of choices
are available.
Within the scope of the study we just mention

Nominal groups,

Adverbial groups, Prepositional phrases and Clauses, which are often used to
express Manner Circumstances.
2.3.2.1. Nominal Groups
Nominal groups are the groups which are centered round a headword
which is either some kind of noun or pronoun.
The Nominal groups function in providing additional elements of meaning,
such as by identifying, classifying, quantifying, describing, and by relating the
thing to the speaker in terms of proximity or attitude. We may describe this
function of the Nominal group as the expression of Experiential meaning.
We have seen also that nominal groups function as units within the
clause as subjects, objects, complements and as adjuncts. This function is the


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expression of representational meaning, which is what the message is actually
about, the identification of particular referents as participants or circumstantial

elements in the process.
E.g. Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.
To read quickly and accurately is Eugene's goal.
The arctic explorers were caught unawares by the spring breakup.
[ 19, p.149]
2.3.2.2. Adverbial Groups
The adverbial group, like any other group, can be one word or several
words. It has an internal structure that allow some premodification and
postmodification. The Postmodifier in the adverbial group may be an
embedded clause or, less commonly, a prepositional phrase, and its function
to extend the definition of the Headword in the group or to pine down its
meaning more specifically.
Table 2.2. Adverbial groups
Premodifier

Head

Postmodifier

Adverb(s)

Adverb

prepositional phrase / embedded clause / adverb

much more

quickly

than I could count

2.3.2.3. Prepositional phrases
A prepositional phrase consists a preposition as head plus a nominal group
Preposition + Nominal group
With
In

both hand
confused silence

According to Halliday, a preposition can be regarded as a minor verb.


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On the interpersonal dimension it functions as a Predicator having a
nominal group as its Complement.
Likewise on the experiential dimension the preposition functions as a
minor Process. The nominal group corresponds in function to one or other of the
participants Range, Goal or Attribute, though without any very clear distinction
among them. Hence, it can be interpreted in all cases as a Range but the
constituency is the same whether we represent the prepositional phrase
Interpersonally, as in table 2.2. or Experientially as in table 2.3 below
Table 2.3. Interpersonal representation of the prepositional phrase
The boy

stood

Subject

Finite (past) Predicator (stand)

Mood

on
Residue

the burning desk
Adjunct

Predicator Complement

Table 2.4. Experiential representation of the prepositional phrase
The boy

stood

Actor

Process

on

the burning desk

Place

Circumstance

‘Process’

‘range’

Halliday has made a clear cut in distinguishing between prepositional
Group and Prepositional Phrases. He states that Prepositional phrases are
phrases, not groups: they have no logical structure as Head and Modifier, and
can not be reduced to a single element. In this respect they are clause-like
rather than group-like (Halliday (1985) p.189-190). Thus, when we interpret the
preposition as ‘minor predicator and ‘minor process’ we are interpreting Prepositional
phrases as a kind of minor clause. A prepositional phrase occurs either:


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i) As Adjunct in a clause
(25 ) I heard the news on the radio.

[25, p.190]

With this function, PP may also occur initially, as marked Theme as in:
On the radio I heard the news.
ii) As Qualifier in Nominal Groups
(26 ) The news on the radio was good

[25, p.190]

The first function of PP will be concerned in the scope of the study.
2.3.2.4. Clause structure
The most important unit for a functional grammar analysis is the
clause. Analyzing clause structure involves identifying the functional parts of

the clause from each of the three different perspectives: ideational,
interpersonal and textual. In each metafunction, an analysis of a clause gives a
different kind of structure composed from a different set of elements. In the
ideational metafunction, a clause is analyzed into the functional parts:
Process, Participants and Circumstances. The participants element can be
further described in terms of various participant roles such as Actor, Agents,
Goal, Carrier or Sayer. The process divides into three basic process types:
Material, Relational & Projecting.
For example, if we take an ideational approach to the clause:
(27) Recently Microsoft has expanded in China.

[45, p.7]

We can identify four functional parts (Martin, Matthiessen & Painter (1997,
pp.7-8) as the table 2.4 given below.


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Table 2.5. Clause structure in Experiential metafunction
Clause
Circumstance

Participant

Process

Circumstance

Time

Actor

Process: material

Place

Recently

Microsoft

has expanded

In China

The labels in bold print provide functional names for the parts of the
clause when viewed as an ideational structure. This kind of labelling is
semantically oriented. The functional parts of the clause take the form of
various kinds of the clause. For example the Process part is realized by a
verbal group, Circumstance part is realized by an Adverb, an Adverbial group
or Prepositional phrase and Clauses
i) Kinds of clauses:
a.Finite: 'Finite' in grammar means 'tied to a particular time that is
known in relationship to the moment of speaking or writing'. A finite clause
has a tense marker in it: a main verb or helping verb that indicates, through a
suffix or through its form, the time at which the event, action, or state took
place. When you hear a finite clause, you can tell whether the event described
by the clause happened before the moment the clause is said (past), or is true
at the moment the clause is said (present) or is going to happen after the
clause is said (future).

(28) Marla has written her essay for the grad school application. [23, p.145]
(29) Americans vote for President every four years on the first Tuesday in
November.

[23, p.145]


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Notice that tense sometimes is shown by the main verb if it is alone ( as
with vote), and sometimes by a helping verb (an auxiliary verb) such as has in
has written.
b. Nonfinite: If finite means 'tied to a particular time that is known in
relationship to the moment of speaking or writing', then nonfinite must be its
opposite: 'NOT tied to a particular time that is known in relationship to the
moment of speaking or writing'. A nonfinite clause has a subject and a
predicate, but no tense indicator: we may be able to tell whether a process or
finished act is talked about, but we can't necessarily tell when it took place.
Nonfinite clauses play the same roles as phrases in sentences: they can be
subject, adverbial, direct object, etc. However, non-finite clauses in the role of
adverbial phrases are particularly suited to use as circumstances.
Non finite clauses include four major sub-classes:
- Ing-clauses
(30) She blinks, closing her eyes against the snow.

[21, p.250]

- Ed Clauses
(31) That figure is remarkable when compared to just 87,000during the
first six months of last year.

[19, p. 750]

- To infinitive
(32) She called me to say a lawyer was starting divorce proceedings.
[19, p. 750]
- Verbless Clauses
(33) One practice is to designate protons as if less than this.

[21, p. 254]

ii) Enhancing clauses
According to Angela Downing and Philip Locke (pp 291-291), an
enhancing clause is a secondary clause which adds the meaning of the
primary clause by reference to some circumstantial feature: Time, Place


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Manner, Condition, Purpose, Cause, Concession, etc. In the relationship to the
primary clause, the enhancing clause can be divided into Paratactic
enhancement and Hypotactic enhancement.
A great variety conjunctions and conjunctive expressions are available
to express circumstantial meanings. Non- finite verb forms are also used.
The various types of enhancements that create cohesion are: spatiotemporal, manner, causal-conditional, and matter.
2.3.3. Participants, Processes and Circumstances
When describing the experiential metafunction, M.A.K Halliday (1989:
p.101) states that the basic semantic framework for the representation of
processes is simple. A process consists potentially of three components:
- the process itself;

- participants in the process;
- circumstances associated with the process.
They provide the frame of reference for interpreting our experience of what
goes on.
2.3.3.1. Processes and Process types
According to Butt D. (1994), processes are realized in the grammar by
verbal groups. Here verbal groups model the experience of event in Englishwhatever is happening, acting, doing, sensing, saying or simply being. As
with the nominal group, the verbal group may consist of one word or of group
of word. The process is divided into Material, Behavioural, Mental, Verbal
and Relational.
a. Material Processes
A process involves physical actions, such as running, throwing,
cooling, and sitting down, and so on. Any material process has at least one


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participant, and in many cases, the action may be represented as affecting or
being done to a second participant (goal).
b. Mental process:
Mental process involves something going on in the internal world of
mind, such as “perception”, “reaction”, “cognition” and “affection”.
c. Relational processes
Relational process indicates the relationship between one entity and
another, or refers to one entity’s property, characteristic, etc. there are two
types of relational processes: attributive relational process and identifying
relational process.
d. Behavioral processes
This process requires a conscious participant to be performing the
action. Behavioural process share some of the characteristics of Mental

process, but also rather like Mental process.
e. Verbal processes
Verbal processes have the ability to project another clause. It involves
some kinds of speech act, representing either speech act directly like said,
yelled, whispered or as a performative.
f. Existential processes
These processes present that something exists or happens.
2.3.3.2. Participants
The basic principle is that participants are realized by nominal groups.
A participant can be a person, a place or an object (this is the notion of
‘thingness’). Each process type has its own set of participant roles. Functional
grammar distinguishes number of different participant roles to give it more
accurate picture of the relationship between participants and process.


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Corresponding to each types of Processes, participant roles can be
Actor, Goal, Senser, Phenomenon, Carrier, Attribute, Token, Value, Behaver,
Sayer, Existent.
Participants are interrogated by means of who, what, which;
2.3.3.3. Circumstances
The circumstance in

process is realized adverbial groups or

prepositional phrases ( sometimes by nominal groups)
Table 2.6. Typical functions of group and phrase classes
Type of elements

Typically realized by

(i)

Process

Verbal group

(ii)

Participant

Nominal group

(iii)

Circumstance

Adverbial group or Prepositional phrase

2.4. GENERAL VIEW OF CIRCUMSTANCES
2.4.1. Definition of circumstances
In the book “An Introduction to Functional Grammar” M.A.K Halliday
defined that

a Configuration is taken to consist potentially of three

components: the Process itself, Participants in the configuration, and
Circumstances associated with the configuration. Circumstances is any kind of
contingent fact or subsidiary situation which is associated with the process or

the main situation (Angela Downing, 1995, p. 3) In the book entitled
“Grammar of Spoken and Writing English” written by co-authors,
Circumstances are defined as “Circumstance adverbials are the most varied
class, as well as the most integrated into the clause structure. Circumstance
adverbials add information about the action or state described in the clause,
answering questions such as ‘How?, When?, Where?, Why? How much?. To
what extent? They include both obligatory and optional adverbials,


- 22 -

circumstance adverbials can have scope over differing amounts of the clause.
They may modify an entire clause. Or they can have scope only over the
predicate of the clause”
+ Obligatory Circumstance adverbials
(34 ) Her skin bruises easily.
(35) Where were you this morning then? You weren’t in Geography.
(36) The poem reads well.

[19, p. 763]

+ Optional Circumstance adverbials
(37) The man came to stay [with them] [for a few weeks] each year
+ Modify an entire clause
(38) Widely varying types of land are cultivated.

[19, p.767]

+ Modify the Predicate of the clause
(39) I hope you will go quietly.

[19, p.767]

2.4.2. The classification of Circumstances
Up to now, researchers who have studied Circs have done it in their
own way by looking at only one of many aspects of this part of speech and
each one of them has come up with a some what distinct classification.
Classification of Circumstance elements according to their semantics
differs from one researcher to another. The difference between their classes is
either in the subclasses they recognize or in how detailed their classification
tend to be. However, all of these classifications have a lot of similarities as well.
They all have classes in common, these being Time, Place, Cause, and Manner.
According to M.A.K Halliday, semantically the principal types of
circumstantial elements in English are as follows: Extent and Location in time
and space, including abstract space: Manner ( including three subtypes means,
quality

and

comparison);

Accompaniment; Matter; Role.

Cause

(reason,

purpose,

and

behalf

);


- 23 -

Based on the classification of M.A.K. Halliday in English. Hoàng
Văn Vân in the book ‘ Ngữ Pháp Kinh Nghiệm Của Cú Tiếng Việt Mô Tả
Theo Quan Điểm Chức Năng Hệ Thống’ classifies Vietnamese Circumstances
in the following subtypes: Chu cảnh Phạm vi, Định vị, Phong cách, Nguyên
nhân, Đồng hành, Vấn Đề, Vai diễn, và Quan điểm.
Table 2.7 Types of Circumstances in English
Types of
Circumstances
Location
Temporal
Spatial
Extent
Temporal
Spatial
Manner
Means
Quality
Comparisons
Cause
Reason
Purpose
Behalf

Wh- form

Examples

When?
Where?

She’ll arrive on Thursday.
She lives in Birmingharm.

For how long?
How far?

She has lived there for eight year.
It slid halfway over the floor.

What with?
How?
How?
What like?
What cause?
Why?
What for?
Who for?

I mend it with a fusewide.
It’s cheaper by bus.
Daddy went off quite happily at 7.40.
Snow lay like a blanket on the ground.

Accompaniment Who with?
What with?
not who/what?
What as?
Role
Matter

What about?

We have to be there early as it’s Friday.
He popped over for a chat.
He’s doing the shopping for me.
She returned with her friend.
Jane set out with her umbrella.
I came without my key.
He returned and remained at the hotel as
an inoffensive tourist.
I worry about her health.


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2.4.3. The Typical Characteristics of Circumstances
i) The preposition + nominal group could answer a question about the
circumstances : Where? When? How? ...
(40) Something sparkled at the bottom of the trunk.

[ 22, p. 92]

Where did something sparkle? At the bottom.
ii) Both preposition and nominal group can be omitted and the clause
will still be grammatical and the basic meaning of the verbs will not change:
Something sparked.
iii) The preposition and nominal group can be moved to the beginning
of the clause:
At the bottom of the trunk, something sparkled.
iv) The nominal group following the preposition cannot become the
Subject of a passive version of the clause.
? The bottom of the trunk was sparkled at (by somebody)
These characteristics confirm that:
- At and the bottom of the trunk go together to form a prepositional phrase.
- The prepositional phrase represents a circumstance which is peripheral to process.
- The nominal group the bottom of the trunk is not a participant in the process
2.4.4. Distinguishing between Participants and Circumstances
Participants tend to be more centrally involved with the Process than
Circumstances, which are consequently said to be attendant, more peripheral,
or obliquely related to the process. Hence, the difference

between

Participants and Circumstances in English is fairly clear , broadly speaking.
(i) The basic principle is that Participants are realized by nominal
groups and Circumstances are realized by prepositional phrases or adverbial
groups. For instance:
We had breakfast with Tiffany in the afternoon.


- 25 -

The Participants are We (Actor), breakfast (Range); and the
Circumstances are with Tiffany (Accompaniment), in the afternoon
(Locative-time).
(ii) Participants can serve as Subject, but Circumstances cannot.
For instance:
She drove there by car; he was driven there by car; but not car was
driven there by; or there was driven by car.
(iii) Participants are interrogated by means of who, what, which;
Circumstances by means of when, where, why, how (plus prepositional
phrases such as with whom/ who ... with, since when/ since ... when, for
whom/ who ... for).
2.5.

GENERAL

VIEW

OF

MANNER

CIRCUMSTANCES

IN

ENGLISH AND IN VIETNAMESE.
2.5.1. Definition of Manner Circumstances in English and in Vietnamese
2.5.1.1. Manner Circumstances in English
Manner is a circumstantial role of a process that describes the manner
in which the process' actualization is achieved. Commonly realized by

adverbs in English, although there are other possibilities, for example, within
the current grammar, it is realized through patterns of the form:
<verb> + by, like, with

as if, as though, as + <clause>

(41) I mend it with a fusewide.

[26, p. 139]

(42) They sat there in complete silence.

[26, p. 139]

(43) She shuffled like an old lady.

[17, p. 309]

In the book titled An Introduction to Functional Grammar, Halliday gives the
definition of Manner Circumstances in detail like this: The circumstantial
element of Manner comprises three subcategories: Means, Quality and
Comparison.( M.A.K. Halliday1989: 139)